Latin for Beginners

VOCABULARY

PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s Dictionary of Secondary Latin and Browne’s Latin Word List as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a Teacher’s Manual has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

TO THE STUDENT—BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

«What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

[Footnote 1: Pronounce Lā´shĭ-ŭm .]

«The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

«The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks—poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

«Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

«Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French—which, you remember, is descended from Latin—and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

«Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

«Review Questions.» Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET

«1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j .

«2.» The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y . The other letters are consonants.

«3.» I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant .

Thus in Iū-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1]

[Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.]

«4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

«5.» The vowels have the following sounds:

VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES

ā as in father hāc, stās

ă like the first a in aha´ ,

never as in hat ă´-măt, că-nās

ē as in they tē´-lă, mē´-tă

ĕ as in met tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs

ī as in machine sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī

ĭ as in bit sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī

ō as in holy Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs

ŏ as in wholly , never as in

hot mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs

ū as in rude , or as oo in

boot ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr

ŭ as in full , or as oo in

foot ŭt, tū´-tŭs

NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a , between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality .

[Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones ˘.]

«6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES

«ae» as ai in aisle tae´-dae

«au» as ou in out gau´-dĕt

«ei» as ei in eight dein´-dĕ

«eu» as ĕ´o͝o (a short e

followed by a short u in

one syllable) seu

«oe» like oi in toil foe´-dŭs

«ui» like o͝o´ĭ (a short u

followed by a short i in one

syllable. Cf. English we ) cui, huic

NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

«7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that

CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES

«c» is always like c in cat , never as in cent că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă «g» is always like g in get , never as in gem gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō «i consonant» is always like y in yes iăm, iŏ´-cŭs «n» before c, qu , or g is like ng in sing (compare the sound of n in anchor ) ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of qw, gw , and sw . Here u has the value of consonant v and is not counted a vowel ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō «s» is like s in sea , never as in ease rŏ´-să, ĭs «t» is always like t in native , never as in nation ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō «v» is like w in wine , never as in vine «vī´-nŭm», «vĭr» «x» has the value of two consonants ( cs or gs ) and is like x in extract , not as in exact «ĕx´-trā», «ĕx-āc´-tŭs» «bs» is like ps and «bt» like pt «ŭrbs», «ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like c , p , t «pŭl´-chĕr», «Phoe´-bē», «thĕ-ā´-trŭm»

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap , not as in rattle ; pp as in hop-pole , not as in upper . Examples, «mĭt´-tō», «Ăp´pĭ-ŭs», «bĕl´-lŭm.»

SYLLABLES

«8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā´-tĕ» has three syllables, «au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs» has four.

a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ.

«9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs», «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă», «ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā», «ă´-bĕst», «pĕ-rē´-gĭt».[3]

[Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-ēgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.]

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r . Thus «pū´-blĭ-cŭs», «ă´-grī».

EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr , follow rule b . Thus «ăb´-lŭ-ō», «ăb-rŭm´-pō», «ĭl´-lĕ», «fĕr´-rŭm».

b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «măg´-nŭs», «ĕ-gĕs´-tās», «vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă», «hŏs´-pĕs», «ăn´-nŭs», «sŭ-bāc´-tŭs».

[Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tŭs, sānc-tŭs.]

3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma ; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´ ; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´ .

«10.» EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:

Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt.

[[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]]

QUANTITY

«11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

«12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h ; as «pŏ-ē´-ta», «tră´-hō».

2. A vowel is short before nt and nd , before final m or t , and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r . Thus «a´-mănt», «a-măn´-dus», «a-mā´-băm», «a-mā´-băt», «a´-ni-măl», «a´-mŏr».

3. A vowel is long before nf , ns , nx , and nct . Thus «īn´-fe-rō», «re´-gēns», «sān´-xī», «sānc´-tus».

4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

«13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

1. «A syllable is short»,

a. If it ends in a short vowel; as «ă´-mō», «pĭ´-grĭ».

NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

2. «A syllable is long»,

a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū´-rō», «poe´-nae», «aes-tā´-te».

b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus».

NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants ( cs or gs ).

