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    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing
    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing
    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing
    Ebook855 pages62 hours

    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing

    By Richard E. Cascarino

    4.5/5

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    About this ebook

    Step-by-step guide to successful implementation and control of IT systems—including the Cloud

    Many auditors are unfamiliar with the techniques they need to know to efficiently and effectively determine whether information systems are adequately protected. Now in a Second Edition, Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing presents an easy, practical guide for auditors that can be applied to all computing environments.

    • Follows the approach used by the Information System Audit and Control Association's model curriculum, making this book a practical approach to IS auditing
    • Serves as an excellent study guide for those preparing for the CISA and CISM exams
    • Includes discussion of risk evaluation methodologies, new regulations, SOX, privacy, banking, IT governance, CobiT, outsourcing, network management, and the Cloud
    • Includes a link to an education version of IDEA--Data Analysis Software

    As networks and enterprise resource planning systems bring resources together, and as increasing privacy violations threaten more organization, information systems integrity becomes more important than ever. Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing, Second Edition empowers auditors to effectively gauge the adequacy and effectiveness of information systems controls.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherWiley
    Release dateFeb 15, 2012
    ISBN9781118239070
    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing

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    Auditor's Guide to IT Auditing - Richard E. Cascarino

    Preface

    IN TODAY’S BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT, computers are continuing the revolution started in the 1950s. Size and capacity of the equipment grows on an exponential curve, with the reduction in cost and size ensuring that organizations take advantage of this to develop more effective and responsive systems, which allow them to seek to gain competitive advantage by interfacing more closely with their customers. This second edition has been brought up to date with the latest in information technology (IT) approaches such as cloud computing as well as the latest in standards and regulations. The section on risk management has been expanded to include varying risk-analysis techniques available to the IT auditor.

    Net technologies such as cloud computing, electronic data interchange (EDI), electronic funds transfers (EFTs), and e-commerce have fundamentally changed the nature of business itself and, as a result, organizations have become more computer dependent. The radical changes to business are matched only by their impact on society.

    It has become impossible for today’s enterprises of any size and in any market sector to exist without computers to assist with their fundamental business operations. Even the old adage that we can always go back to manual operations is today a fallacy. The nature of today’s business environment obviates that option. Even the smallest businesses have found that the advent of personal computers (PCs) with increased capabilities and processing speed, while at the same time reduced pricing and sophisticated PC software, has revolutionized the concept of what a small business is.

    In order for organizations to take full advantage of the new facilities that computers can offer, it is important that their systems can be controlled and are dependable. They require that their auditors confirm that this is the case. The modern auditor therefore requires significantly more knowledge of computers and computer auditing than did auditors of earlier years.

    CONTROLS IN MODERN COMPUTER SYSTEMS

    The introduction of the computer has brought fundamental changes to the ways organizations process data. Computer systems:

    Are frequently much more complex than manual systems, the larger systems at least requiring a number of highly skilled computer technicians to develop and maintain them.

    Process large volumes of data at high speed, and can transmit data effectively and instantaneously over extreme distances, commonly between continents.

    Hold data in electronic form, which, without the appropriate tools and techniques, is often more complex for the auditor to access than paper records. In addition, modern systems have reduced the volumes of printed outputs by the incorporation of online access and online inquiry facilities. Indeed, many modern EDI-type systems have no paper audit trail whatsoever.

    Process data with much less manual intervention than manual systems. In fact large parts of sophisticated systems now process data with no manual intervention at all. In the past, the main justification for computerization was frequently to reduce the number of staff required to operate the business. With modern decision support and integrated systems, this is becoming a reality not at the clerical level, but at the decision-making and control level. This can have the effect that the fundamental business controls previously relied upon by the auditor, such as segregation of duties or management authorization, may no longer be carried out as previously and must be audited in a different manner. In computer systems, the user profile of the member of staff as defined within the system’s access rights will generally control the division of duties while managerial authorities are, in many cases, built into systems themselves.

    Process consistently in accordance with their programs providing the computer has been programmed correctly and change control is effective.

