Well logs

This thesis presents a workflow for the study of the stratigraphy of minibasins associated with salt tectonics, with a case study in the southwestern sector of the marine portion of the Salina del Istmo Province. The geographic location is not insignificant, since its minibasins could be of economic interest for the country.

In addition, an analysis of previous works on the internal stratigraphy of minibasins is presented, as well as the methods that have been used to characterize them according to the sedimentation patterns they present and the description of their architecture, directions of flow and evolution.

This is a methodology that will be used in conjunction with the analysis of geophysical records and 3D reflection seismic data. These techniques, together, will give us an interpretation of the relative changes in sea level and, in this way, the methodology of sequence stratigraphy is used.

Assemblages of seismofacies are proposed for four mini-basins in the area, where it is also possible to observe mass transport complexes (MTC), and a sedimentation change from ponded to bypass is inferred. With the use of electrofacies and seismic it was possible to define six second order sequences and 16 parasequences, representing regressive - progradant cycles which allows the definition of a sedimentation model in minicuencas, related to the movement of salt diapirs, a model for the behavior of the system tract in deep water environments and possible intervals of interest.

This work made use of computed data from well logs, with migrated seismic data, to evaluate rock fabric, reservoir fluid, and lithology of an unconsolidated alluvial fan deposit. Acoustic and elastic parameters amongst other logs were computed and used to characterize the subsurface reservoir. This was done to ascertain the possibility and success of well logs derived rock physics parameters in characterizing reservoirs. With the use of soft computing methods and stochastic algorithms, the objectives of this study were achieved. Results were presented in maps and model volumes. Lambda, Mu, Rho, and SP logs were the main inputs in the characterization based on both their individual potential and an integrated convolved potential. Filtered zones identified on cross-plot were applied to simulated volumes of LambdaRho and MuRho, gave good account of its ability to discriminate rock and fluid distribution. RGB visualization tool applied to the models gave a volume that was used to condition litho-units simulation with commendable results.

(Keywords: Lambda, mu, acoustic impedance, elastic impedance, reservoir characterization, RGB, alluvial fan, density)

A methodology to generate synthetic wireline logs is presented. Synthetic logs can help to analyze the reservoir properties in areas where the set of logs that are necessary, are absent or incomplete. The approach presented involves the use of artificial neural networks as the main tool, in conjunction with data obtained from conventional wireline logs. Implementation of this approach aims

Two scales of levee confinement are commonly recognised from submarine channel-levee systems on the seafloor and in the subsurface. Large-scale external levees bound the entire system whilst smaller-scale internal levees bound individual thalweg channels within the channel-belt. Although thin beds are commonly identified in core and well logs, their origin, and consequently their stratigraphic significance is currently poorly understood. This knowledge gap stems, in part, from the lack of unambiguously identified outcrop analogues of channel-levees, and in particular the lack of identifiable internal and external levees. Here we report from two exhumed channel-levee systems where both scales of confinement can be recognised: the Rosario Fm. of Baja California, and the Fort Brown Fm. of South Africa. A suite of characteristic sedimentary features are recognised from internal and external levees respectively: internal levees are characterised by structures indicative of complexity in the waxing-waning style of overspill, interactions with topography and flow magnitude variability; in contrast, external levees are characterised by structures indicative of simple surge-like waning flows, relatively uniform flow directions, laterally extensive beds, and a lack of erosive events. Using these observations, together with published literature, we propose a simple nomenclatural scheme for levee sub-environments, and criteria to differentiate between levee sub-environments in core or outcrop.

In Niger Delta region of Nigeria, reservoirs are mostly loose and unstratified sands to hold fluids. In this paper, three different wells in central Niger Delta were assessed for shale volume and actual porosity. The results of the analysis delineate the presence of sand, sand-shale and shale formations. Hydrocarbon prospecting was found to be strong in sand, moderate in sandshale and shallow in shale respectively. However, existent of shale lessens effective porosity and water saturation of the rock formations. The extent of the formation extends from 1300 to 2500 m. Shale volume and actual porosity values extend from 0.00 to 0.302 dec and 0.047 to 0.302 dec which decrease with increasing depth. Comparably, the water saturation and water resistivity extend from 0.432 to 0.779 dec and 0.106 to 2.918 Ohm respectively. These values of actual porosity are strong in sand, moderate in sand-shale and shallow in shale formations. The results from this assessment proof well log a vital and ...

