Immunosensor

Conducting polymers can be exploited as an excellent tool for the preparation of nanocomposites with nano-scaled biomolecules. Polypyrrole(Ppy) is one of the most extensively used conducting polymers in design of bioanalytical sensors. In this review article significant attention ispaid to immobilization of biologically active molecules within Ppy during electrochemical deposition of this polymer. Such unique properties ofthis polymer as prevention of some undesirable electrochemical interactions and facilitation of electron transfer from some redox enzymes are discussed. Recent advances in application of polypyrrole in immunosensors and DNA sensors are presented. Some new electrochemical targetDNA and target protein detection methods based on changes of semiconducting properties of electrochemically generated Ppy doped by affinityagents are introduced. Recent progress and problems in development of molecularly imprinted polypyrrole are considered.

Electrochemical immunosensing requires labeling because most antigen and antibody species are electrochemically inert. The use of microperoxidase as the label is most promising due to its electrocatalytic activity, which is utilized for signal ampli®cation. A method for coupling the microperoxidase MP-11 to antibody molecules has been developed. The electrocatalytic effect of the conjugate when immobilized on gold electrodes has been demonstrated. Using the streptavidin± biotin system the antigen estradiol was immobilized on gold. Recognition of labeled antibody could be detected electrochemically. #

Avian influenza virus (AIV) subtype H5N1 was first discovered in the 1990 s and since then its emergence has become a likely source of a global pandemic and economic loss. Currently accepted gold standard methods of influenza detection, viral culture and rRT-PCR, are time consuming, expensive and require special training and laboratory facilities. A rapid, sensitive, and specific screening method is needed for in-field or bedside testing of AI virus to effectively implement quarantines and medications. Therefore, the objective of this study was to improve the specificity and sensitivity of an impedance biosensor that has been developed for the screening of AIV H5. Three major components of the developed biosensor are immunomagnetic nanoparticles for the separation of AI virus, a microfluidic chip for sample control and an interdigitated microelectrode for impedance measurement. In this study polyclonal antibody against N1 subtype was immobilized on the surface of the microelectrode to specifically bind AIV H5N1 to generate more specific impedance signal and chicken red blood cells (RBC) were used as biolabels to attach to AIV H5N1 captured on the microelectrode to amplify impedance signal. RBC amplification was shown to increase the impedance signal change by more than 100% compared to the protocol without RBC biolabels, and was necessary for forming a linear calibration curve for the biosensor. The use of a second antibody against N1 offered much greater specificity and reliability than the previous biosensor protocol. The biosensor was able to detect AIV H5N1 at concentrations down to 10(3) EID(50)ml(-1) in less than 2h.

A comparative study is reported regarding the use of two different surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors, a homemade SPR grating biosensor and a reference prism coupled biosensor, to perform quantification of C-reactive protein (CRP) in human blood serum. Surface functionalization was conducted using anti-CRP fragments immobilized directly on gold. Adsorption time optimization for the antibody fragments monolayer, non-specific binding (NSB) resistance evaluation and CRP detection were conducted, with better results achieved by the grating biosensor on all topics, namely less functionalization time, higher resistance to NSB and wider CRP dynamic concentration range. A study regarding comparison between continuous flow and surface coating immobilization is also reported in this work. We have shown that surface coating immobilization achieves similar NSB resistance and CRP detection results, allowing a 75% assay cost reduction by lower solution volume requirement. Results suggest that the coating immobilization technique is the best suited to be used in further studies in order to obtain a viable immunosensor for CRP and other biomarkers detection in complex biological fluids.

As a potential pandemic threat to human health, there has been an urgent need for rapid detection of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI) H5N1 virus. In this study, magnetic nanobeads amplification based quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) immunosensor was developed as a new method and application for AI H5N1 virus detection. Polyclonal antibodies against AI H5N1 virus surface antigen HA (Hemagglutinin) were immobilized on the gold surface of the QCM crystal through self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid (MHDA). Target H5N1 viruses were then captured by the immobilized antibodies, resulting in a change in the frequency. Magnetic nanobeads (diameter, 30nm) coated with anti-H5 antibodies were used for further amplification of the binding reaction between antibody and antigen (virus). Both bindings of target H5N1 viruses and magnetic nanobeads onto the crystal surface were further confirmed by environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM). The QCM immunosensor could detect the H5N1 virus at a titer higher than 0.0128 HA unit within 2h. The nanobeads amplification resulted in much better detection signal for target virus with lower titers. The response of the antibody-antigen (virus) interaction was shown to be virus titer-dependent, and a linear correlation between the logarithmic number of H5N1 virus titers and frequency shift was found from 0.128 to 12.8 HA unit. No significant interference was observed from non-target subtypes such as AI subtypes H3N2, H2N2, and H4N8. The immunosensor was evaluated using chicken tracheal swab samples. This research demonstrated that the magnetic nanobeads amplification based QCM immunosensor has a great potential to be an alternative method for rapid, sensitive, and specific detection of AI virus H5N1 in agricultural, food, environmental and clinical samples.

