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Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2018) | Viewed by 61290

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Prof. Dr. Paolo Bruschi

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Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Informazione, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Interests: design of analog and mixed signal integrated circuits; MEMS sensors; integrated thermal sensors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Massimo Piotto

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Guest Editor

Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Informazione, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Interests: MEMS sensors; multiphysics simulations; integrated thermal sensors; CMOS-MEMS technologies; electronics for sensors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The implementation of the many ideas underlying the Internet of Things (IoT) concept requires, for the future breeds of smart objects (smart-phones, smart-homes, smart-cloths, smart-robots), the capability to gain awareness of the surrounding environment through the knowledge of an ever-growing set of chemical and physical parameters. In this scenario, the availability of sensors with the characteristics of small size, low-power consumption, and low-cost is becoming one of the main priorities. These requirements find their natural fulfilment in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System) technologies, which allow integration of several sensors into a single chip (SoC) or a single package (SiP), along with complex electronic interfaces.

In spite of the undeniable success of a few notable examples of MEMS devices, such as inertial sensors, pressure sensors, and microphones, further research is required to keep the MEMS sensor market growing at the impressive pace of the last few years. Performances of well-established devices need to be improved to enable new applications, whereas sensors for quantities of major interest are still to be validated or even conceived.

This Special Issue aims to assemble an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the field of MEMS sensors, focusing on recent contributions representing a step forward in terms of key figures, such as resolution, repeatability, reliability, selectivity, power consumption and miniaturization. Welcome are also reserarch or review manuscripts that highlight the major challenges which researchers are going to face in the development of the future sensor generation. Topics include, but are not limited to:

-) Physical sensors based on MEMS technologies
-) MEMS microphones
-) Chemical sensors based on MEMS technologies
-) Sensor Systems on a Chip
-) Sensor Systems on a Package
-) Labs on Chip based on MEMS technologies
-) Non-silicon MEMS sensors
-) Functional packaging of MEMS sensors.

Prof. Dr. Paolo Bruschi
Dr. Massimo Piotto
Guest Editors

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Keywords

MEMS sensors
Micromachining technologies
Sensor System on a Chip
Sensors System on a Package
Sensor Packaging
Lab on chip
Smart materials for MEMS sensors
Smart sensors

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 3944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Calibration and Performance Control of MEMS with Applications for IoT

by Jason Clark

Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124411 - 13 Dec 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5201

Abstract

A systemic problem for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) has been the large gap between their predicted and actual performances. Due to process variations, no two MEMS have been able to perform identically. In-factory calibration is often required, which can represent as much as three-fourths of the manufacturing costs. Such issues are challenges for microsensors that require higher accuracy and lower cost. Towards addressing these issues, this paper describes how microscale attributes may be used to enable MEMS to accurately calibrate themselves without external references, or enable actual devices to match their predicted performances. Previously, we validated how MEMS with comb drives can be used to autonomously self-measure their change in geometry in going from layout to manufactured, and we verified how MEMS can be made to increase or decrease their effective mass, damping, and or stiffness in real-time to match desired specifications. Here, we present how self-calibration and performance control may be used to accurately sense and extend the capabilities of a variety of sensing applications for the Internet of things (IoT). Discussions of IoT applications include: (1) measuring absolute temperature due to thermally-induced vibrations; (2) measuring the stiffness of atomic force microscope or biosensor cantilevers; (3) MEMS weighing scales; (4) MEMS gravimeters and altimeters; (5) inertial measurement units that can measure all four non-inertial forces; (6) self-calibrating implantable pressure sensors; (7) diagnostic chips for quality control; (8) closing the gap from experiment to simulation; (9) control of the value of resonance frequency to counter drift or to match modes; (10) control of the value of the quality factor; and (11) low-amplitude Duffing nonlinearity for wideband high-Q resonance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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22 pages, 16732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiments on MEMS Integration in 0.25 μm CMOS Process

by Piotr Michalik, Daniel Fernández, Matthias Wietstruck, Mehmet Kaynak and Jordi Madrenas

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2111; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072111 - 30 Jun 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6371

Abstract

In this paper, we share our practical experience gained during the development of CMOS-MEMS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) devices in IHP SG25 technology. The experimental prototyping process is illustrated with examples of three CMOS-MEMS chips and starts from rough process [...] Read more.