    In large minicomputer and mainframe systems, there is a significant concentration of risk in locating the organization’s information resources in one format, although not necessarily in one place. Organizations then become totally reliant on their computer system and must be able to recover from failure or the destruction of their computer system swiftly and with minimal business disruption.

    Are often subject to different legal constraints and burdens of proof than manual systems.

    May operate within a cloud environment within which control over the availability, security, and confidentiality of systems and data may be handed over to a third party and may be subject to laws of a differing country.

    These changes brought about by computerization can greatly increase the opportunity for auditors to deliver a quality service by concentrating the risk and allowing the auditors to correspondingly concentrate their efforts. For example, harnessing the power of the computer to analyze large volumes of data in the way the auditor requires is commonly now the only practical way of analyzing corporate data, and this was not only impractical but also impossible while data was spread around the organization in a myriad of forms.

    In addition, the use of computer systems with built-in programmed procedures permit the auditor to adopt a systems approach to auditing in that the controls within the computer system process in a more consistent manner than a manual system. In manual systems the quality of the control procedure can change on a day-by-day basis, depending on the quality of the staff and their consistency of working. This can result in the auditor having to undertake a substantial amount of checking of transactions, to confirm transactions have processed correctly.

    Controls within computer systems are commonly classified in two main subdivisions:

    General controls. The controls governing the environment in which the computer system is developed, maintained, and operated, and within which the application controls operate. These controls include the systems-development standards operated by the organization, the controls that apply to the operation of the computer installation, and those governing the functioning of systems software. They have a pervasive effect on all application systems.

    Application controls. The controls, both manual and computerized, within the business application to ensure that data is processed completely, accurately, and in a timely manner. Application controls are typically specific to the business application and include:

    Input controls such as data validation and batching

    Run-to-run controls to check file totals at key stages in processing, and controls over output

    Ultimately, the auditor’s job is to determine if the application systems function as intended, the integrity, accuracy, and completeness of the data is well controlled, and report any significant discrepancies. The integrity of the data relies on the adequacy of the application controls. However, application controls are totally dependent on the integrity of the general controls over the environment within which the application is developed and run.

    In the past, the auditor has often assumed a considerable degree of reliance on controls around the computer, that is, in the application controls. This is sometimes referred to as auditing around the computer because the auditor concentrates on the input and output from the computer, rather than what happens in the computer.

    This has never been truly justified but has become, over recent years, a lethal assumption.

    With the spread of online and real-time working, and of the increasing capacity of fixed disks, all of the organization’s data is commonly permanently loaded on the computer system and accessible from a variety of places, with only systems software controls preventing access to the data. This system is increasing in technical complexity, and the ability to utilize any implemented weaknesses is also growing.

    It is critical that the auditor is assured of the integrity of the computer operational environment within which the applications systems function. This means that the auditor must become knowledgeable of the facilities provided in key systems software in the organization being audited.

    This book is designed for those who need to gain a practical working knowledge of the risks and control opportunities within an IT environment, and the auditing of that environment. Readers who will find the text particularly useful include professionals and students within the fields of:

    IT security

    IT audit

    Internal audit

    External audit

    Management information systems

    General business management

    Overall, this book contains the information required by anyone who is, or expects to be, accountable to management for the successful implementation and control of information systems.

    It is intended that the text within this book forms the foundation for learning experience, as well as being your reference manual and student text. The emphasis is therefore on both the principles and techniques as well as the practical implementation through the use of realistic case studies.

    OVERALL FRAMEWORK

    Within the book the terms Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS) are both used because both are in common use to mean virtually identical functions. The book is split into eight parts, namely:

    Part I: IT Audit Process

    This part covers the introduction to the technology and auditing involved with the modern computer systems. It seeks to establish common frames of reference for all IT students by establishing a baseline of technological understanding as well as an understanding of risks, control objectives, and standards, all concepts essential to the audit function. Internal control concepts and the planning and management of the audit process in order to obtain the appropriate evidence of the achievement of the control objectives is explained as is the audit reporting process.

