Gangs

Slavery Today

Kevin Bales & Becky Cornell

The Betrayal of Africa

Gerald Caplan

Sex for Guys

Manne Forssberg

Technology

Wayne Grady

Hip Hop World

Dalton Higgins

Democracy

James Laxer

Empire

James Laxer

Oil

James Laxer

Cities

John Lorinc

Pornography

Debbie Nathan

Being Muslim

Haroon Siddiqui

Genocide

Jane Springer

The News

Peter Steven

Gangs

Richard Swift

Climate Change

Shelley Tanaka

The Force of Law

Mariana Valverde

Series Editor

Jane Springer

Copyright © 2011 by Richard Swift

Published in Canada and the USA in 2011 by Groundwood Books

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a etrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written consent of the publisher or a license from The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright). For an Access Copyright license, visit www.accesscopyright.ca or call toll free to 1-800-893-5777.

Groundwood Books / House of Anansi Press

128 Sterling Road, Lower Level, Toronto, Ontario M6R 2B7

or c/o Publishers Group West

1700 Fourth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710

We acknowledge for their financial support of our publishing program the Canada Council for the Arts, the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund (CBF) and the Ontario Arts Council.

This book was written with the support of an Ontario Arts Council Writers’

Reserve Grant.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Swift, Richard

Gangs / Richard Swift.

(Groundwork guides)

ISBN 978-0-88899-979-5 (bound).--ISBN 978-0-88899-978-8 (pbk.)

1. Gangs.  2. Crime prevention.  I. Title.  II. Series: Groundwork guides

HV6437.S84 2011 364.106’6 C2010-905904-2

Design by Michael Solomon

Index by Gillian Watts

Contents

Gangs Are Everywhere

Gangs and Poverty

The Underground Economy

Gangs and Their Communities

Gang Appeal

The Politics of Gangs

The Assault on Youth

A Future with Gangs

Gang Vocabulary

Gangs Timeline

For Further Information

Acknowledgments

Index

To Joshua — far too skeptical to ever join a gang.

Chapter 1

Gangs Are Everywhere

Almost everyone has their weapons, and when you go out into the street you never know if you’re going to return, what’s going to happen to you, when they’re going to assault you. You don’t have security — we don’t live in peace… There have only been deaths.

— Maria, aged 20, Guatemala City¹

Politicians. Police. Teachers. The media. Social workers. The elderly. Solid citizens everywhere. Everyone these days is alarmed about youth gangs. Next to terrorists, gangs are the number two other — a manifestation of pure evil. The media is filled with stories about youth in gangs — drug-dealing, terrorizing neighborhoods, gunning down each other as well as a growing number of bystanders. In the Paris banlieues (suburbs) they set cars alight, in downtown Toronto they open up with handguns on the subway cars or in crowded downtown streets, in Birmingham and Warsaw they rampage after football matches, and in many parts of the world they turn entire urban areas into no-go zones for the police.

Throughout burgeoning slums of the urban Global South, in cities as far apart as Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Nairobi in Kenya, gangs of young men and sometimes women are the most important form of social organization in young people’s lives. They have come to replace the religious institutions that play such a large role in the lives of their parents and grandparents. And as the Global South rapidly shifts its population from the slow, predictable rhythms of rural life to the volatile speed-up of urban life, gangs and their impact are only likely to grow.

For the young, in particular, gangs provide moorings in a world set adrift. The city appears dangerous and exciting but also a rupture from the old certainties of parents and grandparents. Traditional families under pressure of a new kind of confusing urban poverty often end up neglecting or abusing children, driving them out into the street in search of opportunity and companionship. The old ways and customs of respect and belief no longer seem to apply, and youth gangs provide both a social rooting and a sense of identity for young people torn between their dreams and the stark realities of the poverty that hems them in. The economic possibilities provided by gang life (mostly but not all criminal) are a crucial factor in what draws the young into gangs. And economics is behind the persistence of those gangs as a part of the social landscape in the slums of both the Global South and the Global North.

What’s in a Name?

What outsiders call these gangs or what the gangs call themselves varies from place to place. In Latin America they are known as pandillas, maras, bandas, galeras, quadrillas, baras and chapulines. In Jamaica they are known as posses, dating back to the 1970s when Bonanza TV show reruns hit Caribbean television.