A new approach is introduced for turbidite modeling, leveraging the potential of computational fluid dynamics methods to simulate the flow processes that led to turbidite formation. The practical use of numerical flow simulation for the purpose of turbidite modeling so far is hindered by the need to specify parameters and initial flow conditions that are a priori unknown. The present study proposes a method to determine optimal simulation parameters via an automated optimization process. An iterative procedure matches deposit predictions from successive flow simulations against available localized reference data, as in practice may be obtained from well logs, and aims at convergence towards the best-fit scenario. The final result is a prediction of the entire deposit thickness and local grain size distribution. The optimization strategy is based on a derivative-free, surrogate-based technique. Direct numerical simulations are performed to compute the flow dynamics. A proof of concept is successfully conducted for the simple test case of a two-dimensional lock-exchange turbidity current. The optimization approach is demonstrated to accurately retrieve the initial conditions used in a reference calculation.

We present a methodology for estimating uncertainties and mapping probabilities of occurrence of different lithofacies and pore fluids from seismic amplitudes, and apply it to a North Sea turbidite system. The methodology combines well log facies analysis, statistical rock physics, and prestack seismic inversion. The probability maps can be used as input data in exploration risk assessment and as constraints in reservoir modeling and performance forecasting. First, we define seismic‐scale sedimentary units which we refer to as seismic lithofacies. These facies represent populations of data (clusters) that have characteristic geologic and seismic properties. In the North Sea field presented in this paper, we find that unconsolidated thick‐bedded clean sands with water, plane laminated thick‐bedded sands with oil, and pure shales have very similar acoustic impedance distributions. However, the [Formula: see text] ratio helps resolve these ambiguities. We establish a statistically repr...

Developing a geological model is the first and a very important step during the reservoir simulation and modeling process. The geological model usually represents our best interpretation of the reservoir characteristics that extends beyond the well where we have actual measurements (logs, core, well test, etc.). The only real measurement with a large areal extent that geoscientists have access to is seismic data. Therefore, using seismic data to populate the high-resolution geological model is becoming increasingly popular. Using reservoir characteristics at the wellbore as the control point helps geoscientists in measuring the goodness of the correlation they create between seismic data and well logs. This paper presents a unique approach in accomplishing this task. The uniqueness of this approach is based on the fact that (a) it reduces the complexity of the model building process by dividing a very complex problem into two slightly less complex problems (surface seismic to VSP and VSP to log-i.e., divide and conquer) and (b) it effectively employs a synthetic set of formations representing the actual sequence of geological layers in the field in order to build a model and learn from it, and then, apply the lessons learned to the model building process for the actual reservoir. The results show that this strategy proves to be successful.

Chalk is the most characteristic facies type of the Upper Cretaceous in Belgium and the only Cretaceous rock type found on the central and northern parts of the Brabant Massif. Marine Cretaceous deposits gradually encroached the Brabant Massif from the south during transgressive pulses starting in the Cenomanian - Turonian, displaying chalk facies from the Coniacian onwards. The chalk cover on the northern part of the Brabant Massif and in the Campine basin was not installed until the late Santonian and Campanian, while inversion of the Rur Valley Graben prevented any sedimentation. The base of the chalk deposit is diachronic and may be laterally equivalent to more detrital, continental- marine facies. Flooding was gentle, covering a peneplanated landscape, while partly preserving the saprolitic paleosol and thus not influencing the chalky nature of the sediment. Peneplanation did not erase all irregularities in paleotopography, leading to differences in timing of the onset of marin...

