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Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Biomimetics (ISSN 2313-7673). This special issue belongs to the section "Locomotion and Bioinspired Robotics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2024) | Viewed by 11028

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Prof. Dr. Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ‎‎Brazil‎
Interests: mechanical engineering; biomechanics; motion analysis; bioengineering; biomechatronics; robotic rehabilitation; medical robotics, bionics; design and control of prostheses, orthoses, and exoskeletons; user-robot interaction; soft robot
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Dear Colleagues,

Bionic technology has been successfully used to enhance human capabilities and improve the quality of life of disabled people. Recent advances in robotics, mechatronics, data science, soft robotics, neuroscience, photonics, and electronics have paved the way for a new generation of robotic prostheses and exoskeletons. However, the development of wearable robots is highly challenging. These systems should be lightweight and powerful enough to replace or support the limbs and capable of safely interacting with the user physically and cognitively.

For this Special Issue, entitled “Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses”, we call for contributions from researchers in the field of biomechatronics that cover design and control, exoskeletons, prostheses, physical and cognitive user–robot interaction in wearable robots, and medical robots and bionic devices, among other relevant topics.

Prof. Dr. Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade
Guest Editor

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Keywords

prosthetics and exoskeletons
rehabilitation robotics
physical human–robot interaction
cognitive human–robot interaction
wearable robotics
medical robots and systems
design and control
bioinspired robot learning
machine learning for robot control
soft robot

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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8 pages, 559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Assist Level Adjustment Function of a Gait Exercise Rehabilitation Robot with Functional Electrical Stimulation for Spinal Cord Injury: Insights from Clinical Trials

by Ryota Kimura, Takahiro Sato, Yuji Kasukawa, Daisuke Kudo, Takehiro Iwami and Naohisa Miyakoshi

Biomimetics 2024, 9(10), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9100621 - 13 Oct 2024

Viewed by 575

Abstract

This study aimed to identify whether the combined use of functional electrical stimulation (FES) reduces the motor torque of a gait exercise rehabilitation robot in spinal cord injury (SCI) and to verify the effectiveness of the developed automatic assist level adjustment in people with paraplegia. Acute and chronic SCI patients (1 case each) performed 10 min of gait exercises with and without FES using a rehabilitation robot. Reinforcement learning was used to adjust the assist level automatically. The maximum torque values and assist levels for each of the ten walking cycles when walking became steady were averaged and compared with and without FES. The motor’s output torque and the assist level were measured as outcomes. The assist level adjustment allowed both the motor torque and assist level to decrease gradually to a steady state. The motor torque and the assist levels were significantly lower with the FES than without the FES under steady conditions in both cases. No adverse events were reported. The combined use of FES attenuated the motor torque of a gait exercise rehabilitation robot for SCI. Automatic assistive level adjustment is also useful for spinal cord injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinematic–Muscular Synergies Describe Human Locomotion with a Set of Functional Synergies

by Valentina Lanzani, Cristina Brambilla and Alessandro Scano

Biomimetics 2024, 9(10), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9100619 - 13 Oct 2024

Viewed by 679

Abstract

Kinematics, kinetics and biomechanics of human gait are widely investigated fields of research. The biomechanics of locomotion have been described as characterizing muscle activations and synergistic control, i.e., spatial and temporal patterns of coordinated muscle groups and joints. Both kinematic synergies and muscle synergies have been extracted from locomotion data, showing that in healthy people four–five synergies underlie human locomotion; such synergies are, in general, robust across subjects and might be altered by pathological gait, depending on the severity of the impairment. In this work, for the first time, we apply the mixed matrix factorization algorithm to the locomotion data of 15 healthy participants to extract hybrid kinematic–muscle synergies and show that they allow us to directly link task space variables (i.e., kinematics) to the neural structure of muscle synergies. We show that kinematic–muscle synergies can describe the biomechanics of motion to a better extent than muscle synergies or kinematic synergies alone. Moreover, this study shows that at a functional level, modular control of the lower limb during locomotion is based on an increased number of functional synergies with respect to standard muscle synergies and accounts for different biomechanical roles that each synergy may have within the movement. Kinematic–muscular synergies may have impact in future work for a deeper understanding of modular control and neuro-motor recovery in the medical and rehabilitation fields, as they associate neural and task space variables in the same factorization. Applications include the evaluation of post-stroke, Parkinson’s disease and cerebral palsy patients, and for the design and development of robotic devices and exoskeletons during walking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 6036 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Optimization of a Custom-Made Six-Bar Exoskeleton for Pulp Pinch Grasp Rehabilitation in Stroke Patients

by Javier Andrés-Esperanza, José L. Iserte-Vilar and Víctor Roda-Casanova

Biomimetics 2024, 9(10), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9100616 - 11 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1087