    Chapter 1 covers the basics of technology and audit. The chapter is intended to give readers an understanding of the technology in use in business as well as knowledge of the jargon and its meaning. It covers the components of control within an IT environment and explains who the main players are and what their role is within this environment.

    Chapter 2 looks at the laws and regulations governing IT audit and the nature and role of the audit charter. It reviews the varying nature of audit and the demand for audits as well as the need for control and audit of computer-based IS. The types of audit and auditor and range of services to be provided are reviewed together with the standards and codes of ethics of both the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) and the standards specified by the Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA).

    Chapter 3 explores the concepts of materiality and risk within the IT audit function and contrasts materiality as it is commonly applied to financial statement audit such as those performed by independent external auditors. In this context, the quality and types of evidence required to meet the definitions of sufficiency, reliability, and relevancy are examined. The risks involved in examining evidence to arrive at an audit conclusion are reviewed as are the need to maintain the independence and objectivity of the auditor and the auditor’s responsibility for fraud detection in both an IT and non-IT setting. A variety of differing risk assessment methods is examined.

    Chapter 4 explores in detail the ISACA Code of Professional Ethics and the current ISACA IS Auditing Standards and Guidelines Standards and discusses the IIA Code of Ethics, Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing, and Practice Advisories. In addition, standards and guidelines other than the ISACA and IIA models are explored.

    Chapter 5 introduces the concepts of corporate governance with particular attention to the implications within an IT environment and the impact on IS auditors. Criteria of Control (COCO), Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO), King, Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, and other recent legislative impacts are examined together with the structuring of controls to achieve conformity to these structures. Control classifications are examined in detail together with both general and application controls. Particular attention is paid to COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology) from both a structural and relevance perspective.

    Chapter 6 introduces the concept of computer risks and exposures and includes the development of an understanding of the major types of risks faced by the IT function including the sources of such risk as well as the causes. It also emphasizes management’s role in adopting a risk position, which itself necessitates a knowledge of the acceptable management responses to computer risks. One of the most fundamental influencing factors in IT auditing is the issue of corporate risk. This chapter examines risk and its nature within the corporate environment and looks at the internal audit need for the appropriate risk analysis to enable risk-based auditing as an integrated approach. This includes the effect of computer risks, the common risk factors, and the elements required to complete a computer risk analysis

    Chapter 7 examines the audit planning process at both a strategic and tactical level. The use of risk-based auditing and risk-assessment methods and standards are covered. The preliminary evaluation of internal controls via the appropriate information-gathering and control-evaluation techniques as a fundamental component of the audit plan and the design of the audit plan to achieve a variety of audit scopes is detailed.

    Chapter 8 looks at audit management and its resource allocation and prioritization in the planning and execution of assignments. The management of IS Audit quality through techniques such as peer reviews and best-practice identification is explored. The human aspects of management in the forms of career development and career path planning, performance assessment, counseling, and feedback as well as professional development through certifications, professional involvement, and training (both internal and external) are reviewed.

    Chapter 9 exposes the fundamental audit evidence process and the gathering of evidence that may be deemed sufficient, reliable, relevant, and useful. Evidence-gathering techniques such as observation, inquiry, interviewing, and testing are examined and the techniques of compliance versus substantive testing are contrasted. The complex area of statistical and non-statistical sampling techniques and the design and selection of samples and evaluation of sample results is examined. The essential techniques of computer assisted audit techniques (CAATs) are covered and a case study using the software provided is detailed.

    Chapter 10 covers audit reporting and follow-up. The form and content of an audit report are detailed and its purpose, structure, content, and style as dictated by the desired effect on its intended recipient for a variety of types of opinion are considered as well as the follow-up to determine management’s actions to implement recommendations.

    Part II: Information Technology Governance

    This part details the processes involved in planning and managing the IT function and the management issues faced in a modern IT department. The techniques used by management and the support tools and frameworks are examined with respect to the need for control within the processes.