FOR CITATIONS:
SALEM, H.S. Computer modeling of porosity and lithology for complex reservoirs using well-log measurements.
Energy Sources: Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects. 2000, Volume 22, Issue 6, Pages: 515-524 (10 p).
Taylor & Francis (Publisher). http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00908310050013749#.UxcenT-Sy-k

ABSTRACT:
The high degree of heterogeneity, saturation of multiphase fluids, and presence of clays in complex reservoirs make each of the three porosity logs (sonic, density, and neutron), if used independently, generally record inaccurate porosity. For such
reservoirs, combining different logs gives accurate results of porosity. The reservoirs of Terra Nova and Hibernia (Jeanne d’Arc Basin), offshore of the eastern coast of Canada, are saturated with multiphase fluids, enriched with clays, and made of
compacted and heterogeneous rocks, in terms of the lithological and mineralogical composition, and the size and shape of the grains and pores. In this study, the porosity and the rock constituents were determined for both reservoirs using a
computer technique in which the iteration process was applied. That was done by developing and using various computer programs and models, and utilizing numerous data from several logs analyzed at 0.2-m sampling-depth intervals. The more the
number of logs and iterations used in computation, the higher the degree of accuracy of results obtained. The reservoirs are made of shalestone, sandstone, siltstone, limestone, marlstone, and conglomerate. The porosity varies widely, because of variations in the rock composition and overburden pressure. The modeled porosity was compared to the porosity measured by the compensated neutron log (CNL). The results indicate that the CNL-m easured porosity is generally higher than the modeled
porosity by about 50%. The CNL-m easurements are greatly affected by the high amount of hydrogen that is chemically bound in the shales, hydrocarbons, and water. Therefore, CNL records higher values of porosity when porosity is actually
low, and lower values of porosity when it is actually high.

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Reservoir quality is mainly controlled by environment deposit type and diagenesis processes. To investigate such subject we usually proceed to microscopic techniques. Absence of outcrops and missing of core samples let us use conventional wireline logs and core lab measurements as primary data. Direct lecture of well logs calibrated by core photos and wellsite description, well logs correlation and cross plots were our main methodology axis. Target of this study is the fluvial Shaly Sandstones of Upper Triassic (Rhaetian) reservoir (abreviated in French; TAGS) located in Toual field-SE of Algeria. The present investigation confirms the absence of clean sandstone levels in the studied reservoir. It detects also the presence of halite and clays (Illite) as cements in sandstone. The influence of illite on permeability was confirmed whereas porosity is less affected.

Lacunarity and fractal variations in geophysical well logs are associated with stratigraphic and petrophysical properties of the naturally fractured Cantarell field in the Gulf of Mexico. Neutron porosity (NPHI), density (RHOB, DRHO, PEF), resistivity (LLD, LLS, MSFL), natural radioactivity (GR, CGR, URAN, POTA, THOR) and caliper (CALI) logs are studied. The resistivity logs yielded remarkably high lacunarity values, especially in

ABSTRACT The analysis of well logging data plays key role in the exploration and development of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Various well log parameters such as porosity, gamma ray, density, transit time and resistivity, help in classification of strata and estimation of the physical, electrical and acoustical properties of the subsurface lithology. Strong and conspicuous changes in some of the log parameters associated with any particular geological stratigraphy formation are function of its composition, physical properties that help in classification. However some substrata show moderate values in respective log parameters and make difficult to identify the kind of strata, if we go by the standard variability ranges of any log parameters and visual inspection. The complexity increases further with more number of sensors involved. An attempt is made to identify the kinds of stratigraphy from well logs over Prydz bay basin, East Antarctica using fuzzy inference system. A model is built based on few data sets of known stratigraphy and further the network model is used as test model to infer the lithology of a borehole from their geophysical logs, not used in simulation. Initially the fuzzy based algorithm is trained, validated and tested on well log data and finally identifies the formation lithology of a hydrocarbon reservoir system of study area. The effectiveness of this technique is demonstrated by the analysis of the results for actual lithologs and coring data of ODP Leg 188. The fuzzy results show that the training performance equals to 82.95% while the prediction ability is 87.69%. The fuzzy results are very encouraging and the model is able to decipher even thin layer seams and other strata from geophysical logs. The result provides the significant sand formation of depth range 316.0– 341.0m, where core recovery is incomplete.

