Plasma, Volume 7, Issue 3 (September 2024) – 15 articles

As it turns out, both isotope scaling and density limits are phenomena closely linked to fluid closure. The necessity to include ion viscosity arises for both phenomena. Thus, we have added ion viscosity to our model. The experimental isotope scaling has been successfully recovered in our fluid model through parameter scans. Although ion viscosity typically exerts a small effect, the density limit is manifested by increasing the density by approximately tenfold from the typical experimental density. In our case, this increase originates from the density in the Cyclone base case. Notably, these phenomena would not manifest with a gyro-Landau fluid closure. The isotope scaling is nullified by the addition of a gyro-Landau term, while the density limit results from permitting ion viscosity to become comparable to the gyro-Landau term. The mechanism of zonal flows, demonstrated analytically for the Dimits upshift, yields insights into the isotope scaling observed in experiments. In our approach, ion viscosity is introduced in place of the Landau fluid resonances found in some fluid models. This implies that the mechanism of isotope scaling operates at the level of fluid closure in connection with the generation of zonal flows. The strength of zonal flows in our model has been verified, particularly in connection with the successful simulation of the nonlinear Dimits shift. Consequently, a role is played by our approach in the temperature perturbation part of the Reynolds stress. Full article

Methylene blue (C₁₆H₁₈ClN₃) dye can be decomposed using non-thermal plasma. However, there is a problem in that the maintenance of electrodes and dielectrics is necessary due to the durability and heat generation problems due to the high temperatures. Therefore, in this study, a comparative experiment was performed between the flat DBD plasma module and the diffuser DBD module under the same conditions. For methylene blue decomposition, the characteristic changes in the air flow rate, ozone production rate, energy consumption rate, and decomposition rate were compared. In the experiment, 7 L water was placed in a 15 L reactor, and measurements were performed for approximately 1 h. We performed the same process by setting the initial methylene blue concentration to 143 mg/L. According to the results, the flat DBD module achieved a decomposition rate of 100% in 40 min, an energy yield of 46.7 g/kWh, and an ozone generation amount of 6.5 g/h. The diffuser DBD module achieved a decomposition rate of 90%, an energy production of 24.6 g/kWh, and an ozone generation of 1.97 g/h in 60 min. Full article

The need for sustainable energy solutions is steering research towards green fuels. One promising approach involves electrocatalytic gas conversion, which requires efficient catalyst surfaces. This study focuses on developing and testing a hydrophobic octadiene (OD) coating for potential use in electrocatalytic gas conversion. The approach aims to combine a plasma-deposited hydrophobic coating with air-trapping micro- and nanotopographies to increase the yield of electrocatalytic reactions. Plasma polymerisation was used to deposit OD films, chosen for their fluorine-free non-polar properties, onto titanium substrates. We assessed the stability and charge permeability of these hydrophobic coatings under electrochemical conditions relevant to electrocatalysis. Our findings indicate that plasma-deposited OD films, combined with micro-texturing, could improve the availability of reactant gases at the catalyst surface while limiting water access. In the presence of nanotextures, however, the OD-coated catalyst did not retain its hydrophobicity. This approach holds promise to inform the future development of catalyst materials for the electrocatalytic conversion of dinitrogen (N₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) into green fuels. Full article

The occurrence of emerging micropollutants of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the environment poses a public health concern. Due to PhAC persistence and toxicity even at low concentrations, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have gained interest as effective treatment methods. In this context, the present study focuses on the application of a dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)-based plasma jet to Diclofenac (DCF) and Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) degradation in aqueous media. Plasma is sustained by continuous-wave sinusoidal high-voltage of audio frequencies, and negligible total harmonic distortion, in a helium–air mixture. The target pharmaceuticals are chosen based on anticipation of their occurrence due to rehabilitation center (DCF) and hospital (SMX) effluents in sewage systems. The degradation rates are determined by Liquid Chromatography Triple-Quadrupole Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS). Removal efficiency close to 100%, after 20 min of plasma treatment in the case of DCF at an initial concentration of 50 ppb, is achieved. The post-treatment action of the plasma-induced reactants on PhAC degradation over a day-scale period is studied. The results provide an insight into the dynamic degradation (kinetics) of both DCF and SMX, and they overall highlight the potentiality of the process under consideration for sewage remediation. Full article