    Chapter 11 covers IT project-management, risk management including economic, social, cultural, and technology risk management as well as software quality-control management, the management of IT infrastructure, alternative IT architectures and configuration, and the management of IT delivery (operations) and support (maintenance). Performance measurement and reporting and the IT balanced scorecard are also covered as are the use of outsourcing, the implementation of IT quality assurance, and the socio-technical and cultural approach to management.

    Chapter 12 examines IT strategic planning and looks at competitive strategies and business intelligence and their link to corporate strategy. These, in turn, influence the development of strategic information systems frameworks and applications. Strategic planning also includes the management of IT human resources, employee policies, agreements, contracts, segregation of duties within IT, and the implementation of effective IT training and education.

    Chapter 13 looks at the broader IS/IT management issues including the legal issues relating to the introduction of IT to the enterprise; intellectual property issues in cyberspace: trademarks, copyrights, patents as well as ethical issues; rights to privacy; and the implementation of effective IT governance.

    Chapter 14 introduces the need for support tools and frameworks such as COBIT: Management Guidelines, a framework for IT/IS managers and COBIT: Audit’s Use in Support of the Business Support Cycle. International standards and good practices such as ISOI7799, IT Infrastructure Library®(ITIL®), privacy standards, COSO, COCO, Cadbury, King, and Sarbanes-Oxley also play a vital role in ensuring the appropriate governance.

    Chapter 15 covers the need for, and use of, techniques such as change control reviews, operational reviews, and ISO 9000 reviews.

    Part III: Systems and Infrastructure Lifecycle Management

    IT is essential to an organization only in so far as it can effectively assist in the achievement of the business objectives. This means that the business-application systems need to be appropriate to the business needs and meet the objectives of the users in an effective and efficient manner. Part III explores the manner in which application systems are planned, acquired externally, or developed internally and ultimately implemented and maintained. In all cases such systems have an objective of being auditable in addition to the other unique business objectives. This part also examines the variety of roles that the auditor could be called on to undertake and the circumstances and controls appropriate to each.

    Chapter 16 covers the IT planning and managing components and includes developing an understanding of stakeholders and their requirements together with IT stay planning methods such as system investigation, process integration/reengineering opportunities, risk evaluation, cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment, object-oriented systems analysis, and design. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software to facilitate enterprise applications integration is reviewed.

    Chapter 17 covers the areas of information management and usage monitoring. Measurement criteria such as evaluating service level performance against service-level agreements, quality of service, availability, response time, security and controls, processing integrity, and privacy are examined. The analysis, evaluation, and design information together with data and application architecture are evaluated as tools for the auditor.

    Chapter 18 investigates the development, acquisition, and maintenance of information systems through Information Systems’ project management involving the planning, organization, human resource deployment, project control, monitoring, and execution of the project plan. The traditional methods for the system development life cycle (SDLC) (analysis, evaluation, and design of an entity’s SDLC phases and tasks) are examined, as are alternative approaches for system development such as the use of software packages, prototyping, business process reengineering, or computer-aided software engineering (CASE). In addition system maintenance and change-control procedures for system changes together with tools to assess risk and control issues and to aid the analysis and evaluation of project characteristics and risks are discussed.

    Chapter 19 examines the impact of IT on the business processes and solutions, business process outsourcing (BPO), and applications of e-business issues and trends.

    Chapter 20 looks at the software-development-design process itself and covers the separation of specification and implementation in programming, requirements specification methodologies, and technical process design. In addition database creation and manipulation, principles of good screen and report design, and program language alignment are covered.

    Chapter 21 looks at the audit and control of purchased packages to introduce readers to those elements critical to the decision taken to make or buy software. This includes a knowledge of the systems-development process and an understanding of the user’s role in training required so that the outsource decision on the factors surrounding it may be made to best effect.

    Chapter 22 looks at the auditor’s role in feasibility studies and conversions. These are perhaps the most critical areas of systems implementation, and audit involvement should be compulsory.