A CNT–AuNPs hybrid nanocomposite platform was prepared from nanodisperse AuNPs in N-[3(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine
(EDAS) sol–gel matrices with purified MWCNT. EDAS, an amine
group-containing sol–gel solution, was utilized for its ability to stabilize the nanoparticles in solution.
The developed model system was based on immobilized rabbit anti-mouse IgG-HRP (horseradish
peroxidase) for reagentless detection of mouse IgG. The immunosensing platform was prepared by using
Nafion for the immobilization of rabbit anti-mouse IgG-HRP and CNT–AuNPs hybrid nanocomposite on
a glassy carbon electrode used for the detection of mouse IgG which provides a biocompatible
microenvironment. The resulting CNT–AuNPs nanocomposite brings new capabilities for
electrochemical devices by using the synergistic action of its electrocatalytic activity. The CNT–AuNPs
were characterized using SEM, TEM, EIS, and AFM, and the analytical performance was monitored by
differential pulse voltammetry. The detection limit of mouse IgG is 0.5 ng mL

1
(S/N ratio ¼ 3). In
addition, the immunosensor efficiently allowed a specific electrochemical analysis of mouse IgG and
easy discrimination of goat IgG, chicken IgG, and rabbit IgG.

A comparative study is reported regarding the use of two different surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors, a homemade SPR grating biosensor and a reference prism coupled biosensor, to perform quantification of C-reactive protein (CRP) in human blood serum. Surface functionalization was conducted using anti-CRP fragments immobilized directly on gold. Adsorption time optimization for the antibody fragments monolayer, non-specific binding (NSB) resistance evaluation and CRP detection were conducted, with better results achieved by the grating biosensor on all topics, namely less functionalization time, higher resistance to NSB and wider CRP dynamic concentration range. A study regarding comparison between continuous flow and surface coating immobilization is also reported in this work. We have shown that surface coating immobilization achieves similar NSB resistance and CRP detection results, allowing a 75% assay cost reduction by lower solution volume requirement. Results suggest that the coating immobilization technique is the best suited to be used in further studies in order to obtain a viable immunosensor for CRP and other biomarkers detection in complex biological fluids.

Polypyrrole (Ppy) has been shown to be a superior matrix for fluorescence detection based immunosensors: (i) the fluorescence of polypyrrole and polypyrrole modified by entrapped proteins was almost not detectable when this polymer was excited by near UV 325 nm light; (ii) polypyrrole quenched the fluorescence of such fluorescence agents as fluoresceine 5(6)-isothiocyanate, rhodamine B and enzyme-horseradish peroxidase (HRP) by almost 100% if they were deposited in the solution as a drop at the Ppy surface followed by evaporation of the solvent. According to our knowledge, this work is first application of Ppy in the design of a fluorescence-based immunosensor, where low Ppy fluorescence background and Ppy induced fluorescence quenching were exploited. These sensors were devoted to the detection of antibodies against bovine leukemia virus (BLV) protein gp51 (anti-gp51-Ab). A biological recognition system of this fluorescence immunosensor model was based on polypyrrole with entrapped BLV proteins gp51 (gp51/Ppy). This gp51/Ppy layer was applied for the detection of anti-gp51-Ab. Secondary antibodies against anti-gp51-Ab labeled with HRP (Ab*) were applied as fluorescence-detectable labels that are able to recognize specifically and interact with the complex of gp51 proteins and anti-gp51-Ab antibodies (gp51/anti-gp51-Ab). It was demonstrated that fluorescence of non-specifically adsorbed Ab* was almost completely quenched by the Ppy substrate. In addition, enzymatic activity of HRP was exploited as a traditional reference method for verification of the formation of the immune complex gp51/anti-gp51-Ab/Ab*.

A comparative study is reported regarding the use of two different surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors, a homemade SPR grating biosensor and a reference prism coupled biosensor, to perform quantification of C-reactive protein (CRP) in human blood serum. Surface functionalization was conducted using anti-CRP fragments immobilized directly on gold. Adsorption time optimization for the antibody fragments monolayer, non-specific binding (NSB) resistance evaluation and CRP detection were conducted, with better results achieved by the grating biosensor on all topics, namely less functionalization time, higher resistance to NSB and wider CRP dynamic concentration range. A study regarding comparison between continuous flow and surface coating immobilization is also reported in this work. We have shown that surface coating immobilization achieves similar NSB resistance and CRP detection results, allowing a 75% assay cost reduction by lower solution volume requirement. Results suggest that the coating immobilization technique is the best suited to be used in further studies in order to obtain a viable immunosensor for CRP and other biomarkers detection in complex biological fluids.

Abstract: A new electroactive disulfide-confined aryl diazonium
(DSAD) salt was synthesized and used as
a linker for biomolecules immobilization to prepare two
kinds of immunoassay platforms. DSAD was electrodeposited
on ITO electrode surfaces by cyclic voltammetry.
Disulfide group of DSAD attached on the surfaces were
electrochemically oxidized into thiosulfinate or thiosulfonate
groups. For the first work, a detection of rabbit antigen
was performed on ITO microelectrodes array by spatially-
selective approach. In the second work, DSAD was
deposited on electrochemically reduced graphene oxidemodified
ITO surfaces, which were used as a platform for
electrochemical sandwich immunoassay for detecting
mouse antigen.