Energies

246 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: The Impact of a Carbon Tax on the Chilean Electricity Generation Sector

by Carlos Benavides, Luis Gonzales, Manuel Diaz, Rodrigo Fuentes, Gonzalo García, Rodrigo Palma-Behnke and Catalina Ravizza

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6247-6248; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066247 - 23 Jun 2015

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4604

Abstract

We would like to change the authors’ affiliations on Page 2674 of paper [1] from: [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy and Climate Change)

850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Demand Response Programs Design and Use Considering Intensive Penetration of Distributed Generation

by Pedro Faria, Zita Vale and José Baptista

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6230-6246; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066230 - 23 Jun 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5842

Abstract

Further improvements in demand response programs implementation are needed in order to take full advantage of this resource, namely for the participation in energy and reserve market products, requiring adequate aggregation and remuneration of small size resources. The present paper focuses on SPIDER, [...] Read more.

Further improvements in demand response programs implementation are needed in order to take full advantage of this resource, namely for the participation in energy and reserve market products, requiring adequate aggregation and remuneration of small size resources. The present paper focuses on SPIDER, a demand response simulation that has been improved in order to simulate demand response, including realistic power system simulation. For illustration of the simulator’s capabilities, the present paper is proposes a methodology focusing on the aggregation of consumers and generators, providing adequate tolls for the demand response program’s adoption by evolved players. The methodology proposed in the present paper focuses on a Virtual Power Player that manages and aggregates the available demand response and distributed generation resources in order to satisfy the required electrical energy demand and reserve. The aggregation of resources is addressed by the use of clustering algorithms, and operation costs for the VPP are minimized. The presented case study is based on a set of 32 consumers and 66 distributed generation units, running on 180 distinct operation scenarios. Full article

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816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Time Analysis of a Tri-Generation Cycle

by Brian Agnew, Sara Walker, Bobo Ng and Ivan C. K. Tam

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6215-6229; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066215 - 23 Jun 2015

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4827

Abstract

A review of the literature indicates that current tri-generation cycles show low thermal performance, even when optimised for maximum useful output. This paper presents a Finite Time analysis of a tri-generation cycle that is based upon coupled power and refrigeration Carnot cycles. The [...] Read more.

A review of the literature indicates that current tri-generation cycles show low thermal performance, even when optimised for maximum useful output. This paper presents a Finite Time analysis of a tri-generation cycle that is based upon coupled power and refrigeration Carnot cycles. The analysis applies equally well to Stirling cycles or any cycle that exhibits isothermal heat transfer with the environment and is internally reversible. It is shown that it is possible to obtain a significantly higher energy utilisation factor with this type of cycle by considering the energy transferred during the isothermal compression and expansion processes as useful products thus making the energy utilisation larger than the enthalpy drop of the working fluid of the power cycle. The cycle is shown to have the highest energy utilisation factor when energy is supplied from a low temperature heat source and in this case the output is biased towards heating and cooling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tri-Generation Cycles, Combined Heat, Power and Cooling (CHPC))

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1651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonhumidified Fuel Cells Using N-Ethyl-N-methyl-pyrrolidinium Fluorohydrogenate Ionic Liquid-poly(Vinylidene Fluoride-Hexafluoropropylene) Composite Membranes

by Pisit Kiatkittikul, Toshiyuki Nohira and Rika Hagiwara

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6202-6214; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066202 - 23 Jun 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7145

Abstract

Composite membranes consisting of N-ethyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium fluoro-hydrogenate (EMPyr(FH)_1.7F) ionic liquid and poly(vinylidene fluoride hexafluoro-propylene) (PVdF-HFP) copolymer were successfully prepared in weight ratios of 5:5, 6:4, and 7:3 using a casting method. The prepared membranes possessed rough surfaces, which potentially [...] Read more.

Composite membranes consisting of N-ethyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium fluoro-hydrogenate (EMPyr(FH)_1.7F) ionic liquid and poly(vinylidene fluoride hexafluoro-propylene) (PVdF-HFP) copolymer were successfully prepared in weight ratios of 5:5, 6:4, and 7:3 using a casting method. The prepared membranes possessed rough surfaces, which potentially enlarged the three-phase boundary area. The EMPyr(FH)_1.7F/PVdF-HFP (7:3 weight ratio) composite membrane had an ionic conductivity of 41 mS·cm^-1 at 120 °C. For a single cell using this membrane, a maximum power density of 103 mW·cm^-2 was observed at 50 °C under non-humidified conditions; this is the highest power output that has ever been reported for fluorohydrogenate fuel cells. However, the cell performance decreased at 80 °C, which was explained by penetration of the softened composite membrane into gas diffusion electrodes to partially plug gas channels in the gas diffusion layers; this was verified by in situ a.c. impedance analysis and cross-sectional SEM images of the membrane electrode assembly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 2015)

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272 KiB

Open AccessReview

How Spatial Relationships Influence Economic Preferences for Wind Power—A Review

by Lauren Knapp and Jacob Ladenburg

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6177-6201; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066177 - 23 Jun 2015

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 6579

Abstract

An increasing number of studies in the environmental and resource economic literature suggest that preferences for changes or improvements in environmental amenities, from water quality to recreation, are spatially heterogeneous. One of these effects in particular, distance decay, suggests that respondents exhibit a [...] Read more.