μ

g and resonance frequency down to 4.35 kHz. Furthermore, the presented design techniques help to avoid several structural and reliability issues such as layer delamination, device stiction, passivation fracture or device cracking due to stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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19 pages, 7043 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Single Chip-Based Nano-Optomechanical Accelerometer Based on Subwavelength Grating Pair and Rotated Serpentine Springs

by Qianbo Lu, Jian Bai, Kaiwei Wang, Peiwen Chen, Weidong Fang and Chen Wang

Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2036; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072036 - 26 Jun 2018

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4316

Abstract

Optical coupling between subwavelength grating pairs allows for the precise measurement of lateral or vertical displacement of grating elements and gives rise to different types of displacement and inertial sensors. In this paper, we demonstrate a design for a nano-optomechanical accelerometer based on a subwavelength grating pair that can be easily fabricated by a single Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) chip. The parameters of the subwavelength grating pair-based optical readout, including period, duty cycle, thickness of grating and metal film, and the distance of the air gap, were optimized by combining a genetic algorithm and rigorous coupled wavelength analysis (RCWA) to obtain the optimal sensitivity to the displacement of suspended grating element and the acceleration. A corresponding mechanical design was also completed to meet the highly sensitive acceleration measurement requirement while considering the mechanical cross-axis sensitivity, dynamic range, bandwidth, and fabrication feasibility. This device was verified by both RCWA and finite-different-time-domain methods, and a tolerance analysis was also completed to confirm that it is able to achieve the extremely high optical displacement sensitivity of 1.8%/nm, acceleration-displacement sensitivity of 1.56 nm/mg, and acceleration measurement sensitivity of more than 2.5%/mg, which is almost one order of magnitude higher than any reported counterparts. This work enables a single SOI-based high performance accelerometer, and provides a theoretical basis and fabrication guides for the design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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13 pages, 4341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evaluation System for the Contact Electrification of a Single Microparticle Using Microelectromechanical-Based Actuated Tweezers

by Daichi Yamaguchi

Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1835; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061835 - 5 Jun 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2893

Abstract

The image quality of laser and multi-function printers that make use of electrophotography depends on the amount of surface charge generated by contact electrification on the toner particles. However, because it has been impossible to experimentally evaluate such amounts under controlled contact conditions using macroscopic measurements, theoretical elucidation of the contact electrification mechanism has not progressed sufficiently. In the present study, we have developed a system to experimentally evaluate the contact electrification of a single particle using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nanotweezers (microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)-based actuated tweezers). This system performs, in succession, (i) a contact test that makes use of the nanotweezers and three piezoelectric stages, and (ii) an image force measurement using the AFM cantilever. Using this system, contact electrification was evaluated under controlled conditions, such as the contact number and the indentation depth. In addition, differences in contact electrification due to the amount of external surface additives were investigated. The results reveal that a coating with external additives leads to a decrease in the amount of contact electrification due to a reduction in the contact area with the substrate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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22 pages, 10500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Low-Cost Vehicle Roll Angle Estimator Based on Kalman Filters and an IoT Architecture

by Javier Garcia Guzman, Lisardo Prieto Gonzalez, Jonatan Pajares Redondo, Susana Sanz Sanchez and Beatriz L. Boada

Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1800; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061800 - 3 Jun 2018

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4247

Abstract

In recent years, there have been many advances in vehicle technologies based on the efficient use of real-time data provided by embedded sensors. Some of these technologies can help you avoid or reduce the severity of a crash such as the Roll Stability Control (RSC) systems for commercial vehicles. In RSC, several critical variables to consider such as sideslip or roll angle can only be directly measured using expensive equipment. These kind of devices would increase the price of commercial vehicles. Nevertheless, sideslip or roll angle or values can be estimated using MEMS sensors in combination with data fusion algorithms. The objectives stated for this research work consist of integrating roll angle estimators based on Linear and Unscented Kalman filters to evaluate the precision of the results obtained and determining the fulfillment of the hard real-time processing constraints to embed this kind of estimators in IoT architectures based on low-cost equipment able to be deployed in commercial vehicles. An experimental testbed composed of a van with two sets of low-cost kits was set up, the first one including a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B, and the other having an Intel Edison System on Chip. This experimental environment was tested under different conditions for comparison. The results obtained from low-cost experimental kits, based on IoT architectures and including estimators based on Kalman filters, provide accurate roll angle estimation. Also, these results show that the processing time to get the data and execute the estimations based on Kalman Filters fulfill hard real time constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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18 pages, 24742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of a Dual-Mass MEMS Gyroscope with High Shock Resistance