Abstract

Stroke often causes neuromotor disabilities, impacting index finger function in daily activities. Due to the role of repetitive, even passive, finger movements in neuromuscular re-education and spasticity control, this study aims to design a rehabilitation exoskeleton based on the pulp pinch movement. The exoskeleton uses an underactuated RML topology with a single degree of mobility, customized from 3D scans of the patient’s hand. It consists of eight links, incorporating two consecutive four-bar mechanisms and the third inversion of a crank–slider. A two-stage genetic optimization was applied, first to the location of the intermediate joint between the two four-bar mechanisms and later to the remaining dimensions. A targeted genetic optimization process monitored two quality metrics: average mechanical advantage from extension to flexion, and its variability. By analyzing the relationship between these metrics and key parameters at different synthesis stages, the population evaluated is reduced by up to 96.2%, compared to previous studies for the same problem. This custom-fit exoskeleton uses a small linear actuator to deliver a stable 12.45 N force to the fingertip with near-constant mechanical advantage during flexion. It enables repetitive pulp pinch movements in a flaccid finger, improving rehabilitation consistency and facilitating home-based therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender Differences in Performing an Overhead Drilling Task Using an Exoskeleton—A Cross-Sectional Study

by Bettina Wollesen, Julia Gräf, Sander De Bock, Eligia Alfio, María Alejandra Díaz and Kevin De Pauw

Biomimetics 2024, 9(10), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9100601 - 7 Oct 2024

Viewed by 599

Abstract

(1) Exoskeletons offer potential benefits for overhead working tasks, but gender effects or differences are unclear. This study aimed to compare the performance as well as subjective body strain and comfort of men and women using an upper-body exoskeleton. (2) n = 20 female and n = 16 male participants performed an overhead drilling task with and without a passive upper-body exoskeleton in a randomized cross-over study. The task performance of different movement phases, perceived exertion, and ease of use were measured to compare gender differences. One- and two-way analyses were used to compare genders in the different conditions. The body mass index (BMI) was included as a covariate. (3) Gender differences in task performance were found for error integrals (p < 0.001) with higher values in male participants. Moreover, there was a significant interaction effect for gender x exoskeleton use. While females showed performance decrements in aiming with exoskeleton use, the males’ performance increased (p = 0.025). No other gender differences were observed. (4) Gender differences in task performance using an upper-body industrial exoskeleton were less detectable than expected, indicating that body composition and anthropometrics might be valuable indicators for performance including assisting devices. Moreover, future studies should also integrate the examination of muscle activity to gain more insights into potential gender movement control patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 5054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Design of the Dummy Arm: A Verification Tool for Arm Exoskeleton Development

by Suzanne J. Filius, Bas J. van der Burgh and Jaap Harlaar

Biomimetics 2024, 9(10), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9100579 - 24 Sep 2024

Viewed by 873

Abstract

Motorised arm supports for individuals with severe arm muscle weakness require precise compensation for arm weight and elevated passive joint impedance (e.g., joint stiffness as a result of muscle atrophy and fibrosis). Estimating these parameters in vivo, along with the arm’s centre of mass, is challenging, and human evaluations of assistance can be subjective. To address this, a dummy arm was designed to replicate the human arm’s anthropometrics, degrees of freedom, adjustable segment masses, and passive elbow joint impedance (eJimp). This study presents the design, anthropometrics, and verification of the dummy arm. It successfully mimics the human arm’s range of motion, mass, and centre of mass. The dummy arm also demonstrates the ability to replicate various eJimp torque-angle profiles. Additionally, it allows for the tuning of the segment masses, centres of mass, and eJimp to match a representative desired target population. This simple, cost-effective tool has proven valuable for the development and verification of the Duchenne ARm ORthosis (DAROR), a motorised arm support, or ‘exoskeleton’. This study includes recommendations for practical applications and provides insights into optimising design specifications based on the final design. It supplements the CAD design, enhancing the dummy arm’s application for future arm-assistive devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 11889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Assessment of Bird-Inspired 3D-Printed Models to Evaluate Grasp Mechanics

by Pavan Senthil, Om Vishanagra, John Sparkman, Peter Smith and Albert Manero

Biomimetics 2024, 9(4), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9040195 - 26 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1945

Abstract

Adapting grasp-specialized biomechanical structures into current research with 3D-printed prostheses may improve robotic dexterity in grasping a wider variety of objects. Claw variations across various bird species lend biomechanical advantages for grasping motions related to perching, climbing, and hunting. Designs inspired by bird claws provide improvements beyond a human-inspired structure for specific grasping applications to offer a solution for mitigating a cause of the high rejection rate for upper-limb prostheses. This research focuses on the design and manufacturing of two robotic test devices with different toe arrangements. The first, anisodactyl (three toes at the front, one at the back), is commonly found in birds of prey such as falcons and hawks. The second, zygodactyl (two toes at the front, two at the back), is commonly found in climbing birds such as woodpeckers and parrots. The evaluation methods for these models included a qualitative variable-object grasp assessment. The results highlighted design features that suggest an improved grasp: a small and central palm, curved distal digit components, and a symmetrical digit arrangement. A quantitative grip force test demonstrated that the single digit, the anisodactyl claw, and the zygodactyl claw designs support loads up to 64.3 N, 86.1 N, and 74.1 N, respectively. These loads exceed the minimum mechanical load capabilities for prosthetic devices. The developed designs offer insights into how biomimicry can be harnessed to optimize the grasping functionality of upper-limb prostheses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 7814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finger Prosthesis Driven by DEA Pairs as Agonist–Antagonist Artificial Muscles

by Alexandre B. S. da Silva, Gabriel E. P. Mendes, Eduardo S. Bragato, Guilherme L. Novelli, Marina Monjardim and Rafhael M. Andrade

Biomimetics 2024, 9(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9020110 - 13 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1640

Abstract

Loss of an upper limb exerts a negative influence on an individual’s ability to perform their activities of daily living (ADLs), reducing quality of life and self-esteem. A prosthesis capable of performing basic ADLs functions has the capability of restoring independence and autonomy to amputees. However, current technologies present in robotic prostheses are based on rigid actuators with several drawbacks, such as high weight and low compliance. Recent advances in robotics have allowed for the development of flexible actuators and artificial muscles to overcome the limitations of rigid actuators. Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) consist of a thin elastomer membrane arranged between two compliant electrodes capable of changing dimensions when stimulated with an electrical potential difference. In this work, we present the design and testing of a finger prosthesis driven by two DEAs arranged as agonist–antagonist pairs as artificial muscles. The soft actuators are designed as fiber-constrained dielectric elastomers (FCDE), enabling displacement in just one direction as natural muscles. The finger prosthesis was designed and modeled to show bend movement using just one pair of DEAs and was made of PLA in an FDM 3D printer to be lightweight. The experimental results show great agreement with the proposed model and indicate that the proposed finger prosthesis is promising in overcoming the limitations of the current rigid based actuators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 5153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Semi-Autonomous Hierarchical Control Framework for Prosthetic Hands Inspired by Dual Streams of Human

by Xuanyi Zhou, Jianhua Zhang, Bangchu Yang, Xiaolong Ma, Hao Fu, Shibo Cai and Guanjun Bao

Biomimetics 2024, 9(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9010062 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

The routine use of prosthetic hands significantly enhances amputees’ daily lives, yet it often introduces cognitive load and reduces reaction speed. To address this issue, we introduce a wearable semi-autonomous hierarchical control framework tailored for amputees. Drawing inspiration from the visual processing stream in humans, a fully autonomous bionic controller is integrated into the prosthetic hand control system to offload cognitive burden, complemented by a Human-in-the-Loop (HIL) control method. In the ventral-stream phase, the controller integrates multi-modal information from the user’s hand–eye coordination and biological instincts to analyze the user’s movement intention and manipulate primitive switches in the variable domain of view. Transitioning to the dorsal-stream phase, precise force control is attained through the HIL control strategy, combining feedback from the prosthetic hand’s sensors and the user’s electromyographic (EMG) signals. The effectiveness of the proposed interface is demonstrated by the experimental results. Our approach presents a more effective method of interaction between a robotic control system and the human. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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Review

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20 pages, 1564 KiB

Open AccessReview

Training and Familiarization with Industrial Exoskeletons: A Review of Considerations, Protocols, and Approaches for Effective Implementation

by Pranav Madhav Kuber and Ehsan Rashedi

Biomimetics 2024, 9(9), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9090520 - 30 Aug 2024

Viewed by 796

Abstract

Effective training programs are essential for safely integrating exoskeletons (EXOs) in industrial workplaces. Since the effects of wearable systems depend highly upon their proper use, lack of training of end-users may cause adverse effects on users. We reviewed articles that incorporated training and familiarization protocols to train novices on proper operation/use of EXOs. Findings showed variation in training methods that were implemented to train study participants in EXO evaluation studies. Studies also indicate that multiple (up to four) sessions may be needed for novice EXO wearers to match movement patterns of experts, and training can offer benefits in enhancing motor learning in novices. Biomechanical assessments and ergonomic evaluations can be helpful in developing EXO-specific training protocols by determining training parameters (duration/number of sessions and task difficulty). Future directions include development of personalized training approaches by assessing user behavior/performance through integration of emerging sensing technologies. Application of simulators and use of data-driven approaches for customizing training protocols to individuals, tasks, and EXO design are provided along with a comprehensive training framework. Discussed elements in this article can be helpful to exoskeleton researchers in familiarizing novice users to EXOs prior to evaluation, and to practitioners in developing protocols for training workforce. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 2nd Edition)

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