3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cŭr´-rō» as it does «cū´-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mŏl´-lis» and «mō´-lis», «ā-mĭs´-sī» and «ā-mi´-sī».

ACCENT

«14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mēn´-sa», «Cae´-sar».

«15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nē´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus».

NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.)

«16.» Certain little words called enclit´ics [5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», and ; «-ve», or ; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rēgna´ve», «audit´ne».

[Footnote 5: Enclitic means leaning back , and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.]

HOW TO READ LATIN

«17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

«18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6]

The shades of night were falling fast,

As through an Alpine village passed

A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice,

A banner with the strange device,

Excelsior!

Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum

Ibat per vīcum Alpicum

Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns,

Vēxillum cum signō ferēns,

Excelsior!

His brow was sad; his eye beneath,

Flashed like a falchion from its sheath,

And like a silver clarion rung

The accents of that unknown tongue,

Excelsior!

Frōns trīstis, micat oculus

Velut ē vāgīnā gladius;

Sonantque similēs tubae

Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae,

Excelsior!

In happy homes he saw the light

Of household fires gleam warm and bright;

Above, the spectral glaciers shone,

And from his lips escaped a groan,

Excelsior!

In domibus videt clārās

Focōrum lūcēs calidās;

Relucet glaciēs ācris,

Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs,

Excelsior!

Try not the Pass! the old man said;

"Dark lowers the tempest overhead,

The roaring torrent is deep and wide!"

And loud that clarion voice replied,

Excelsior!

Dīcit senex, "Nē trānseās!

Suprā nigrēscit tempestās;

Lātus et altus est torrēns."

Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns,

Excelsior!

At break of day, as heavenward

The pious monks of Saint Bernard

Uttered the oft-repeated prayer,

A voice cried through the startled air,

Excelsior!

Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs

Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs

Ōrābant precēs solitās,

Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās,

Excelsior!

A traveler, by the faithful hound,

Half-buried in the snow was found,

Still grasping in his hand of ice

That banner with the strange device,

Excelsior!

Sēmi-sepultus viātor

Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur,

Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō

Illud vēxillum cum signō,

Excelsior!

There in the twilight cold and gray,

Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay,

And from the sky, serene and far,

A voice fell, like a falling star,

Excelsior!

Iacet corpus exanimum

Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum;

Et caelō procul exiēns

Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns,

Excelsior!

[Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus ,

October, 1898.]

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

«19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

Galba is a farmer

«Galba est agricola»

The sailor fights

«Nauta pugnat»

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Galba is a farmer

«Galba»

The sailor fights

«Nauta» «pugnat»

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.

a. Pronouns, as their name implies ( pro , instead of, and noun ), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow .

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy , the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:

SUBJECT PREDICATE

/—————-\

The boy hit the ball

(verb) (direct object)

a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, I walk , he comes .

«21.» «The Copula.» The verb to be in its different forms— are , is , was , etc.—does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, the joiner or link .

«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas :

1. «America est patria mea»

America is fatherland my

2. «Agricola fīliam amat»

(The) farmer (his) daughter loves

3. «Fīlia est Iūlia»

(His) daughter is Julia

4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā»

Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island

5. «Iūlia aquam portat»

Julia water carries

6. «Rosam in comīs habet»

(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has

7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra»

Julia is (a) girl pretty

8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet»

(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article «the» or «a» ; thus «agricola» may mean the farmer, a farmer , or simply farmer . Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she , etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her , etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES ( Continued )

«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are ; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women . This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation».

«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

«Naut-a pugnat»

The sailor fights

«Naut-ae pugnant»

The sailors fight

«25.» RULE. Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural .

«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

«agri´cola», farmer (agriculture)[1] «aqua», water (aquarium) «causa», cause, reason «do´mina», lady of the house, mistress (dominate) «filia», daughter (filial) «fortū´na», fortune «fuga», flight (fugitive) «iniū´ria», wrong, injury «lūna», moon (lunar) «nauta», sailor (nautical) «puel´la», girl «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», land (terrace)

[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», cause , no comparison is needed.]

«27.» Compare again the sentences

«Nauta pugna-t»

The sailor fights

«Nautae pugna-nt»

The sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural.

«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

«29.» RULE. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings».

«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural