Timing of Breeding

The breeding biology of great tits (Parus major) was studied in two forests of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) on the west coast of Portugal, 200 km apart: Leiria (north) and Apostiça (south). These two forests are located in a transition zone between Atlantic climate in the north, and Mediterranean climate in the south. Breeding onset was, on average, in the second and third week of March, which are the earliest records of breeding for this species. The southern population started to breed earlier than the northern one and produced a larger first clutch, 8.3 and 7.4 eggs, respectively. Corresponding to larger clutch sizes, we also found a higher first brood fledgling production in Apostiça compared to Leiria, 6.1 and 5.4 fledglings, respectively. However, the total number of fledglings produced per pair was higher in Leiria (8.3) than in Apostiça (7.7), due to higher productivity of second clutches (4.7 and 2.7 fledglings, respectively). Accordingly, the allocation of eggs between successive breeding attempts was more equal in Leiria. Results are discussed in accordance to the different climatic patterns in the two areas. It is suggested that the timing of breeding and different allocation of reproductive investment between successive breeding attempts play an important role in optimizing breeding tactics in this facultative multiple-brooded passerine in different climatic areas.

The timing of breeding may not only affect breeding patterns such as the overlap of chick rearing period with the peak in food availability but also the opportunity for extra-pair mating. A negative relationship has been predicted between extra-pair paternity and breeding synchrony, assuming that male extra-pair activity is traded against mate guarding and parenting duties. In contrast, if female ability to assess male quality is temporally constrained, sperm competition might be a positive function of breeding synchrony. Here we manipulated the progress of nesting by nest material exchange within nesting aggregations to see whether the timing of breeding affects extra-pair paternity in house sparrows. We found that late broods within nesting clusters contained extra-pair young more often than early broods, but breeding synchrony did not turn out to be a significant predictor of extra-pair paternity. Our study indicates that temporal constraints of male extra-pair activity may account for extra-pair paternity levels, but it is also possible that late-breeding females may accept extra-pair copulations to ensure egg fertilization.

As ground nesting homeotherms, alpine and arctic birds must meet similar physiological requirements for breeding as other birds, but must do so in more extreme conditions. Annual spring snowfall and timing of snow melt can vary by up to 1 month and daily temperatures near the ground surface vary from below freezing to over 45°C in alpine and arctic habitats. Species breeding in these environments have various behavioral, physiological, and morphological adaptations to cope with energetically demanding conditions. We review the ways birds cope with harsh and variable weather, and present data from long term field studies of ptarmigan to examine effects of spring weather on reproduction. In variable but normal spring conditions, timing of breeding was not influenced by snow melt, snow depth or daily temperatures in the alpine, as breeding did not commence until conditions were generally favorable. Arctic ptarmigan tended to vary breeding onset in response to spring conditions. General...

Capsule Breeding performance was higher at inland colonies than on the coast due to higher nestling survival during late development. Aims To compare breeding performance of inland and coastal breeding Cormorants in England and Wales and to provide breeding performance data for Cormorants for future demographic studies. Methods Breeding performance and timing of breeding was monitored at six inland and four coastal colonies during 1997 and 1998. We compare clutch and brood size and egg and nestling survival. Results Breeding performance was higher at inland colonies because of higher nestling survival during the later stages of nestling development, from 15-56 days. Conclusions Greater and earlier food availability at inland colonies, resulting in earlier and more protracted breeding is the most probable explanation for differences in breeding performance. A more protracted breeding season would reduce competition for food and enhance breeding performance, which may be especially ap...

We studied whether pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) and great tit (Parus major) females differed in quality between polluted and unpolluted habitats. Comparing female condition between incubation and nestling periods, we aimed at testing whether biometric differences in F. hypoleuca females were caused by assortative settlement (i.e. intraspecific competition) or as a consequence of breeding in environments exposed to different levels of pollution stress. Body mass, wing length, fat reserves, age distribution, timing of breeding and breeding density of females were measured along an air pollution gradient from a copper smelter in SW Finland in 1991–1994. We found few differences in female quality which could be explained by assortative settling. Females were of the same size in all areas. At nestling time P. major females were heaviest in a moderately polluted area. However, females in the most polluted area were not lighter than those in background areas. Female fat reserves in...