    Chapter 23 looks at the audit and development of application-level controls including input/origination controls, processing control procedures, output controls, application system documentation, and the appropriate use of audit trails.

    Part IV: Information Technology Service Delivery and Support

    This part examines the technical infrastructure in a variety of environments and the influence the infrastructure has on the management and control procedures required to attain the business objectives. The nature and methodologies of service center management are exposed for discussion.

    Chapter 24 examines the complex area of the IS/IT technical infrastructure (planning, implementation, and operational practices). IT architecture/standards over hardware including mainframe, minicomputers, client-servers, routers, switches, communications, and PCs as well as software including operating systems, utility software, and database systems are revealed. Network components including communications equipment and services rendered to provide networks, network-related hardware, network-related software, and the use of service providers are covered as are security/testing and validation, performance monitoring, and evaluation tools and IT control monitoring and evaluation tools, such as access control systems monitoring and intrusion-detection-systems monitoring tools. In addition, the role of managing information resources and information infrastructure through enterprise management software and the implementation of service center management and operations standards/guidelines within COBIT, ITIL, and ISO 17799 together with the issues and considerations of service center versus proprietary technical infrastructures are explored.

    Chapter 25 introduces the areas of service center management and the maintenance of Information Systems and technical infrastructures. These involve the use of appropriate tools designed to control the introduction of new and changed products into the service center environment and include such aspects as security management, resource/configuration management, and problem and incident management. In addition, the administration of release and versions of automated systems as well as the achievement of service-level management through capacity planning and management of the distribution of automated systems and contingency/backup and recovery management are examined.

    The key management principles involved in management of operations of the infrastructure (central and distributed), network management, and risk management are outlined as are both the need for customer liaison as well as the management of suppliers.

    Part V: Protection of Information Assets

    This part examines the essential area of IT security in all of its manifestations. The administration of security focusing on information as an asset is commonly problematic and may frequently be observed as a patchwork of physical and logical security techniques with little thought to the application and implementation of an integrated approach designed to lead to the achievement of specific control objectives.

    Chapter 26 looks at the area of information assets security management. This covers information technology and security basics and the fundamental concepts of IT security. The need for securing IT resources and maintaining an adequate policy framework on IT asset security, the management of IT security, and security training standards are examined as are the major compliance and assurance issues in IT security.

    Chapter 27 covers the critical area of the components of logical IT security. Logical access control issues and exposures are explored together with access-control software. The auditing of logical access to ensure the adequate control of logical security risks using the appropriate logical security features, tools, and procedures is detailed.

    Chapter 28 looks at the application of IT security including communications and network security. The principles of network security, client-server, Internet and web-based services, and firewall security systems are all detailed together with connectivity protection resources such as cryptography, digital signatures, digital certificates, and key management policies. IT security also encompasses the use of intrusion-detection systems and the proper implementation of mainframe security facilities. Security is also a critical element in the development of application systems and involves both the systems development and maintenance processes and database design.

    Chapter 29 examines the concepts of physical IT security including physical access exposures and controls.

    Part VI: Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery

    In many organizations, the ongoing continuity and availability of an information-processing capability is critical to the corporate survival of the entity. This part explores the need for and techniques utilized in the protection of the information technology architecture and assets through both disaster recovery planning and the transfer of risk by utilizing the appropriate insurance profile. The auditor’s role in examining corporate continuity plans is examined in detail.

    Chapter 30 introduces the activities required to ensure the protection of the IT architecture and assets. These include backup provisions involving business-impact analysis and business-continuity planning leading to IT disaster recovery planning, obtaining management support and commitment to the process, plan preparation and documentation, obtaining management approval, and distribution of the plan. In addition, the testing, maintenance, and revision of the plan together with audit’s role in all of these activities are investigated.

    Chapter 31 looks at insurance and the variety of insurance coverage that can be obtained. Issues such as the valuation of assets, including equipment, people, information processes, and technology, are examined.

    Part VII: Advanced IT Auditing

    The final part explores the technical auditor’s function and role in auditing specialized areas such as the audit and control of e-commerce systems, auditing operating systems at both micro and mainframe levels, securing systems against outside penetration, and investigating security breaches.