An increasing number of studies in the environmental and resource economic literature suggest that preferences for changes or improvements in environmental amenities, from water quality to recreation, are spatially heterogeneous. One of these effects in particular, distance decay, suggests that respondents exhibit a higher willingness to pay (WTP) the closer they live to a proposed environmental improvement and vice versa. The importance of spatial effects cannot be underestimated. Several of these studies find significant biases in aggregate WTP values, and therefore social welfare, from models that disregard spatial factors. This relationship between spatial aspects and preferences, however, remains largely ignored in the non-market valuation literature applied to valuing preferences for renewable energy, generally, and wind power, specifically. To our knowledge, fourteen peer-reviewed studies have been conducted to estimate stated preferences (SP) for onshore and/or offshore wind development, yet less than half of those utilize any measure to account for the relationship between spatial effects and preferences. Fewer still undertake more robust measures that account for these spatially dependent relationships, such as via GIS, outside incorporating a single ‘distance’ attribute within the choice experiment (CE) referenda. This paper first reviews the methodologies of the SP wind valuation studies that have integrated measure(s) to account for spatial effects. We then categorize these effects into three dimensions—distance to a proposed wind project, distance to existing wind project(s), and cumulative effects—supporting each with a discussion of significant findings, including those found in the wind hedonic and acceptance literature. Policy implications that can be leveraged to maximize social welfare when siting future wind projects as well as recommendations for additional research to control for preference spatial heterogeneity in wind CEs are also posited. Full article

1777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Discrete Fracture Modeling of 3D Heterogeneous Enhanced Coalbed Methane Recovery with Prismatic Meshing

by Yongbin Zhang, Bin Gong, Junchao Li and Hangyu Li

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6153-6176; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066153 - 19 Jun 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6995

Abstract

In this study, a 3D multicomponent multiphase simulator with a new fracture characterization technique is developed to simulate the enhanced recovery of coalbed methane. In this new model, the diffusion source from the matrix is calculated using the traditional dual-continuum approach, while in [...] Read more.

In this study, a 3D multicomponent multiphase simulator with a new fracture characterization technique is developed to simulate the enhanced recovery of coalbed methane. In this new model, the diffusion source from the matrix is calculated using the traditional dual-continuum approach, while in the Darcy flow scale, the Discrete Fracture Model (DFM) is introduced to explicitly represent the flow interaction between cleats and large-scale fractures. For this purpose, a general formulation is proposed to model the multicomponent multiphase flow through the fractured coal media. The S&D model and a revised P&M model are incorporated to represent the geomechanical effects. Then a finite volume based discretization and solution strategies are constructed to solve the general ECBM equations. The prismatic meshing algorism is used to construct the grids for 3D reservoirs with complex fracture geometry. The simulator is validated with a benchmark case in which the results show close agreement with GEM. Finally, simulation of a synthetic heterogeneous 3D coal reservoir modified from a published literature is performed to evaluate the production performance and the effects of injected gas composition, well pattern and gas buoyancy. Full article

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983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Holistic Evaluation System for BIPV Façades

by Thorsten Schuetze, Wolfgang Willkomm and Maria Roos

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6135-6152; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066135 - 19 Jun 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 26411

Abstract

Façades with building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) have the advantage that they can produce renewable electric energy. Compared with conventional façades, BIPV façades have therefore a valuable additional property that can generally contribute to increasing the degree of sustainability of buildings. A holistic assessment system [...] Read more.

Façades with building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) have the advantage that they can produce renewable electric energy. Compared with conventional façades, BIPV façades have therefore a valuable additional property that can generally contribute to increasing the degree of sustainability of buildings. A holistic assessment system for BIPV façade systems for office and administration buildings was developed in the framework of the project “MULTIELEMENT II” at the Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technology (IWES) in Kassel, Germany. The aim of this research was a comparison of conventional façade systems with BIPV façade systems regarding different technical, economical, sustainability, and design criteria. This paper discusses the basic conditions for a holistic evaluation of BIPV façades in comparison with conventional façades. A method for the execution of a holistic evaluation and characteristic values for a comparison interpretation of results is presented. Façade systems are evaluated regarding both quantifiable and non-quantifiable properties by means of a Microsoft Excel-based evaluation tool. The tool facilitates the comparison and evaluation of planned or built façades with and without BIPV. The detailed evaluation results aim to facilitate the certification of BIPV façade systems in the framework of sustainable building certification systems such as the German DGNB. Full article

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3465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method and Case Study of Multiobjective Optimization-Based Energy System Design to Minimize the Primary Energy Use and Initial Investment Cost

by Dong-Seok Kong, Yong-Sung Jang and Jung-Ho Huh

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6114-6134; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066114 - 19 Jun 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5557

Abstract

This study aimed to develop a building energy system design method to minimize the initial investment cost and primary energy use. As for the energy system, various combinations were generated depending on the type and capacity of the device used as well as [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop a building energy system design method to minimize the initial investment cost and primary energy use. As for the energy system, various combinations were generated depending on the type and capacity of the device used as well as the number of units, energy consumption, and efficiency of the building. Because the design process of energy systems is a critical step in determining the performance of the building throughout the lifecycle, an effective design method is necessary. The proposed method determines the energy system that can minimize the primary energy use and initial investment cost through a multiobjective optimization by calculating the cooling and heating energy consumptions of the building and initial investment cost of the energy system using the load profile by the design-day, and the information in the design phase of the building. This method can support the decision-making process by providing engineers with an alternative proposal for minimizing the initial investment cost and primary energy use by the Pareto analysis after reviewing the design combinations of various energy systems with limited information in the initial design phase. To verify the effectiveness of the methodology, a case study of the two buildings was performed, and the analysis results were compared to the conventional design alternatives. As shown in the case study results, using a method developed in comparison with the conventional result can provide the efficient alternative selection with 80% of initial investment cost and 86% of primary energy use, respectively. The results confirmed that the proposed methodology can provide various optimum results more effectively compared to the conventional design methods. Full article