En este trabajo fueron analizadas las variaciones fractales y de lagunaridad de los registros geofísicos de pozo, con el fin de asociarlos con las propiedades estratigráficas y petrofísicas del yacimiento naturalmente fracturado de Cantarell, en el Golfo de México. Los registros considerados fueron: porosidad neutrón (NPHI), densidad (RHOB, DRHO, PEF), resistividad (LLD, LLS, MSFL), radiactividad natural (GR, CGR, URAN, POTA, THOR) y caliper (CALI). Los registros de resistividad produjeron valores de lagunaridad notablemente altos, especialmente en las rocas generadoras y almacenadoras, a diferencia de los demás registros, cuya homogeneidad de traza implicó una baja lagunaridad. Los resultados indican que la lagunaridad observada depende de la resolución y profundidad radial de penetración del método geofísico estudiado y aumenta sistemáticamente en el siguiente orden: (RHOB) < (CALI) < (PEF) < (URAN) < (GR) < (NPHI) < (POTA) < (CGR) < (THOR) < (MSFL) <...

A wavelet propagating in a finely layered lossless medium is subject to apparent attenuation that changes its shape. Can a sonic log be used to characterize this change? I show that numerical simulations with the well‐log as medium give an apparent attenuation or diffusion of the pulse that is very different from the attenuation in the real medium. This is due to the smoothing effect of the well‐log tool. Based on a version of the O’Doherty‐Anstey approximation, I derive an expression that reveals the role of the tool. Using a sonic log, I verify the theory and show how tool effects can be mitigated by deconvolution. I also propose a two‐scale stochastic model for the sonic log and a procedure for estimation of its parameters. One application of sonic logs is to quantify apparent attenuation and, in this context, my results are important.

The effect of the structural setting on gas hydrate and free-gas accumulation near the East Casey fault zone at Keathley Canyon in the Gulf of Mexico is investigated using well logs and 2D and 3D acoustic-impedance inversions. We interpret two zones from the well logs: a probable hydrate zone and a dissociating hydrate zone. We interpret hydrates as fracture fillings in the clay-dominated formation with maximum saturation of approximately 30% of the available pore space, and maximum volumetric concentration of approximately 12%. The maximum free-gas concentration below the interpreted bottom simulating reflector (BSR) is less than 4%. Resistivity measurements alone are incon-clusive; complimentary measurements, such as sonic, reduce hy-drate interpretation ambiguities. Seismic data in 3D and the derived acoustic-impedance volume are interpreted in terms of a BSR, a high [Formula: see text]-impedance hydrate zone, and free gas. We interpret two bright, low [Formula: see text]-impedance features terminating at the BSR as free-gas accumulations. The contrast in average [Formula: see text]-impedance across the fault suggests a change in lithology across the fault zone, and free-gas transport along, and to the west of, the fault. Variations in depths of interpreted free-gas zones suggest either a significant lateral variation in the hydrate stability across the fault zone, or coexistence of hydrates and free gas within the hydrate stability zone, or both. The dynamics of the tectonic environment imply nonequilibrium conditions of time-dependent temperature, pressure, or fluid transport.

Unconformity-type deposits supply a significant amount of the world’s uranium and consist of uranium that is generally codeposited with graphite in a fault zone. The low resistivity of the graphite produces a significant contrast in electrical resistivity, which can be located with electromagnetic (EM) methods. The Athabasca Basin in Western Canada hosts significant uranium deposits, and exploration in deeper parts of the basin has required the application of new EM methods. This paper presents an evaluation of the audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) exploration method at the McArthur River mine in the Athabasca Basin. AMT data were collected at 132 stations on a grid, and two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) inversions were used to generate resistivity models. These models showed two major results: (1) a significant conductor coincident with a major basement fault (P2) and the uranium deposits (this conductor begins at the unconformity at a depth of [Formula: see text] and extend...

In this paper, a modern image-processing technique, the Cellular Neural Network (CNN) has been firstly applied to Bouguer anomaly map of synthetic examples and then to data from the Sivas–Divrigi Akdag region. CNN is an analog parallel computing paradigm defined in space and characterized by the locality of connections between processing neurons. The behaviour of the CNN is defined by