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Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications

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A special issue of Computers (ISSN 2073-431X).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2024 | Viewed by 14829

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Miguel Correia Melo

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Engineering, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
2. Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science (INESC TEC), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
Interests: computer graphics; HDR; virtual reality

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) technologies have been evolving at a fast pace, to a point where it is possible to create solutions that can be integrated seamlessly in a real usage context. These solutions can be leveraged in diverse application areas such as entertainment, education, medicine, and tourism. This Special Issue aims to explore multifaceted dimensions of XR, MR, and VR and provide a comprehensive overview of the latest developments, challenges, and research directions of the field. Novel research articles, comprehensive reviews, and survey articles are all welcome.

The key topics covered include:

Advances in XR, MR, AR, and VR hardware and software technologies;
User experience, perception, and cognitive aspects of XR, MR, AR, and VR, including multisensory stimulation;
Collaborative and social XR, MR, AR, and VR environments;
Interaction techniques in immersive experiences;
Industrial applications of XR, MT, AR, and VR.

Dr. Miguel Correia Melo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Computers is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

virtual reality
mixed reality
augmented reality
serious games
multisensory immersive experiences

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 6631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building an Accessible and Flexible Multi-User Robotic Simulation Framework with Unity-MATLAB Bridge

by Arturo Haces-Garcia and Weihang Zhu

Computers 2024, 13(11), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13110282 - 29 Oct 2024

Viewed by 504

Abstract

Multi-user collaborative robotic simulation has great potential for applications in industry and education. Unity is a powerful software for simulation and online multi-user experience, which can be enhanced with third-party mathematical analysis and multiplayer servers. Unity can become a much more capable and user-friendly robotic simulation package through integration with other software. These include MATLAB for computations and the Photon Unity Engine (PUN) for online multi-user capabilities. This study developed a flexible robotic simulation framework that can be adapted to different scenarios for industrial and educational applications. Several simulation scenarios were developed to identify the most efficient data communication methods between MATLAB and Unity. TCP/IP, Shared Memory, Firebase, and MQTT, were selected to assess their performance and interaction with data in Unity and MATLAB. Next, an independent PUN application was created. Both components were integrated into the simulator for evaluation and performance optimization. The performance of this simulation framework was assessed through two case studies. The results demonstrated that the integrated framework is viable, efficient, and flexible for robotic simulation and digital twins. Future research will expand the framework by adding diverse functionalities to provide users with a better interface, enhancing its performance, and integrating additional software packages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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16 pages, 5613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Dynamics of Mental and Visuospatial Workload in Virtual Reality Environments

by Guillermo Bernal, Hahrin Jung, İsmail Emir Yassı, Nelson Hidalgo, Yodahe Alemu, Tyler Barnes-Diana and Pattie Maes

Computers 2024, 13(10), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13100246 - 26 Sep 2024

Viewed by 925

Abstract

Mental workload, visuospatial processes and autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity are highly intertwined phenomena crucial for achieving optimal performance and improved mental health. Virtual reality (VR) serves as an effective tool for creating variety of controlled environments to better probe these features. This study investigates the relationship between mental and visuospatial workload, physiological arousal, and performance during a high-demand task in a VR environment. We utilized a modified version of the popular computer game TETRIS as the task, involving 25 participants, and employed a physiological computing VR headset that simultaneously records multimodal physiological data. Our findings indicate a broadband increase in EEG power just prior to a helper event, followed by a spike of visuospatial engagement (parietal alpha and beta 0-1-3 s) occurring concurrently with a decrease in mental workload (frontal theta 2–4 s), and subsequent decreases in visuospatial engagement (parietal theta at 14 s) and physiological arousal (HRV at 20 s). Regression analysis indicated that the subjective relief and helpfulness of the helper intervention was primarily driven by a decrease in physiological arousal and an increase in visuospatial engagement. These findings highlight the importance of multimodal physiological recording in rich environments, such as real world scenarios and VR, to understand the interplay between the various physiological responses involved in mental and visuospatial workload. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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25 pages, 3068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metaverse Unveiled: From the Lens of Science to Common People Perspective

by Mónica Cruz, Abílio Oliveira and Alessandro Pinheiro

Computers 2024, 13(8), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13080193 - 13 Aug 2024