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1136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Current Mode Control for LLC Series Resonant DC-to-DC Converters

by Jinhaeng Jang, Syam Kumar Pidaparthy and Byungcho Choi

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6098-6113; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066098 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 13741

Abstract

Conventional voltage mode control only offers limited performance for LLC series resonant DC-to-DC converters experiencing wide variations in operational conditions. When the existing voltage mode control is employed, the closed-loop performance of the converter is directly affected by unavoidable changes in power stage [...] Read more.

Conventional voltage mode control only offers limited performance for LLC series resonant DC-to-DC converters experiencing wide variations in operational conditions. When the existing voltage mode control is employed, the closed-loop performance of the converter is directly affected by unavoidable changes in power stage dynamics. Thus, a specific control design optimized at one particular operating point could become unacceptable when the operational condition is varied. This paper presents a new current mode control scheme which could consistently provide good closed-loop performance for LLC resonant converters for the entire operational range. The proposed control scheme employs an additional feedback from the current of the resonant tank network to overcome the limitation of the existing voltage mode control. The superiority of the proposed current mode control over the conventional voltage mode control is verified using an experimental 150 W LLC series resonant DC-to-DC converter. Full article

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3451 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Lighting Loads upon Thermal Comfort under CBAD and UFAD Systems

by Ki-Hyung Yu, Seong-Hoon Yoon, Hae-Kwon Jung, Kee Han Kim and Kyoo-Dong Song

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6079-6097; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066079 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4964

Abstract

Under-floor air distribution (UFAD) systems are occupied-area-based air conditioning systems that generally offer advantages over ceiling-based air distribution (CBAD) systems in terms of energy efficiency and thermal comfort; accordingly, UFAD systems have become more popular lately. The purpose of this study is to [...] Read more.

Under-floor air distribution (UFAD) systems are occupied-area-based air conditioning systems that generally offer advantages over ceiling-based air distribution (CBAD) systems in terms of energy efficiency and thermal comfort; accordingly, UFAD systems have become more popular lately. The purpose of this study is to provide reasonable UFAD application conditions by comparing and analyzing the influences of cooling loads when UFAD and CBAD are applied to thermally control indoor environments. A chamber experiment was conducted to allow comparisons of the indoor thermal environment under CBAD and UFAD, with the experimental variables of the thermal load of the occupied area and the supply airflow rate. In conclusion, the lower the supply airflow and the higher the lighting power density, the more the thermal comfort of the indoor environment could be improved by using UFAD instead of CBAD. In the lighting power density range of 0–30 W/m², correlations were calculated whereby the lighting power density levels could be predicted that would ensure thermal comfort at a desired level. Full article

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382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Credibility Theory-Based Available Transfer Capability Assessment

by Yanan Zheng, Jin Yang, Zhaoguang Hu, Ming Zhou and Gengyin Li

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6059-6078; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066059 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6789

Abstract

Since the development of large scale power grid interconnections and power markets, research on available transfer capability (ATC) has attracted great attention. The challenges for accurate assessment of ATC originate from the numerous uncertainties in electricity generation, transmission, distribution and utilization sectors. Power [...] Read more.

Since the development of large scale power grid interconnections and power markets, research on available transfer capability (ATC) has attracted great attention. The challenges for accurate assessment of ATC originate from the numerous uncertainties in electricity generation, transmission, distribution and utilization sectors. Power system uncertainties can be mainly described as two types: randomness and fuzziness. However, the traditional transmission reliability margin (TRM) approach only considers randomness. Based on credibility theory, this paper firstly built models of generators, transmission lines and loads according to their features of both randomness and fuzziness. Then a random fuzzy simulation is applied, along with a novel method proposed for ATC assessment, in which both randomness and fuzziness are considered. The bootstrap method and multi-core parallel computing technique are introduced to enhance the processing speed. By implementing simulation for the IEEE-30-bus system and a real-life system located in Northwest China, the viability of the models and the proposed method is verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrical Power and Energy Systems for Transportation Applications)

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350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Crop-Based Biogas as Vehicle Fuel—The Impact of Crop Selection on Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Performance

by Pål Börjesson, Thomas Prade, Mikael Lantz and Lovisa Björnsson

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6033-6058; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066033 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8340

Abstract

The production of biogas from six agricultural crops was analysed regarding energy efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) performance for vehicle fuel from a field-to-tank perspective, with focus on critical parameters and on calculation methods. The energy efficiency varied from 35% to 44%, expressed [...] Read more.