by Yang Gao, Libin Huang, Xukai Ding and Hongsheng Li

Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041037 - 30 Mar 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5999

Abstract

This paper presents the design and implementation of a dual-mass MEMS gyroscope with high shock resistance by improving the in-phase frequency of the gyroscope and by using a two-stage elastic stopper mechanism and proposes a Simulink shock model of the gyroscope equipped with the two-stage stopper mechanism, which is a very efficient method to evaluate the shock resistance of the gyroscope. The structural design takes into account both the mechanical sensitivity and the shock resistance. The design of the primary structure and the analysis of the stopper mechanism are first introduced. Based on the expression of the restoring force of the stopper beam, the analytical shock response model of the gyroscope is obtained. By this model, the shock response of the gyroscope is theoretically analyzed, and the appropriate structural parameters are obtained. Then, the correctness of the model is verified by finite element (FE) analysis, where the contact collision analysis is introduced in detail. The simulation results show that the application of the two-stage elastic stopper mechanism can effectively improve the shock resistance by more than 1900 g and 1500 g in the x- and y-directions, respectively. Finally, experimental verifications are carried out by using a machete hammer on the micro-gyroscope prototype fabricated by the deep dry silicon on glass (DDSOG) technology. The results show that the shock resistance of the prototype along the x-, y- and z-axes all exceed 10,000 g. Moreover, the output of the gyroscope can return to normal in about 2 s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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4842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of a Virtual Microphone Array to Obtain High Resolution Acoustic Images

by Alberto Izquierdo, Juan J. Villacorta, Lara Del Val, Luis Suárez and David Suárez

Sensors 2018, 18(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18010025 - 23 Dec 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6245

Abstract

Using arrays with digital MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System) microphones and FPGA-based (Field Programmable Gate Array) acquisition/processing systems allows building systems with hundreds of sensors at a reduced cost. The problem arises when systems with thousands of sensors are needed. This work analyzes the implementation and performance of a virtual array with 6400 (80 × 80) MEMS microphones. This virtual array is implemented by changing the position of a physical array of 64 (8 × 8) microphones in a grid with 10 × 10 positions, using a 2D positioning system. This virtual array obtains an array spatial aperture of 1 × 1 m². Based on the SODAR (SOund Detection And Ranging) principle, the measured beampattern and the focusing capacity of the virtual array have been analyzed, since beamforming algorithms assume to be working with spherical waves, due to the large dimensions of the array in comparison with the distance between the target (a mannequin) and the array. Finally, the acoustic images of the mannequin, obtained for different frequency and range values, have been obtained, showing high angular resolutions and the possibility to identify different parts of the body of the mannequin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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5959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Experiments on the Step and Frequency Responses of a Three-Axis Thermal Accelerometer

by Yoshifumi Ogami, Naoya Murakita and Koji Fukudome

Sensors 2017, 17(11), 2618; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17112618 - 14 Nov 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3766

Abstract

The sensor response has been reported to become highly nonlinear when the acceleration added to a thermal accelerator is very large, so the same response can be observed for two accelerations with different magnitudes and opposite signs. Some papers have reported the frequency response for the horizontal acceleration to be a first-order system, while others have reported it to be a second-order system. The response for the vertical acceleration has not been studied. In this study, computational experiments were performed to examine the step and frequency responses of a three-axis thermal accelerometer. The results showed that monitoring the temperatures at two positions and making use of cross-axis sensitivity allow a unique acceleration to be determined even when the range of the vertical acceleration is very large (e.g., −10,000–10,000 g). The frequency response was proven to be a second-order system for horizontal acceleration and a third-order system for vertical acceleration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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4230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Precise Measurement of Gas Volumes by Means of Low-Offset MEMS Flow Sensors with μL/min Resolution

by Massimo Piotto, Simone Del Cesta and Paolo Bruschi

Sensors 2017, 17(11), 2497; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17112497 - 31 Oct 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4582