Viewed by 954

Abstract

Everyone forms a perception about everything, including the Metaverse. Still, we may expect a gap or disconnection between what has been expressed by various researchers and the widespread perceptions of technology and related concepts. However, the degree to which these two frames of representation differ awaits further investigation. This study seeks to compare the Metaverse perceptions between the scientific findings and the common people’s perceptions using the data from two previous qualitative studies about the representations of the Metaverse from a scientific perspective versus a common perspective (by adults). Is there a common ground between these two perspectives? Or are they in opposition? As goals for this research, we aim to contrast the depiction of the Metaverse in pertinent studies (published in indexed journals) with the portrayal of the Metaverse among adults (non-researchers); ascertain the most prevalent depiction of virtual reality; and determine the significance of gaming within the representations of the Metaverse and virtual reality. This investigation encapsulates crucial findings on the Metaverse concept, contrasting the discoveries made by researchers in prior studies with the common public’s interpretation of this concept. It helps with understanding the differences between the Metaverse representations, the immersion and perception concepts, and a disagreement from the past vs. future perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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28 pages, 6199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ARPocketLab—A Mobile Augmented Reality System for Pedagogic Applications

by Miguel Nunes, Telmo Adão, Somayeh Shahrabadi, António Capela, Diana Carneiro, Pedro Branco, Luís Magalhães, Raul Morais and Emanuel Peres

Computers 2024, 13(6), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13060148 - 8 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1022

Abstract

The widespread adoption of digital technologies in educational systems has been globally reflecting a shift in pedagogic content delivery that seems to fit modern generations of students while tackling relevant challenges faced by the current scholar context, e.g., progress traceability, pedagogic content fair access and intuitive visual representativeness, mobility issue mitigation, and sustainability in crisis situations. Among these technologies, augmented reality (AR) emerges as a particularly promising approach, allowing the visualization of computer-generated interactive data on top of real-world elements, thus enhancing comprehension and intuition regarding educational content, often in mobile settings. While the application of AR to education has been widely addressed, issues related to performance interaction and cognitive performance are commonly addressed, with lesser attention paid to the limitations associated with setup complexity, mostly related to experiences configurating tools, or contextual range, i.e., technical/scientific domain targeting versatility. Therefore, this paper introduces ARPocketLab, a digital, mobile, flexible, and scalable solution designed for the dynamic needs of modern tutorship. With a dual-interface system, it allows both educators and students to interactively design and engage with AR content directly tied to educational outcomes. Moreover, ARPocketLab’s design, aimed at handheld operationalization using a minimal set of physical resources, is particularly relevant in environments where educational materials are scarce or in situations where remote learning becomes necessary. Its versatility stems from the fact that it only requires a marker or a surface (e.g., a table) to function at full capacity. To evaluate the solution, tests were conducted with 8th-grade Portuguese students within the context of Physics and Chemistry subject. Results demonstrate the application’s effectiveness in providing didactic assistance, with positive feedback not only in terms of usability but also regarding learning performance. The participants also reported openness for the adoption of AR in pedagogic contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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23 pages, 5802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Legibility of Arabic Road Signage Using Eye Gazing and Cognitive Loading Metrics

by Mohammad Lataifeh, Naveed Ahmed, Shaima Elbardawil and Somayeh Gordani

Computers 2024, 13(5), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13050123 - 15 May 2024

Viewed by 1069

Abstract

This research study aimed to evaluate the legibility of Arabic road signage using an eye-tracking approach within a virtual reality (VR) environment. The study was conducted in a controlled setting involving 20 participants who watched two videos using the HP Omnicept Reverb G2. The VR device recorded eye gazing details in addition to other physiological data of the participants, providing an overlay of heart rate, eye movement, and cognitive load, which in combination were used to determine the participants’ focus during the experiment. The data were processed through a schematic design, and the final files were saved in .txt format, which was later used for data extraction and analysis. Through the execution of this study, it became apparent that employing eye-tracking technology within a VR setting offers a promising method for assessing the legibility of road signs. The outcomes of the current research enlightened the vital role of legibility in ensuring road safety and facilitating effective communication with drivers. Clear and easily comprehensible road signs were found to be pivotal in delivering timely information, aiding navigation, and ultimately mitigating accidents or confusion on the road. As a result, this study advocates for the utilization of VR as a valuable platform for enhancing the design and functionality of road signage systems, recognizing its potential to contribute significantly to the improvement of road safety and navigation for drivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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13 pages, 858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

User Experience in Neurofeedback Applications Using AR as Feedback Modality

by Lisa Maria Berger, Guilherme Wood and Silvia Erika Kober

Computers 2024, 13(5), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13050110 - 23 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1298