The production of biogas from six agricultural crops was analysed regarding energy efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) performance for vehicle fuel from a field-to-tank perspective, with focus on critical parameters and on calculation methods. The energy efficiency varied from 35% to 44%, expressed as primary energy input per energy unit vehicle gas produced. The GHG reduction varied from 70% to 120%, compared with fossil liquid fuels, when the GHG credit of the digestate produced was included through system expansion according to the calculation methodology in the ISO 14044 standard of life cycle assessment. Ley crop-based biogas systems led to the highest GHG reduction, due to the significant soil carbon accumulation, followed by maize, wheat, hemp, triticale and sugar beet. Critical parameters are biogenic nitrous oxide emissions from crop cultivation, for which specific emission factors for digestate are missing today, and methane leakage from biogas production. The GHG benefits were reduced and the interrelation between the crops changed, when the GHG calculations were instead based on the methodology stated in the EU Renewable Energy Directive, where crop contribution to soil carbon accumulation is disregarded. All systems could still reach a 60% GHG reduction, due to the improved agricultural management when digestate replaces mineral fertilisers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biorefining)

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367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Congestion Control Algorithm in Distribution Feeders: Integration in a Distribution Management System

by Tine L. Vandoorn, Jan Van de Vyver, Louis Gevaert, Lieven Degroote and Lieven Vandevelde

Energies 2015, 8(6), 6013-6032; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8066013 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5525

Abstract

The increasing share of distributed energy resources poses a challenge to the distribution network operator (DNO) to maintain the current availability of the system while limiting the investment costs. Related to this, there is a clear trend in DNOs trying to better monitor [...] Read more.

The increasing share of distributed energy resources poses a challenge to the distribution network operator (DNO) to maintain the current availability of the system while limiting the investment costs. Related to this, there is a clear trend in DNOs trying to better monitor their grid by installing a distribution management system (DMS). This DMS enables the DNOs to remotely switch their network or better localize and solve faults. Moreover, the DMS can be used to centrally control the grid assets. Therefore, in this paper, a control strategy is discussed that can be implemented in the DMS for solving current congestion problems posed by the increasing share of renewables in the grid. This control strategy controls wind turbines in order to avoid congestion while mitigating the required investment costs in order to achieve a global cost-efficient solution. Next to the application and objective of the control, the parameter tuning of the control algorithm is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microgrids)

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5425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Fluid Dynamics and Visualisation of Coastal Flows in Tidal Channels Supporting Ocean Energy Development

by Enayatollah Zangiabadi, Matt Edmunds, Iain A. Fairley, Michael Togneri, Alison J. Williams, Ian Masters and Nick Croft

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5997-6012; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065997 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6862

Abstract

Flow characteristics in coastal regions are strongly influenced by the topography of the seabed and understanding the fluid dynamics is necessary before installation of tidal stream turbines (TST). In this paper, the bathymetry of a potential TST deployment site is used in the [...] Read more.

Flow characteristics in coastal regions are strongly influenced by the topography of the seabed and understanding the fluid dynamics is necessary before installation of tidal stream turbines (TST). In this paper, the bathymetry of a potential TST deployment site is used in the development of the a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) model. The steady state k-ϵ and transient Large Eddy Simulation (LES) turbulence methods are employed and compared. The simulations are conducted with a fixed representation of the ocean surface, i.e., a rigid lid representation. In the vicinity of Horse Rock a study of the pressure difference shows that the small change in height of the water column is negligible, providing confidence in the simulation results. The stream surface method employed to visualise the results has important inherent characteristics that can enhance the visual perception of complex flow structures. The results of all cases are compared with the flow data transect gathered by an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP). It has been understood that the k-ϵ method can predict the flow pattern relatively well near the main features of the domain and the LES model has the ability to simulate some important flow patterns caused by the bathymetry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tools and Techniques for Economic Delivery of Ocean Energy)

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1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of a Blade Force Measurement System for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Using Load Cells

by Morgan Rossander, Eduard Dyachuk, Senad Apelfröjd, Kristian Trolin, Anders Goude, Hans Bernhoff and Sandra Eriksson

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5973-5996; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065973 - 18 Jun 2015

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8399

Abstract

Unique blade force measurements on an open site straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine have been performed. This paper presents a method for measuring the tangential and normal forces on a 12-kW vertical axis wind turbine prototype with a three-bladed H-rotor. Four single-axis load [...] Read more.

Unique blade force measurements on an open site straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine have been performed. This paper presents a method for measuring the tangential and normal forces on a 12-kW vertical axis wind turbine prototype with a three-bladed H-rotor. Four single-axis load cells were installed in-between the hub and the support arms on one of the blades. The experimental setup, the measurement principle, together with the necessary control and measurement system are described. The maximum errors of the forces and accompanying weather data that can be obtained with the system are carefully estimated. Measured forces from the four load cells are presented, as well as the normal and tangential forces derived from them and a comparison with theoretical data. The measured torque and bending moment are also provided. The influence of the load cells on the turbine dynamics has also been evaluated. For the aerodynamic normal force, the system provides periodic data in agreement with simulations. Unexpected mechanical oscillations are present in the tangential force, introduced by the turbine dynamics. The measurement errors are of an acceptable size and often depend on the measured variable. Equations are presented for the calculation of measurement errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Wind Turbines)

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Graphical abstract

6633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Study on the Macroscopic Spray Characteristics of Biodiesel and Diesel in a Constant Volume Chamber

by Hongzhan Xie, Lanbo Song, Yizhi Xie, Dong Pi, Chunyu Shao and Qizhao Lin

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5952-5972; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065952 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 6598