    Chapter 32 examines the tasks required to establish and optimize the IT audit functions including defining the scope of IP auditing, setting the objectives, staffing, and training. Measuring the effectiveness of the IT audit and the role of the specialist are critical in producing an effective IT audit function. It also introduces readers to the concepts of the paperless society inherent in e-commerce, business-2-business (B2B), business-2-consumer (B2C), and electronic data interchange (EDI) in general. These concepts change the internal control structure required in such an environment as well as changing the sources of what audit and legal evidence is available. The auditor will be required to implement the correct program to bring the contoured auction in line with this changing business environment.

    Chapter 33 takes the reader through the advanced concepts of auditing within a UNIX / Linux environment including the major threat categories and control opportunities as well as the use of the appropriate audit tools.

    Chapter 34 covers in detail the theory and practice of auditing within a Windows Vista or Windows 7 environment. This again includes the major control opportunities, controls to be sought, and audit tools to be used.

    Chapter 35 addresses the major risk of computer hackers including definitions of how hackers gain entrance and the design of the appropriate security hierarchy in order to effectively manage this critical risk.

    Chapter 36 examines the problem of computer fraud and countermeasures to prevent, detect, and alleviate the problems. This includes the effect of the risk of fraud on the business control objectives, the techniques applicable for determining higher risk, as well as the impact of computer fraud on an organization. The ability to distinguish between types of computer fraud, and the nature and effect as well as identification of likely fraud indicators enables the structuring of an appropriate antifraud security environment. The auditor must be capable of distinguishing between fraud and forensic auditing and applying the appropriate techniques. This involves an understanding of the rules that influence the acceptability of computer evidence as legally acceptable and binding evidence.

    Appendices

    Five appendices will be found at the back of the book including the appropriate ethics and standards for the IT auditor as well as sample audit programs for:

    Application Systems Auditing

    Logical access control

    UNIX / Linux environments

    Windows Vista and Version 7

    PART ONE

    IT Audit Process

    CHAPTER ONE

    Technology and Audit

    THIS CHAPTER COVERS the basics of technology and audit. The chapter is intended to provide an understanding of the technology currently in use in business as well as knowledge of the jargon and its meaning. It also covers the components of control within an information technology (IT) environment and explains who the main players are and what their roles are within this environment.

    After reading this chapter you should be able to:

    Understand the technology currently in use in business

    Understand the jargon and its meaning

    Define the components of control in an IT environment

    Briefly explain who the players are and what their roles are

    Define the fundamental differences between batch and online systems

    Explain the principal business risks within each processing type

    Describe the components that make up the online system and the effect these have on control objectives

    Explain the controls within each type of computer system

    Contrast the basics of batch and online security

    Demonstrate an ability to:

    Identify the differing types of database structures

    Identify the principal components of each type of Database Management System (DBMS)

    Identify the primary threats to each of these components

    Relate DBMS components to the operating system environment in which they operate

    Identify potential control opportunities and select among control alternatives

    Identify the principal DBMS products in the market

    Recognize vulnerabilities in multiple DBMS environments and make appropriate recommendations

    TECHNOLOGY AND AUDIT

    Before the auditor can make an effective start in auditing the technology, it is critical that both Audit and IT speak a common language and that the auditor understands the technical jargon with which they will be confronted.

    Some Computing Jargon

    Before we can start to discuss the audit and control of computer systems, we must have a common understanding of the jargon used.

    Hardware

    Hardware consists of those components that can physically be touched and manipulated. Principles among those components are:

    CPU. The Central Processing Unit is the heart of the computer. This is the logic unit that handles the arithmetic processing of all calculations.

    Peripherals. Peripheral devices are those devices that attach to the CPU to handle—typically—inputs and outputs. These include:

    Terminals

    Printers

    Disk and tape devices

    Memory. Memory takes the form in modern computers of silicon chips capable of storing information. In commercial computers, this information takes the form of 1 and 0 in the notation known as binary. Memory comes in various forms including:

    RAM. Random Access Memory whose contents can be changed but which is vulnerable to loss of power where the contents of memory may also be lost. This type of memory is also known as dynamic or volatile memory.