Abstract

Neurofeedback (NF) is a brain–computer interface in which users can learn to modulate their own brain activation while receiving real-time feedback thereof. To increase motivation and adherence to training, virtual reality has recently been used as a feedback modality. In the presented study, we focused on the effects of augmented reality (AR) based visual feedback on subjective user experience, including positive/negative affect, cybersickness, flow experience, and experience with the use of this technology, and compared it with a traditional 2D feedback modality. Also, half of the participants got real feedback and the other half got sham feedback. All participants performed one NF training session, in which they tried to increase their sensorimotor rhythm (SMR, 12–15 Hz) over central brain areas. Forty-four participants received conventional 2D visual feedback (moving bars on a conventional computer screen) about real-time changes in SMR activity, while 45 participants received AR feedback (3D virtual flowers grew out of a real pot). The subjective user experience differed in several points between the groups. Participants from the AR group received a tendentially higher flow score, and the AR sham group perceived a tendentially higher feeling of flow than the 2D sham group. Further, participants from the AR group reported a higher technology usability, experienced a higher feeling of control, and perceived themselves as more successful than those from the 2D group. Psychological factors like this are crucial for NF training motivation and success. In the 2D group, participants reported more concern related to their performance, a tendentially higher technology anxiety, and also more physical discomfort. These results show the potential advantage of the use of AR-based feedback in NF applications over traditional feedback modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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22 pages, 11159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reviving Antiquity in the Digital Era: Digitization, Semantic Curation, and VR Exhibition of Contemporary Dresses

by Aldo Xhako, Antonis Katzourakis, Theodoros Evdaimon, Emmanouil Zidianakis, Nikolaos Partarakis and Xenophon Zabulis

Computers 2024, 13(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13030057 - 22 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1770

Abstract

In this paper, we present a comprehensive methodology to support the multifaceted process involved in the digitization, curation, and virtual exhibition of cultural heritage artifacts. The proposed methodology is applied in the context of a unique collection of contemporary dresses inspired by antiquity. Leveraging advanced 3D technologies, including lidar scanning and photogrammetry, we meticulously captured and transformed physical garments into highly detailed digital models. The postprocessing phase refined these models, ensuring an accurate representation of the intricate details and nuances inherent in each dress. Our collaborative efforts extended to the dissemination of this digital cultural heritage, as we partnered with the national aggregator in Greece, SearchCulture, to facilitate widespread access. The aggregation process streamlined the integration of our digitized content into a centralized repository, fostering cultural preservation and accessibility. Furthermore, we harnessed the power of these 3D models to transcend traditional exhibition boundaries, crafting a virtual experience that transcends geographical constraints. This virtual exhibition not only enables online exploration but also invites participants to immerse themselves in a captivating virtual reality environment. The synthesis of cutting-edge digitization techniques, cultural aggregation, and immersive exhibition design not only contributes to the preservation of contemporary cultural artifacts but also redefines the ways in which audiences engage with and experience cultural heritage in the digital age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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22 pages, 23271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Situatedness in Immersive Dam Visualization: Comparing Proxied with Immediate Approaches

by Nuno Verdelho Trindade, Pedro Leitão, Daniel Gonçalves, Sérgio Oliveira and Alfredo Ferreira

Computers 2024, 13(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13020035 - 27 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1667

Abstract

Dam safety control is a multifaceted activity that requires analysis, monitoring, and structural behavior prediction. It entails interpreting vast amounts of data from sensor networks integrated into dam structures. The application of extended reality technologies for situated immersive analysis allows data to be contextualized directly over the physical referent. Such types of visual contextualization have been known to improve analytical reasoning and decision making. This study presents DamVR, a virtual reality tool for off-site, proxied situated structural sensor data visualization. In addition to describing the tool’s features, it evaluates usability and usefulness with a group of 22 domain experts. It also compares its performance with an existing augmented reality tool for the on-site, immediate situated visualization of structural data. Participant responses to a survey reflect a positive assessment of the proxied situated approach’s usability and usefulness. This approach shows a decrease in performance (task completion time and errors) for more complex tasks but no significant differences in user experience scores when compared to the immediate situated approach. The findings indicate that while results may depend strongly on factors such as the realism of the virtual environment, the immediate physical referent offered some advantages over the proxied one in the contextualization of data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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23 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Application of Augmented Reality Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A Systematic Review

by A. B. M. S. U. Doulah, Mirza Rasheduzzaman, Faed Ahmed Arnob, Farhana Sarker, Nipa Roy, Md. Anwar Ullah and Khondaker A. Mamun

Computers 2023, 12(10), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers12100215 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4492

Abstract

Over the past 10 years, the use of augmented reality (AR) applications to assist individuals with special needs such as intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and physical disabilities has become more widespread. The beneficial features of AR for individuals with autism have driven a large amount of research into using this technology in assisting against autism-related impairments. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of AR in rehabilitating and training individuals with ASD through a systematic review using the PRISMA methodology. A comprehensive search of relevant databases was conducted, and 25 articles were selected for further investigation after being filtered based on inclusion criteria. The studies focused on areas such as social interaction, emotion recognition, cooperation, learning, cognitive skills, and living skills. The results showed that AR intervention was most effective in improving individuals’ social skills, followed by learning, behavioral, and living skills. This systematic review provides guidance for future research by highlighting the limitations in current research designs, control groups, sample sizes, and assessment and feedback methods. The findings indicate that augmented reality could be a useful and practical tool for supporting individuals with ASD in daily life activities and promoting their social interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extended or Mixed Reality (AR + VR): Technology and Applications)

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