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the macroscopic spray characteristics of different 0%–100% blends of biodiesel derived from drainage oil and diesel (BD0, BD20, BD50, BD80, BD100), such as spray tip penetration, average tip velocity at penetration, spray angle, average spray [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to investigate the macroscopic spray characteristics of different 0%–100% blends of biodiesel derived from drainage oil and diesel (BD0, BD20, BD50, BD80, BD100), such as spray tip penetration, average tip velocity at penetration, spray angle, average spray angle, spray evolution process, spray area and spray volume under different injection pressures (60, 70, 80, 90, 100 MPa) and ambient pressures (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9 MPa) using a common rail system equipped with a constant volume chamber. The characteristic data was extracted from spray images grabbed by a high speed visualization system. The results showed that the ambient pressure and injection pressure had significant effects on the spray characteristics. As the ambient pressure increased, the spray angle increased, while the spray tip penetration and the peak of average tip velocity decreased. As the injection pressure increased, the spray tip penetration, spray angle, spray area and spray volume increased. The increasing blend ratio of biodiesel brought about a shorter spray tip penetration and a smaller spray angle compared with those of diesel. This is due to the comparatively higher viscosity and surface tension of biodiesel, which enhanced the friction effect between fuel and the injector nozzle surface and inhibited the breakup of the liquid jet. Full article

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1869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Environmental Analysis of the Effect of Energy Saving, Production and Recovery Measures on Water Supply Systems under Scarcity Conditions

by Valeria Puleo, Mariacrocetta Sambito and Gabriele Freni

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5937-5951; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065937 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5575

Abstract

Water is one of the primary resources provided for maintaining quality of life and social status in urban areas. As potable water is considered to be a primary need, water service has usually been managed without examining the economic and environmental sustainability of [...] Read more.

Water is one of the primary resources provided for maintaining quality of life and social status in urban areas. As potable water is considered to be a primary need, water service has usually been managed without examining the economic and environmental sustainability of supply processes. Currently, due to increases in energy costs and the growth of environment preservation policies, reducing water leakage, energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) production have become primary objectives in reducing the environmental footprint of water service. The present paper suggests the implementation of some performance indicators that show the interdependence of water loss, energy consumption and GHG emission. These indicators are used to compare a few possible mitigation scenarios involving water loss reduction and increasing the system’s energy efficiency. The proposed indicators were applied to a complex urban water supply system serving the city of Palermo (Italy). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tri-Generation Cycles, Combined Heat, Power and Cooling (CHPC))

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1832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State of Charge Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using an Adaptive Cubature Kalman Filter

by Bizhong Xia, Haiqing Wang, Yong Tian, Mingwang Wang, Wei Sun and Zhihui Xu

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5916-5936; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065916 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 101 | Viewed by 10583

Abstract

Accurate state of charge (SOC) estimation is of great significance for a lithium-ion battery to ensure its safe operation and to prevent it from over-charging or over-discharging. However, it is difficult to get an accurate value of SOC since it is an inner [...] Read more.

Accurate state of charge (SOC) estimation is of great significance for a lithium-ion battery to ensure its safe operation and to prevent it from over-charging or over-discharging. However, it is difficult to get an accurate value of SOC since it is an inner sate of a battery cell, which cannot be directly measured. This paper presents an Adaptive Cubature Kalman filter (ACKF)-based SOC estimation algorithm for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. Firstly, the lithium-ion battery is modeled using the second-order resistor-capacitor (RC) equivalent circuit and parameters of the battery model are determined by the forgetting factor least-squares method. Then, the Adaptive Cubature Kalman filter for battery SOC estimation is introduced and the estimated process is presented. Finally, two typical driving cycles, including the Dynamic Stress Test (DST) and New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) are applied to evaluate the performance of the proposed method by comparing with the traditional extended Kalman filter (EKF) and cubature Kalman filter (CKF) algorithms. Experimental results show that the ACKF algorithm has better performance in terms of SOC estimation accuracy, convergence to different initial SOC errors and robustness against voltage measurement noise as compared with the traditional EKF and CKF algorithms. Full article

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898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxygen-Containing Fuels from High Acid Water Phase Pyrolysis Bio-Oils by ZSM−5 Catalysis: Kinetic and Mechanism Studies

by Yi Wei, Hanwu Lei, Lei Zhu, Xuesong Zhang, Gayatri Yadavalli, Yupeng Liu and Di Yan

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5898-5915; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065898 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6873

Abstract

This study developed an upgrading process focusing on acid transformations of water phase pyrolysis bio-oils to esters of oxygen-containing fuels via ZSM−5 catalyst. Temperature was set as a factor with five levels ranging from 60 to 135 °C with reaction time from 1 [...] Read more.

This study developed an upgrading process focusing on acid transformations of water phase pyrolysis bio-oils to esters of oxygen-containing fuels via ZSM−5 catalyst. Temperature was set as a factor with five levels ranging from 60 to 135 °C with reaction time from 1 to 8 h. The results showed that 89% of high acid conversion and over 90% of ester selectivity was obtained from the feedstock via 2 wt % ZSM−5 catalysts in a fixed feedstock to methanol ratio analyzed by HPLC and GC–MS. The upgrading process followed Langmuir–Hinshelwood and reaction constants were calculated to build a practical upgrading model for bio-oil compounds. Thermodynamics of the process showed endothermic properties during the breaking bonds’ reaction on carbonyl of acid while the reaction between the carbon in methanol and electrophile acid intermediate demonstrated exothermic performance. The optimum reaction conditions for the process was at a temperature of 100.1 °C with catalyst loading of 3.98 wt %. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biorefining)

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2144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Innovative Design of a Microtab Deployment Mechanism for Active Aerodynamic Load Control

by Kuo-Chang Tsai, Cheng-Tang Pan, Aubryn M. Cooperman, Scott J. Johnson and C. P. Van Dam

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5885-5897; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065885 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8073

Abstract

This study presents an innovative design of a microtab system for aerodynamic load control on horizontal-axis wind-turbine rotors. Microtabs are small devices located near the trailing edge of the rotor blades and enable a rapid increase or decrease of the lift force through [...] Read more.