    ROM. Read-Only Memory is a form of memory whereby instructions are burned-in and not lost in the event of a power loss. These programs cannot be changed. This is also known as non-volatile memory.

    PROM. Programmable Read-Only Memory is similar to ROM but can have the contents changed.

    EPROM. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is similar to PROM but the instructions can be erased by ultra-violet light. There is another version of memory known as nonvolatile RAM. This is memory that has been attached to a battery so that, in the event of a power loss, the contents will not be lost.

    Mainframe. Mainframe computers are the large (physically as well as in power) computers used by companies to carry out large-volume processing and concentrated computing.

    Mini. Minicomputers are physically smaller than mainframes, although the power of many minicomputers exceeds that of recent mainframes.

    Micro. Microcomputers are physically small computers with limited processing power and storage. Having said that, the power and capacity of today’s micro is equivalent to that of a mainframe only five years ago.

    LANs. Local Areas Networks are collections of computers linked together within a comparatively small area.

    WANs. Wide Area Networks are collections of computers spread over a large geographic area.

    Storage

    Data is stored in a variety of forms for both permanent and temporary retention:

    Bits. Binary Digits, individual ones and zeros

    Bytes. Collections of Bits making up individual characters

    Disks. Large-capacity storage devices containing anything from 10 Mb to 150 Gb of data

    Diskettes. Small-capacity removable disks containing from 360 k to 100 Mb of data

    Optical Disks. Laser-encoded disks containing between 650 Mb and 9 GB of data

    Tapes. Reel-to-Reel or cassettes that store data

    Memory. See Memory under the Hardware section

    Communications

    In order to maximize the potential of the effective use of the information on computers it is essential that isolated computers be able to communicate and share data, programs, and hardware devices.

    Terminals. Remote devices allowing the input and output to and from the computer of data and programs.

    Modem. MOdulator/DEModulator, which translates digital computer signals into analog signals for telephone wires and retranslates them at the other end.

    Multiplexer. Combining signals from a variety of devices to maximize utilization of expensive communication lines.

    Cable. Metallic cable, usually copper, which can carry the signal between computers. These may come in the form of twisted pair, where two or more cables are strung together within a plastic sleeve, or in the form of coaxial, where a cable runs within a metallic braiding in the same manner as a television aerial cable.

    Fiber Optics. These consist of fine strands of fiberglass or plastic filaments that carry light signals without the need for electrical insulation. They have extremely high capacity and transfer rates but are expensive.

    Microwave. This form of communication involves sending high-power signals from a transmitter to a receiver. They work on a direct line-of-sight basis but require no cables.

    Input

    Inputs to computer systems have developed rapidly over the years. The IT Auditor will still occasionally encounter some of the earlier types:

    Cards. Rarely seen nowadays, punch cards were among the first input and output media and consisted of cardboard sheets, some 8 inches by 4 inches with

    80 columns, where rectangular holes could be punched in combinations to represent numeric, alphabetic, and special characters.

    Paper Tape. Another early input/output medium, paper tape was a low-cost alternative to punch cards and consisted of a one-inch wide paper tape with circular holes punched in it to form the same range of characters.

    Keyboards. The most common input device today (although that is changing). Most keyboards are still based on the original typist’s QWERTY keyboard design.

    Mouse. An electromechanical pointing device used for inputting instructions in real time.

    Scanners. Optical devices that can scan pictures into a digitized computer-readable form. These devices may be used in combination with OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software to allow the computer to interpret the pictures of data into actual characters.

    Bar Codes. Optically recognizable printing that can be interpreted by low-cost scanners. Common in retail operations.

    Voice. Perhaps the future of computer input whereby the computer user, programmer, or auditor simply dictates into a microphone and the computer responds appropriately.