1. Climate warming has led to shifts in the seasonal timing of species. These shifts can differ across trophic levels, and as a result, predator phenology can get out of synchrony with prey phenology. This can have major consequences for predators such as population declines owing to low reproductive success. However, such trophic interactions are likely to differ between habitats, resulting in differential susceptibility of populations to increases in spring temperatures. A mismatch between breeding phenology and food abundance might be mitigated by dietary changes, but few studies have investigated this phenomenon. Here, we present data on nestling diets of nine different populations of pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca, across their breeding range. This species has been shown to adjust its breeding phenology to local climate change, but sometimes insufficiently relative to the phenology of their presumed major prey: Lepidoptera larvae. In spring, such larvae have a pronounced peak in oak habitats, but to a much lesser extent in coniferous and other deciduous habitats. 2. We found strong seasonal declines in the proportions of caterpillars in the diet only for oak habitats, and not for the other forest types. The seasonal decline in oak habitats was most strongly observed in warmer years, indicating that potential mismatches were stronger in warmer years. However, in coniferous and other habitats, no such effect of spring temperature was found. 3. Chicks reached somewhat higher weights in broods provided with higher proportions of caterpillars, supporting the notion that caterpillars are an important food source and that the temporal match with the caterpillar peak may represent an important component of reproductive success. 4. We suggest that pied flycatchers breeding in oak habitats have greater need to adjust timing of breeding to rising spring temperatures, because of the strong seasonality in their food. Such between-habitat differences can have important consequences for population dynamics and should be taken into account in studies on phenotypic plasticity and adaptation to climate change.

Despite a numerical and functional dependence on microtine mammals, breeding northern harriers (Circus cyaneus) in New Brunswick preyed upon large numbers of young passerine birds following the hatch of their own nestlings. An independent index of juvenile passerine availability showed that harrier pairs switched to young passerines as soon as they became available, and not simply because their own young had hatched. Many nests in which young hatched during the period of juvenile passerine availability had high fledging success, but the mean was significantly lower than that of early nests. A seasonal decline in success was highly significant, so if an adaptive temporal breeding strategy exists, it may simply be to breed early if possible and, if not, to coincide with the flush of passerines. We conclude that the coincidence of harrier and passerine prey nesting seasons is as likely to be fortuitous as strategic.

Laying date and clutch size in a population of the Blue Tit were evaluated during five years in a montane deciduous oak forest central Spain. By comparison with other Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean Blue Tit populations in the same habitat type of the Palearctic region, we found a similar timing of breeding than in central and North European populations. However, the low clutch size is in agreement with the latitudinal tendency in clutch size observed byLack (1947, 1966). The relatively altitude constraining the distribution of this habitat type may affect the delayed breeding season and low average clutch size observed. The degree of isolation of this habitat type in the Spanish Central Range, and the gene flow of Blue Tits populations setting in bordering habitats of poorer quality, may also contribute to the smaller clutch size observed in our study population. In einem montanen Wald aus laubwerfenden Eichen in Zentralspanien wurden in fünf Jahren Legebeginn und Gelegegröße einer Blaumeisenpopulation untersucht. Im Vergleich mit anderen mediterranen und nicht-mediterranen Population desselben Habitattyps der Paläarktis ergaben sich ähnliche Brutzeitdaten in Nordeuropa. Die niedrige Gelegegröße steht jedoch in Übereinstimmung mit einer breitenparallelen Tendenz (vgl.Lack 1947, 1966). Die relative Seehöhe, die die Ausdehung des Habitats begrenzt, könnte einen Einfluß auf den festgestellten späten Legebeginn und die niedrige Gelegegröße haben. Darüberhinaus könnte auch die isolierte Lage des Habitattyps in der spanischen Zentralkordillere und der Genfluß zwischen Blaumeisen in Grenzarealen geringerer Qualität zur niedrigeren Gelegegröße in der untersuchten Population beigetragen haben.

In this study we investigated the interplay between water level management, floating macrophytic vegetation and nesting whiskered tern (Chlidonias hybridus) during 8 years (1995–2002) at a shallow macrophyte-dominated lake in western France. The specific question was to see if slight increases in the water regime of the lake (three scenarios), as part of a restoration programme, affect the timing of nesting and occupation of colonies by whiskered terns by way of changes in biomass of waterlily (Nymphaea alba) beds where colonies always establish. During the study period, egg-laying dates were progressively delayed up to 40–50 days (mid-May to early July) in relation to late appearance of suitable waterlily biomass (R 2 = 0.67, p = 0.01) associated with high spring water levels (1.10–1.25 m vs. 0.95 m). Simultaneously some nesting attempts were observed in sub-optimal habitats (adjacent wet grasslands) in high flooding conditions leading either to poor breeding success or colony desertion. We concluded that there is a need for compromise between the experimental water levels used to control waterlily biomass and the nesting requirements of the whiskered tern population in this lake of international importance (260–510 pairs in 1995–2002, ≥ 1% Ramsar level).

The condition-dependent model of optimal clutch size assumes body reserves required to initiate egg production include those for subsequent breeding phases. The threshold is expected to be similar among individuals, and hence postlaying condition should be independent of clutch size and lay date. Alternatively, the cost of incubation hypothesis predicts that females laying larger clutches should secure extra resources for