This study presents an innovative design of a microtab system for aerodynamic load control on horizontal-axis wind-turbine rotors. Microtabs are small devices located near the trailing edge of the rotor blades and enable a rapid increase or decrease of the lift force through deployment of the tabs on the pressure or suction side of the airfoil, respectively. The new system has been designed to replace an earlier linearly-actuated microtab mechanism whose performance was limited by space restrictions and stiction. The newly-designed microtab system is based on a four-bar linkage that overcomes the two drawbacks. Its improved kinematics allows for the tab height to increase from 1.0% to 1.7% of the airfoil chord when fully deployed, thereby making it more effective in terms of aerodynamic load control. Furthermore, the modified four-bar link mechanism provides a more robust and reliable mechanical structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Wind Turbines)

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2090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Scavenging System Configuration on In-Cylinder Air Flow Organization of an Opposed-Piston Two-Stroke Engine

by Fukang Ma, Changlu Zhao, Fujun Zhang, Zhenfeng Zhao and Shuanlu Zhang

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5866-5884; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065866 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8932

Abstract

In-cylinder air flow is very important from the point of view of mixture formation and combustion. In this direction, intake chamber structure and piston crown shape play a very crucial role for in-cylinder air pattern of opposed-piston two-stroke (OP2S) engines. This study is [...] Read more.

In-cylinder air flow is very important from the point of view of mixture formation and combustion. In this direction, intake chamber structure and piston crown shape play a very crucial role for in-cylinder air pattern of opposed-piston two-stroke (OP2S) engines. This study is concerned with the three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of in-cylinder air motion coupled with the comparison of predicted results with the zero-dimensional (0D) parametric model. Three configurations viz., a flat piston uniform scavenging chamber, a flat piston non-uniform scavenging chamber and a pit piston non-uniform scavenging chamber have been studied. 0D model analysis of in-cylinder air flow is consistent with 3D CFD simulation. It is concluded that a pit piston non-uniform scavenging chamber is the best design from the point of view of tumble ratio, turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent intensity, which play very important roles in imparting proper air motion. Meanwhile a flat piston uniform scavenging chamber can organize a higher swirl ratio and lower tumble ratio which is important to improve the scavenging process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrical Power and Energy Systems for Transportation Applications)

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1219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Implications for Renewable Energy Innovation of Doubling the Share of Renewables in the Global Energy Mix between 2010 and 2030

by Deger Saygin, Ruud Kempener, Nicholas Wagner, Maria Ayuso and Dolf Gielen

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5828-5865; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065828 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 13283

Abstract

Benefits of increasing the renewable energy (RE) share in the total energy mix include better energy security, carbon dioxide emission reductions and improved human health. This paper identifies the potential of RE technologies and role of innovation to double the global RE share [...] Read more.

Benefits of increasing the renewable energy (RE) share in the total energy mix include better energy security, carbon dioxide emission reductions and improved human health. This paper identifies the potential of RE technologies and role of innovation to double the global RE share from 18% to 36% between 2010 and 2030. As a first step, a Reference Case is developed based on national energy plans of 26 countries which increases the RE share to 21% by 2030. Next, the realizable potential of RE technologies is estimated beyond the Reference Case at country and sector levels. By aggregating country potentials, this paper reveals that the global RE share can double to 36% by 2030. Despite differences in starting points and resource potentials, there is a role for each country in achieving a doubling. For many countries their Reference Cases result in low RE shares and many countries are just beginning to explore ways to increase RE use. The paper identifies action areas where innovation can increase technology development and improve cost-effectiveness, thereby accelerating global RE deployment. More research is required to specify these action areas for individual countries and specific technologies, as well as to identify policy needs to address them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Energy Innovation: Strategies to Accelerate Progress)

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6861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermo-Mechanical Simulations of Rock Behavior in Underground Coal Gasification Show Negligible Impact of Temperature-Dependent Parameters on Permeability Changes

by Christopher Otto and Thomas Kempka

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5800-5827; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065800 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7590

Abstract

A coupled thermo-mechanical model has been developed to assess permeability changes in the vicinity of an underground coal gasification (UCG) reactor resulting from excavation and thermo-mechanical effects. Thereto, we consider a stepwise UCG reactor excavation based on a pre-defined coal consumption rate and [...] Read more.