Abstract

Experiments devoted to evaluate the performance of a MEMS thermal flow sensor in measuring gas volumes are described. The sensor is a single-chip platform, including several sensing structures and a low-offset, low-noise readout interface. A recently proposed offset compensation approach is implemented obtaining low temperature drift and excellent long time stability. The sensor is fabricated by applying a simple micromachining procedure to a chip produced using the BCD6s process of STMicroelectronics. Application of a gas conveyor allowed inclusion of the sensing structure into a channel of sub-millimeter cross-section. The results of measurements performed by making controlled air volumes pass through the sensor channel in both directions at rates from 0.1 to 5 mL/min are described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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8020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Surface Protective Coating to Enhance Environment-Withstanding Property of the MEMS 2D Wind Direction and Wind Speed Sensor

by Kyu-Sik Shin, Dae-Sung Lee, Sang-Woo Song and Jae Pil Jung

Sensors 2017, 17(9), 2152; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17092152 - 19 Sep 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7293

Abstract

In this study, a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) two-dimensional (2D) wind direction and wind speed sensor consisting of a square heating source and four thermopiles was manufactured using the heat detection method. The heating source and thermopiles of the manufactured sensor must be exposed to air to detect wind speed and wind direction. Therefore, there are concerns that the sensor could be contaminated by deposition or adhesion of dust, sandy dust, snow, rain, and so forth, in the air, and that the membrane may be damaged by physical shock. Hence, there was a need to protect the heating source, thermopiles, and the membrane from environmental and physical shock. The upper protective coating to protect both the heating source and thermopiles and the lower protective coating to protect the membrane were formed by using high-molecular substances such as SU-8, Teflon and polyimide (PI). The sensor characteristics with the applied protective coatings were evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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11247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Electrochemical, Low-Frequency Seismic Micro-Sensor Based on MEMS with a Force-Balanced Feedback System

by Guanglei Li, Junbo Wang, Deyong Chen, Jian Chen, Lianhong Chen and Chao Xu

Sensors 2017, 17(9), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17092103 - 13 Sep 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8205

Abstract

Electrochemical seismic sensors are key components in monitoring ground vibration, which are featured with high performances in the low-frequency domain. However, conventional electrochemical seismic sensors suffer from low repeatability due to limitations in fabrication and limited bandwidth. This paper presents a micro-fabricated electrochemical seismic sensor with a force-balanced negative feedback system, mainly composed of a sensing unit including porous sensing micro electrodes immersed in an electrolyte solution and a feedback unit including a feedback circuit and a feedback magnet. In this study, devices were designed, fabricated, and characterized, producing comparable performances among individual devices. In addition, bandwidths and total harmonic distortions of the proposed devices with and without a negative feedback system were quantified and compared as 0.005–20 (feedback) Hz vs. 0.3–7 Hz (without feedback), 4.34 ± 0.38% (without feedback) vs. 1.81 ± 0.31% (feedback)@1 Hz@1 mm/s and 3.21 ± 0.25% (without feedback) vs. 1.13 ± 0.19% (feedback)@5 Hz@1 mm/s (n_device = 6, n represents the number of the tested devices), respectively. In addition, the performances of the proposed MEMS electrochemical seismometers with feedback were compared to a commercial electrochemical seismic sensor (CME 6011), producing higher bandwidth (0.005–20 Hz vs. 0.016–30 Hz) and lower self-noise levels (−165.1 ± 6.1 dB vs. −137.7 dB at 0.1 Hz, −151.9 ± 7.5 dB vs. −117.8 dB at 0.02 Hz (n_device = 6)) in the low-frequency domain. Thus, the proposed device may function as an enabling electrochemical seismometer in the fields requesting seismic monitoring at the ultra-low frequency domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated MEMS Sensors for the IoT Era)

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