    Output

    As with inputs, outputs are changing rapidly. In the earliest of computing times, output came in three basic forms. The most common of these was paper, however, quantities of cards and paper tape were output for subsequent reprocessing. Nowadays most outputs are via screens or directly onto magnetic media.

    Paper. Still a popular output medium, paper may be in continuous stationery form, cut sheet form, or preprinted business stock such as invoices or negotiable instruments such as checks.

    Computer. Output directly to another computer is a growing trend with the coming of age of electronic data interchange (EDI).

    Screen. Output to screen is the current norm for the majority of outputs with graphics, tables, charts, and three-dimensional forms possible.

    Microfilm/fiche. For permanent, readable recording of outputs with a small storage space required, microfilm is a popular output medium. Each frame contains one page of printed output. An alternative is the creation of microfiche, measuring approximately 6 inches by 4 inches and containing some 200 pages of printout.

    Magnetic Media. Output to disks, diskettes, and tapes is commonly used to store large volumes of information.

    Voice. Another new output medium is voice, where a permanent record is not required.

    Control

    Within the computer systems, control is exercised at a variety of points within the overall architecture. At each stage, opportunities exist to vary the manner in which the computer systems perform to meet the needs of the users.

    Operating System. The Operating System is the set of programs that control the basic operations of the computer. All other software runs under the direction of the Operating System and rely on its services for all of the work they undertake.

    Applications. These systems perform the business functions required of the computer. They run under the direct control of the Operating System but may contain many powerful control elements themselves.

    Parameters. These are user-defined variations adjusting the manner in which programs normally operate.

    Run Instructions. These are instructions to operators of computers instructing them on the jobs to be run and responses to machine questions to be entered.

    JCL. Job Control Language is a means of automating the job-running process by giving the computer the instructions in the form of batch programming language.

    Human Element. Ultimate control is exercised by the people who use, operate, program, and manage computers.

    People

    As pointed out in the Criteria of Control (CoCo) report referenced in Chapter 15, control is exercised by people and, as such, the auditor must understand the roles and responsibilities of the individuals involved in the development and processing of computer systems.

    Operators. Use the computers on a day-to-day basis.

    Programmers. Write the application programs that run on the computer.

    Systems Designers. Design the overall structure of the application systems and specify the programs required.

    Systems Analysts. Analyze the business structures, applications, and procedures to determine what, if any, contribution IT can make. They also design the outline of business specifications of new systems.

    Systems Programmers. Are responsible for the well-being of the Operating Systems and programs, the related systems software components.

    Database Analysts. Are responsible for maintaining the DBMS, which is the systems software that controls access to and format of the data.

    Network Analysts. Are responsible for ensuring availability, performance standards, and security are achieved on networks.

    Management. Plan, organize, and direct to ensure corporate objectives are achieved.

    Data

    Data consists of:

    Fields held in

    Records held in

    Files held on

    Disks

    BATCH AND ONLINE SYSTEMS

    Batch versus Online

    In the early days of commercial computing, and up to the late 1960s, most processing took place on a batch basis only. This meant that all inputs were collected centrally and input together in batches of documents. This would typically take place using a centralized data preparation function to convert the data from written form into holes punched into either cards or continuous paper tape. The process was highly error prone and the input medium was fragile. In later batch systems the data was entered via a terminal onto a file, which would later be processed in batch mode. In this type of system, the primary control objectives were the accuracy and completeness of capture.

    Many highly effective controls were designed and implemented to ensure completeness of data capture of batches of data, complete capture of all batches, and accurate capturing of batches of input data. These controls included the manual preparation of batch header documents for later comparison to computer-generated information, and double keystroke verification, whereby an operator entered the data into a batch of cards or directly onto a file containing a batch of input transactions. This data was then re-inputted by an independent data capture clerk and compared by the system to ensure accuracy and completeness.

    With the advent of online systems, such controls fell away because they were deemed to be no longer appropriate. In many cases within an online environment very few alternative controls were implemented and frequently the auditor would find that large assumptions were made as to the adequacy of the

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