A coupled thermo-mechanical model has been developed to assess permeability changes in the vicinity of an underground coal gasification (UCG) reactor resulting from excavation and thermo-mechanical effects. Thereto, we consider a stepwise UCG reactor excavation based on a pre-defined coal consumption rate and dynamic thermal boundary conditions. Simulation results demonstrate that thermo-mechanical rock behavior is mainly driven by the thermal expansion coefficient, thermal conductivity, tensile strength and elastic modulus of the surrounding rock. A comparison between temperature-dependent and temperature-independent parameters applied in the simulations indicates notable variations in the distribution of total displacements in the UCG reactor vicinity related to thermal stress, but only negligible differences in permeability changes. Hence, temperature-dependent thermo-mechanical parameters have to be considered in the assessment of near-field UCG impacts only, while far-field models can achieve a higher computational efficiency by using temperature-independent thermo-mechanical parameters. Considering the findings of the present study in the large-scale assessment of potential environmental impacts of underground coal gasification, representative coupled simulations based on complex 3D large-scale models become computationally feasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Coal Combustion and Gasification)

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846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Horizontal and Vertical Reinforcement in Global Climate Governance

by Martin Jänicke

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5782-5799; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065782 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8253

Abstract

This paper is dealing with mechanisms that can accelerate the global diffusion of climate-friendly technologies. The accelerated diffusion of low-carbon technology innovation can possibly be achieved by interactive processes such as: (1) mutually reinforcing cycles of policy-induced domestic market growth, innovation, and policy [...] Read more.

This paper is dealing with mechanisms that can accelerate the global diffusion of climate-friendly technologies. The accelerated diffusion of low-carbon technology innovation can possibly be achieved by interactive processes such as: (1) mutually reinforcing cycles of policy-induced domestic market growth, innovation, and policy feedback; (2) lead markets and political lesson-drawing, the reinforced international adoption of innovations from pioneer countries; and (3) interaction between the vertical and horizontal dynamics in multi-level systems of governance. The three mechanisms are not exclusive. They can overlap and reinforce each other. After a theoretical introduction they will be described. The empirical focus is on the European system of multi-level climate governance. The paper draws some final conclusions for policy makers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy and Climate Change)

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2428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sheep Wool as a Construction Material for Energy Efficiency Improvement

by Azra Korjenic, Sanela Klarić, Almedina Hadžić and Sinan Korjenic

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5765-5781; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065765 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 16210

Abstract

The building sector is responsible for 40% of the current CO₂ emissions as well as energy consumption. Sustainability and energy efficiency of buildings are currently being evaluated, not only based on thermal insulation qualities and energy demands, but also based on primary [...] Read more.

The building sector is responsible for 40% of the current CO₂ emissions as well as energy consumption. Sustainability and energy efficiency of buildings are currently being evaluated, not only based on thermal insulation qualities and energy demands, but also based on primary energy demand, CO₂ reductions and the ecological properties of the materials used. Therefore, in order to make buildings as sustainable as possible, it is crucial to maximize the use of ecological materials. This study explores alternative usage of sheep wool as a construction material beyond its traditional application in the textile industry. Another goal of this research was to study the feasibility of replacement of commonly used thermal insulations with natural and renewable materials which have better environmental and primary energy values. Building physics, energy and environmental characteristics were evaluated and compared based on hygrothermal simulation and ecological balance methods. The observations demonstrate that sheep wool, compared with mineral wool and calcium silicate, provides comparable thermal insulation characteristics, and in some applications even reveals better performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Conservation in Infrastructures)

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2174 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Two Stroke Marine Diesel Engine Operation Including Turbocharger Cut-Out by Using a Zero-Dimensional Model

by Cong Guan, Gerasimos Theotokatos and Hui Chen

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5738-5764; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065738 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 11312

Abstract

In this article, the operation of a large two-stroke marine diesel engine including various cases with turbocharger cut-out was thoroughly investigated by using a modular zero-dimensional engine model built in MATLAB/Simulink environment. The model was developed by using as a basis an in-house [...] Read more.

In this article, the operation of a large two-stroke marine diesel engine including various cases with turbocharger cut-out was thoroughly investigated by using a modular zero-dimensional engine model built in MATLAB/Simulink environment. The model was developed by using as a basis an in-house modular mean value engine model, in which the existing cylinder block was replaced by a more detailed one that is capable of representing the scavenging ports-cylinder-exhaust valve processes. Simulation of the engine operation at steady state conditions was performed and the derived engine performance parameters were compared with the respective values obtained by the engine shop trials. The investigation of engine operation under turbocharger cut-out conditions in the region from 10% to 50% load was carried out and the influence of turbocharger cut-out on engine performance including the in-cylinder parameters was comprehensively studied. The recommended schedule for the combination of the turbocharger cut-out and blower activation was discussed for the engine operation under part load conditions. Finally, the influence of engine operating strategies on the annual fuel savings, CO₂ emissions reduction and blower operating hours for a Panamax container ship operating at slow steaming conditions is presented and discussed. Full article

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543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Medium-Scale Solar Thermal Systems and Their Potential in Lithuania

by Rokas Valančius, Andrius Jurelionis, Rolandas Jonynas, Vladislovas Katinas and Eugenijus Perednis

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5725-5737; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065725 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5629

Abstract

Medium-scale solar hot water systems with a total solar panel area varying from 60 to 166 m² have been installed in Lithuania since 2002. However, the performance of these systems varies depending on the type of energy users, equipment and design of [...] Read more.