In the transient phase of an atmospheric pressure discharge, the avalanche turns into a streamer discharge with time. Hydrodynamic fluid models are frequently used to describe the formation and propagation of streamers, where charge particle transport is dominated by the creation of space charge. The required electron transport data and rate coefficients for the fluid model are parameterized using the local mean energy approximation (LMEA) and the local field approximation (LFA). In atmospheric pressure applications, the excited species produced in the electrical discharge determine the subsequent conversion chemistry. We performed the fluid model simulation of streamers in nitrogen gas at atmospheric pressure using three different parametrizations for transport and electron excitation rate data. We present the spatial and temporal development of several macroscopic properties such as electron density and energy, and the electric field during the transient phase. The species production efficiency, which is important to understand the efficacy of any application of non-thermal plasmas, is also obtained for the three different parametrizations. Our results suggest that at atmospheric pressure, all three schemes predicted essentially the same macroscopic properties. Therefore, a lower-order method such as LFA, which does not require the solution of the energy conservation equation, should be adequate to determine streamer macroscopic properties to inform most plasma-assisted applications of nitrogen-containing gases at atmospheric pressure. Full article

Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are recalcitrant organofluorine contaminants, which demand urgent attention due to their bioaccumulation potential and associated health risks. While numerous current treatments technologies, including certain plasma-based treatments, can degrade PFASs, their complete destruction or mineralization is seldom achieved. Extensive aqueous PFAS mineralization capability coupled with industrial-level scaling potential makes gliding arc plasma (GAP) discharges an interesting and promising technology in PFAS mitigation. In this study, the effects of GAP discharge’s thermal and reactive properties on aqueous perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) mineralization were investigated. Treatments were conducted with air and nitrogen GAP discharges at different plasma gas temperatures to investigate the effects of plasma thermal environment on PFOS mineralization; the results show that treatments with increased plasma gas temperatures lead to increased PFOS mineralization, and discharges in air were able to mineralize PFOS at relatively lower plasma gas temperatures compared to discharges in nitrogen. Studies were conducted to identify if GAP-based PFOS mineralization is a pure thermal process or if plasma reactive chemistry also affects PFOS mineralization. This was done by comparing the effects of thermal environments with and without plasma species (air discharge and air heated to plasma gas temperatures) on PFOS mineralization; the results show that while GAP discharge was able to mineralize PFOS, equivalent temperature air without plasma did not lead to PFOS mineralization. Finally, mineralization during treatments with GAP discharges in argon and air at similar gas temperatures were compared to investigate the role of plasma species in PFOS mineralization. The results demonstrate that treatments with argon (monoatomic gas with higher ionization) lead to increased PFOS mineralization compared to treatments with air (molecular gas with lower ionization), showing the participation of reactive species in PFOS mineralization. Full article

We investigate the effects of the magnetostatic ($B$) field topology on the plasma behavior in a 2D collisionless simulation setup that represents an axial–azimuthal cross-section of a Hall thruster. The influence of the $B$-field topology is assessed in terms of two principal design properties of the field in a typical Hall thruster, i.e., the field’s peak intensity along the axial direction, and the field’s axial distribution. The effects of the field’s intensity are investigated for three propellants—xenon, krypton, and argon. Whereas, the effects of the axial profile of the magnetic field are studied only for the xenon propellant as an example. We primarily aim to understand how the changes in the $B$-field topology affect the spectra of the resolved instabilities as well as the electrons’ transport characteristics and the contributions of various momentum terms to transport. The numerical observations on the instabilities’ characteristics are compared against the relevant existing theories to determine the extent to which the simulated and the theoretically predicted characteristics are consistent across the studied parameter space. It was, most notably, found that modes related to ion acoustic instability are dominantly present across the simulation cases. The ion transit time instability additionally develops at the highest $B$-field intensities as a long-wavelength structure. The main influence of the axial profile of the $B$ field on the plasma discharge was observed to be in terms of the electrons’ transport characteristics. Where possible, the insights from the simulations are discussed with respect to the relevant experimental observations available in the literature. Full article