What the gangs call themselves reveals how they view the world and their place in it. Gang names dot newspaper columns as well as police blotters and court charge sheets. In countries like East Timor, plagued by youth gang violence since the country’s independence from Indonesia, they go by names like Devoted Heart Lotus Brotherhood and Sagrada Família (holy family). In São Luís, capital of the northeastern Brazilian state of Maranhão, youth gangs call themselves Messengers from Hell, Mind Organizers, Terrible Nocturnals and Falta de Deus (absence of God).

Gang names serve a number of purposes — to strike fear in the hearts of outsiders or competitors, but also to establish an outcast identity and to promote internal loyalty. For example, Amigos dos Amigos (ADA, meaning friends of friends), which controls Roçinha, the largest favela (slum) in Rio de Janeiro, speaks to group solidarity.²

Many gangs have names with religious echoes. They sometimes evoke a rejection of God but more often use terms like disciples, which suggest a longing for certainties in an uncertain world. Others like Falta de Deus speak of a lack of religion or even abandonment by God.

The massive gang-ridden Cape Flats slum near the South African city of Cape Town is home to an estimated 130 different gangs, including the Hard Livings, the Mongrels and the Junky Funky Boys.

The biggest of the Cape Flats gangs is called the Americans, evoking not just the power of US gangs, but the cultural domination of the powerful US film and music industries. A gang in the US city of Cincinnati called the Northside Taliban has its own rap song on YouTube. There is even a website, www.gangnames.net, featuring names for US-based gangs — you can vote on the best ones or submit your own.³ In Germany and Russia gangs tend to cluster around anti-foreigner activity. One Russian gang calling itself the White Inquisitor’s Crew has a record of attacking Chinese, Uzbek and other groupings from the east of the country. Skinhead gangs tend toward names that promote a Nazi revival, while some German gangs like the Pomeranian Homeland Association maintain innocuous names to hide their neo-Nazi inclinations.

Youth Gang Explosion

There are many types of gangs, ranging from sophisticated international criminal cartels to the famous motorcycle gangs like the Hell’s Angels or the Satan’s Choice that prowl on North American highways. But this book concentrates on the youth gangs that number in the tens of thousands and are present in a growing number of cities around the world.

Gang organization is limited by the political space available. For example, highly administered societies like Iran and China and Singapore allow little room for gang activity, but the collapse of orthodox Communism has provided fruitful opportunities in Russia and other states of the former Soviet Union. There tend to be fewer gangs in societies with a strong religious orientation, particularly Islamic (including most of the Middle East) but also Christian ones (Ghana, for example). There is also less space for self-organized youth gangs where the criminal scene is dominated by adult gangs such as the narco-traffickers in Colombia and Mexico. Countries with extensive social welfare networks, such as those of Northern Europe, are also less likely to have an extensive gang presence. But youth gangs are on the rise elsewhere in Europe.

European gangs, referred to in France as bandes, are often drawn from either guest worker populations (Turkish gangs in Germany) or former colonies (Latin American gangs such as the Latin Kings in Madrid and Barcelona) or both, as with sub-Saharan African gangs in Belgium or North African and sub-Saharan gangs in France or yardie Caribbean gangs and South Asian gangs in the UK.

The typical youth gang, although varied in size and impact, is generally territorially based in a particular community, neighborhood or urban district. The grandfather of gang studies, Frederic Thrasher, after studying more than a thousand gangs in 1920s Chicago, warned that no two gangs are just alike, [there is] an endless variety of forms.⁴

It is useful to see gangs on a continuum, moving from sporadic and informal gangs to institutionalized gangs that are deeply imbedded for decades in the particular communities of (mostly) major cities. The one pole tends to have a lot of ebb and flow, with gang organization quite informal and with limited economic ambitions; at the other end there is more structured leadership (complete with ranks) and an organization that relies on a variety of illegal (and sometimes legal) income streams to sustain itself.

But all along this spectrum there has been a dramatic explosion of both the number of gangs and the number of young people connected to them. Police statistics for the United States alone in 2004 claim 760,000 gang members and 24,000 gangs in 29,000 jurisdictions (legal talk for towns and cities). This marks a 660 percent growth in US gang membership over 24 years.⁵

In 2006 there were 103 illegal organizations (mostly violent youth gangs) in Rivers State in Nigeria’s oil-rich Delta region. In El Salvador there were 17,000 arrests (but only 5 percent convictions) of suspected gang members in 2005. According to Mauricio Gaborit of the Central American University in El Salvador, Honduras has taken a regional lead in gang membership. For Gaborit the eruption