Medium-scale solar hot water systems with a total solar panel area varying from 60 to 166 m² have been installed in Lithuania since 2002. However, the performance of these systems varies depending on the type of energy users, equipment and design of the systems, as well as their maintenance. The aim of this paper was to analyse operational SHW systems from the perspective of energy production and economic benefit as well as to outline the differences of their actual performance compared to the numerical simulation results. Three different medium-scale solar thermal systems in Lithuania were selected for the analysis varying in both equipment used (flat type solar collectors, evacuated tube collectors) and type of energy user (swimming pool building, domestic hot water heating, district heating). The results of the analysis showed that in the analysed cases the gap between measured and modelled data of heat energy produced by SHW systems was approx. 11%. From the economical perspective, the system with flat type solar collectors used for domestic hot water production was proved to be most efficient. However, calculation of Internal Rate of Return showed that a grant of 35% is required for this project to be fully profitable. Full article

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472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Surface Wettability and Roughness on the Heat Transfer Performance of Fluid Flowing through Microchannels

by Jing Cui and Yanyu Cui

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5704-5724; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065704 - 16 Jun 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6837

Abstract

The surface characteristics, such as wettability and roughness, play an important role in heat transfer performance in the field of microfluidic flow. In this paper, the process of a hot liquid flowing through a microchannel with cold walls, which possesses different surface wettabilities [...] Read more.

The surface characteristics, such as wettability and roughness, play an important role in heat transfer performance in the field of microfluidic flow. In this paper, the process of a hot liquid flowing through a microchannel with cold walls, which possesses different surface wettabilities and microstructures, is simulated by a transient double-distribution function (DDF) two-phase thermal lattice Boltzmann BGK (LBGK) model. The Shan-Chen multiphase LBGK model is used to describe the flow field and the independent distribution function is introduced to solve the temperature field. The simulation results show that the roughness of the channel wall improves the heat transfer, no matter what the surface wettability is. These simulations reveal that the heat exchange characteristics are directly related to the flow behavior. For the smooth-superhydrophobic-surface flow, a gas film forms that acts as an insulating layer since the thermal conductivity of the gas is relatively small in comparison to that of a liquid. In case of the rough-superhydrophobic-surface flow, the vortex motion of the gas within the grooves significantly enhances the heat exchange between the fluid and wall. Full article

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299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Industrial Energy Management Decision Making for Improved Energy Efficiency—Strategic System Perspectives and Situated Action in Combination

by Patrik Thollander and Jenny Palm

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5694-5703; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065694 - 15 Jun 2015

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7879

Abstract

Improved industrial energy efficiency is a cornerstone in climate change mitigation. Research results suggest that there is still major untapped potential for improved industrial energy efficiency. The major model used to explain the discrepancy between optimal level of energy efficiency and the current [...] Read more.

Improved industrial energy efficiency is a cornerstone in climate change mitigation. Research results suggest that there is still major untapped potential for improved industrial energy efficiency. The major model used to explain the discrepancy between optimal level of energy efficiency and the current level is the barrier model, e.g., different barriers to energy efficiency inhibit adoption of cost-effective measures. The measures outlined in research and policy action plans are almost exclusively technology-oriented, but great potential for energy efficiency improvements is also found in operational measures. Both technology and operational measures are combined in successful energy management practices. Most research in the field of energy management is grounded in engineering science, and theoretical models on how energy management in industry is carried out are scarce. One way to further develop and improve energy management, both theoretically as well as practically, is to explore how a socio-technical perspective can contribute to this understanding. In this article we will further elaborate this potential of cross-pollinating these fields. The aim of this paper is to relate energy management to two theoretical models, situated action and transaction analysis. We conclude that the current model for energy management systems, the input-output model, is insufficient for understanding in-house industrial energy management practices. By the incorporation of situated action and transaction analysis to the currently used input-output model, an enhanced understanding of the complexity of energy management is gained. It is not possible to find a single energy management solution suitable for any industrial company, but rather the idea is to find a reflexive model that can be adjusted from time to time. An idea for such a reflexive model would contain the structural elements from energy management models with consideration for decisions being situated and impossible to predict. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy and Climate Change)

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1112 KiB

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Effects of Urbanization-Induced Cultivated Land Loss on Ecosystem Services in the North China Plain

by Wei Song and Xiangzheng Deng

Energies 2015, 8(6), 5678-5693; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8065678 - 15 Jun 2015

Cited by 106 | Viewed by 8670

Abstract

Since the implementation of market oriented economic reform in 1978, China has been on the track of rapid urbanization. The unprecedented urbanization in China has resulted in substantial cultivated land loss and rapid expansion of urban areas. The cultivated land loss due to [...] Read more.

Since the implementation of market oriented economic reform in 1978, China has been on the track of rapid urbanization. The unprecedented urbanization in China has resulted in substantial cultivated land loss and rapid expansion of urban areas. The cultivated land loss due to urbanization not only threatens food security in China, but has also led to ecological system degradation to which close attention should be paid. Therefore, we examined the effects of the conversion from cultivated to urban areas on the ecosystem service in the North China Plain on the basis of a net primary productivity based ecosystem service model (NESM) and a buffer comparison method. Cultivated land loss due to urbanization in the North China Plain led to a total loss of ecosystem service value of 34.66% during the period 1988–2008. Urban expansion significantly decreased the ecosystem service function of water conservation (–124.03%), nutrient cycling (–31.91%), gas regulation (−7.18%), and organic production (–7.18%), while it improved the soil conservation function (2.40%). Land use change accounted for 57.40% of the changes in ecosystem service and had a major influence on the changes in nutrient cycling and water conservation. However, climate change mainly determined the changes in gas regulation, organic production, and soil conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Large Scale LUCC, Ecosystem Service, Water Balance and Energy Use)

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Energies, Volume 8, Issue 6 (June 2015) – 81 articles , Pages 4647-6248

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