The results from a wide-ranging parametric investigation into the behavior of the collisionless partially magnetized plasma discharge of three propellants—xenon, krypton, and argon—are reported in this two-part article. These studies are performed using high-fidelity reduced-order particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations in a 2D configuration that represents an axial–azimuthal cross-section of a Hall thruster. In this part I paper, we discuss the effects of discharge voltage and current density (mass flow rate). Our parametric studies assess the spectra of the resolved instabilities under various plasma conditions. We evaluate the ability of the relevant theories from the literature to explain the variations in the instabilities’ characteristics across the studied plasma parameter space and for various propellants. Moreover, we investigate the changes in the electrons’ cross-magnetic-field transport, as well as the significance of the contribution of different momentum terms to this phenomenon across the analyzed cases. In terms of salient observations, the ion acoustic instability (IAI)-related modes are found to be dominant across the simulation cases, with the ion transit time instability also seen to develop at low current density values. Across the explored parameter space, the instabilities have the main contributions to the electrons’ transport within the plume region. The peak of the electric momentum force term, representing the effect of the instabilities, overall shifts toward the plume as either the current density or the discharge voltage increases. The numerical findings are compared against relevant experimental observations reported in the literature. Full article

The radiative heat transfer in arc plasma models is considered from the point of view of its description in terms of a net emission coefficient, the method of spherical harmonics in its lowest order, and the discrete ordinate method. Net emission coefficients are computed, applying approximate analytical and numerical approaches and a multi-band representation of the spectral absorption coefficient with three kinds of its averaging and two datasets. Self-consistent access to the radiative heat transfer is applied to a two-dimensional axisymmetric model of a free-burning arc in argon at atmospheric pressure. The results obtained from the models employing the net emission coefficient, the method of spherical harmonics, and the discrete ordinate method are compared. Full article

In the context of plasma–liquid interactions, the phase of discharge ignition is of great importance as it may influence the properties of the produced plasma. Herein, we investigated the influence of voltage rising time (${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$) on discharge ignition in air as well as on discharge propagation on the surface of water. Experimentally, ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ was adjusted to 0.1, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 kV/ns using a nanosecond high-voltage pulser, and discharges were characterized using voltage/current probes and an ICCD camera. Faster ignition, higher breakdown voltage, and greater discharge current (peak value) were observed at higher ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$. ICCD images revealed that higher ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ also promoted the formation of more filaments, with increased radial propagation over the water surface. To further understand these discharges, a previously developed 2D fluid model was used to simulate discharge ignition and propagation under various ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ conditions. The simulation provided the spatiotemporal evolution of the E-field, electron density, and surface charge density. The trend of the simulated position of the ionization front is similar to that observed experimentally. Furthermore, rapid vertical propagation (<1 ns) of the discharge towards the liquid surface was observed. As ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ increased, the velocity of discharge propagation towards the liquid increased. Higher ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ values also led to more charges in the ionization front propagating at the water surface. The discharge ceased to propagate when the charge number in the ionization front reached 0.5 × ${10}^8$ charges, irrespective of the ${\mathsf{\tau }}_{\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}}$ value. Full article

The generation of ozone by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) is widely used for water and wastewater treatment, the control of catalytic reactions, and surface treatment. Recently, a need for compact, effective, and economical ozone and reactive oxygen–nitrogen species (RONS) generators for medical, biological, and agricultural applications has been observed. In this study, a novel hybrid DBD (HDBD) reactor fulfilling such requirements is presented. Its structured high-voltage (HV) electrode allows for the ignition of both the surface and volume microdischarges contributing to plasma generation. A Peltier module cooling of the dielectric barrier, made of alumina, allows for the efficient control of plasma chemistry. The typical electrical power consumption of this device is below 30 W. The operation frequency of the DBD driver oscillating in the auto-resonance mode is from 20 to 40 kHz. The specific energy input (SEI) of the reactor was controlled by the DBD driver input voltage in the range from 10.5 to 18.0 V, the Peltier current from 0 to 4.5 A, the duty cycle of the pulse-width modulated (PWM) power varied from 0 to 100%, and the gas flow from 0.5 to 10 SLM. The operation with oxygen, synthetic air, and compressed dry air (CDA) was characterized. The ultraviolet light (UV) absorption technique was implemented for the measurement of the ozone concentration. The higher harmonics of the discharge current observed in the frequency range of 5 to 50 MHz were used for monitoring the discharge net power. Full article

Electrodeless Low-Frequency (LF)/Radio-Frequency (RF) plasma sources often suffer from low power coupling efficiencies due to the lack of overlapping field with the dynamic plasma load. However, the power supplies for these plasma sources typically have very high power efficiencies (>90%) and are more cost-effective compared to microwave sources. If the coupling efficiency to the plasma can be increased, these plasma sources offer a competitive technology for the sustainable electrification of the chemical industry. This work experimentally investigates five power coupling methods, applied to toroidal CO₂ plasmas in a quartz vessel. The research was based on similar ferrite coupling as used in energy-efficient plasma lamps. The higher resistance of the CO₂ plasma decreased the power coupling from 90% (for mercury-vapor plasma) to 66% at 1 mbar. High coupling efficiencies in LF/RF powered discharges can be achieved in two manners: either the inductance of the transformer cores can be increased, or the electromagnetic wave frequency can be increased. Furthermore, additional ferrite cores in parallel with the primary coils can be used to increase the impedance transformation. An experiment with six ferrite cores with a single primary winding in parallel, at a frequency of about 10 MHz and a power of 1 kW, showed that this frequency has a detrimental effect on the magnetic permeability and the losses in the ferrite result in a decrease of coupling to 33% at 1.5 mbar. At a frequency of 66 kHz with a nanocrystalline soft magnetic material core, a coupling of 89% was achieved in 1.5 mbar plasma for a power of 3.1 kW. This configuration exhibits decreasing coupling efficiencies at higher pressures since the plasma impedance increases, which again limits the coupling of the transformer due to a lack of inductance. The investigation of alternative coreless coil plasma configurations resulted in coupling efficiencies up to 89% decreasing to 50% at 102 mbar for a toroidal plasma enclosed by toroidally spiraling coils. Full article

Capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) discharges working at low pressure are widely used for the synthesis of thin films and the modification of the surface properties of materials. Due to their importance, considerable research was carried out over the years to understand their working mechanisms, and the physical properties of the CCP discharges were measured by many research groups, while simulations of their characteristics were often performed using both fluid and kinematic models. However, most of the simulation and characterization work found in the literature is focused on the discharge steady-state characteristics, since most of the applications rely on its properties, while less information is available on the early stages. In fact, the initial stages of CCP plasma discharges are of great importance to improve the understanding of their ignition process as well as to figure out the working mechanism of pulsed discharges, the use of which has increased in importance in recent years. In this work, a review of the results published in recent years concerning the physical mechanisms involved in the very first stages of low-pressure CCP discharges is presented, focusing on the first few microseconds of discharge time. Full article

The PION code has been integrated into the European Transport Solver (ETS) transport workflow, and we present the first application to model Ion Cyclotron Resonance Frequency (ICRF) heating scenarios in the next-step fusion reactor ITER. We present results of predictive, self-consistent and time-dependent simulations where the resonant ion concentration is varied to study its effects on the performance, with a special emphasis on the resulting bulk ion heating and thermal ion temperature. We focus on two ICRF heating schemes, i.e., fundamental H minority heating in a ⁴He plasma at 2.65 T/7.5 MA and a three-ion ICRF scheme consisting of fundamental ³He heating in a H-⁴He plasma at 3.3 T/ 8.8 MA. The H minority heating scenario is found to result in strong absorption by resonant H ions as compared to competing absorption mechanisms and dominant background electron heating for H concentrations up to 10%. The highest H absorption of ∼80% of the applied ICRF power and highest ion temperature of ∼15 keV are obtained with an H concentration of 10%. For the three-ion scheme in 85%:15% H:⁴He plasma, PION+ETS predicts ³He absorption in the range of 21–65% for ³He concentrations in the range of 0.01–0.20%, with the highest ³He absorption at a ³He concentration of 0.20%. Full article

This work reports on observations of positive and negative nanosecond-pulsed discharge in liquid argon. The structures of both positive and negative discharges, their sizes, and the propagation velocities exhibit remarkable similarity. Similar to the streamers in liquid nitrogen and gases, negative streamers require higher applied voltages (electric fields) and propagate to shorter distances. For both polarities, the spectra are almost identical and appear to be a superposition of strongly broadened atomic lines, with preliminary analysis of broadening indicating densities of about 40% that of liquid. Full article