buildup factor
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Tissue equivalent materials (TEM) are frequently used in research as a means to determine the delivered dose to patients undergoing various therapeutic procedures. They are used in routine quality assurance and quality control procedures in diagnostic and therapeutic physics. However, very few materials that are tissue equivalent have been developed for use in research at the low photon energies involved in diagnosis radiology. The objective of this study is to describe a series of TEMs designed to radiographically imitate human tissue at diagnostic photon energies. TEMs for adipose, cortical bone, fat, lung, and muscle tissues were investigated in terms of energy absorption and exposure buildup factors for photon energy range 15–150 keV and for penetration depths up to 40 mean free path. BUF was computed based on GP-fitting method. Moreover, we also compared some radiological properties, including the total attenuation and the energy-absorption attenuation, the effective atomic number, and the CT number at 30, 100, and 120 kVp. We found that SB3, Glycerol trioleate, and MS15 perfectly mimic cortical bone, fat, and muscle tissues, respectively. Additionally, AP6 and Stracey latex are good TEM for adipose and lung tissues, respectively. The results of this work should be useful in radiation diagnosis and dosimetry applications for the large physician researcher community.

Abstract The present study established a glass system with composition of 55B2O3 -30Pb3O4-(15 - x) Al2O3- xMoO3, where  x: (0≤x≤5 mol %) by melt quenching conventional method. The structure of the synthesized samples was examined by XRD and FT-IR techniques. It is found that the molybdenum acts as a modifier and enhances the change between BO3 and BO4 structural units. Increasing MoO3 in the sample improved the glass network compactness and enhanced the coherence of the glass network and the structure stiffening. Some physical parameters were studied with increasing MoO3 content in the samples such as Ri, ri, rp, dB-B average coordination number, number of bonds, field strength of (Mo+3), the floppy modes, the cross-linking density and effective coordination number and found to be enhanced. Increasing MoO3 dopingconcentration from 0 – 5 mol % produced corresponding increase in fast neutron effective removal cross section ΣR from 0.07127 – 0.10825 cm-1, total cross section for thermal neutrons σT from 68.35875 – 105.7526 cm-1, and an increment in the cold neutron scattering cross section. Furthermore, the influence of MoO3 doping in the glasses is such that the stopping powers (Sp) and ranges RCSDA /Rp of electrons, proton, alpha particles, and carbon ion follows the trend: (Sp)BPAM-G1 > (Sp)BPAM-G2 > (Sp)BPAM-G3 >(Sp)BPAM-G4 > (Sp)BPAM-G5, and(RCSDA /Rp)BPAM-G1 > (RCSDA /Rp)BPAM-G2 > (RCSDA /Rp)BPAM-G3 > (RCSDA /Rp)BPAM-G4 > ((RCSDA /Rp)BPAM-G5 respectively. On the other hand, the doping produced no noticeable differences in the equivalent atomic number and the exposure buildup factor of the glasses.

Abstract In this work, the shielding performance of (97.3–x)Pb–xCd–2.7Ag (x=10, 18, and 30) ternary alloys against neutrons and gamma rays has been investigated. The microstructure, thermal and mechanical properties of the ternary alloys were examined. The total mass attenuation coefficients, μ⁄ρ, for prepared alloys were determined at 662, 1173, and 1332 keV photon energies using NaI (Tl) scintillation detector. The theoretical values of μ⁄ρ were calculated using WinXCom program depending on the mixture rule. The estimated values were compared with the measured values for all investigated alloys. Atomic cross-section, σa, electronic cross-section, σe, effective atomic number, Zeff, effective electron number, Neff, and GP fitting parameters (b, c, a, Xk, and d) were determined. The exposure buildup factor, EBF, have been also calculated. Fast neutron attenuation for the prepared samples have been investigated via the macroscopic effective removal cross-section (∑_R) calculation. Also, thermal neutron attenuation has been evaluated via neutron scattering calculator. The results show that the alloys containing 10 and 30% Cd compromise between superior tensile strength and Young modulus, while the pasty range, heat of fusion and ductility decreased with increasing Cd content. Moreover, the prepared ternary alloys have a high attenuation ability for gamma rays as the standard Pb. The increase of Cd ratio also significantly enhances the thermal neutron attenuation by amazing way along with the increase in the attenuation rate of fast neutrons.

Melt quenching technique is used for preparing glasses with chemical formula (70P2O5)−(16−x)CdO−(14ZnO)−(xEr2O3), (x = 1–6 mol%) . These glasses were named Er1, Er2, Er3, Er4, Er5, and Er6, respectively. Photon buildup factors, fast neutron absorption, and electron stopping of the prepared glasses were examined. Glasses’ density was varied from 3.390 ± 0.003 for the Er1 glass sample to 3.412 ± 0.003 for the Er6 glass sample. The Buildup factor (BUF) spectra have relatively higher values in the Compton Scattering (CS) dominated areas compared to both Photoelectric effect (PE), and Pair Production (PP) dominated energy regions. The highest BUF appeared at the Er atom K-absorption edge, whose intensity increases as the molar concentration of Er2O3 in the glasses increases. The photon absorption efficiency (PAE) of the glasses increases according to the trend (PAE)Er1 < (PAE)Er2 < (PAE)Er3 < (PAE)Er4 < (PAE)Er5 < (PAE)Er6. Fast neutron removal cross-section, FNRC values of the glasses obtained via calculation varied from 0.1045–0.1039 cm−1 for Er1–Er6. Furthermore, the continuous slowing down approximation mode (CSDA) range enhances the kinetic energy of electrons for all glasses. Generally, results revealed that the investigated glasses could be applied for radiation shielding and dosimetric media.

Polymers are often used in medical applications, therefore, some novel polymers and their interactions with photons have been studied. The gamma-ray shielding parameters for Polymethylpentene (PMP), Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), Polyoxymethylene (POM), Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF), and Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) polymers were determined using the Geant4 simulation and discussed in the current work. The mass attenuation coefficients (μ/ρ) were simulated at low and high energies between 0.059 and 1.408 MeV using different radionuclides. The accuracy of the Geant4 simulated results were checked with the XCOM software. The two different methods had good agreement with each other. Exposure buildup factor (EBF) was calculated and discussed in terms of polymers under study and photon energy. Effective atomic number (Zeff) and electron density (Neff) were calculated and analyzed at different energies. Additionally, the half-value layer (HVL) of the polymers was evaluated, and the results of this parameter showed that PCTFE had the highest probability of interaction with gamma photons compared to those of the other tested polymers.

The gamma-ray shielding ability of various Bentonite–Cement mixed materials from northeast Egypt have been examined by determining their theoretical and experimental mass attenuation coefficients, μm (cm2g−1), at photon energies of 59.6, 121.78, 344.28, 661.66, 964.13, 1173.23, 1332.5 and 1408.01 keV emitted from 241Am, 137Cs, 152Eu and 60Co point sources. The μm was theoretically calculated using the chemical compositions obtained by Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX), while a NaI (Tl) scintillation detector was used to experimentally determine the μm (cm2g−1) of the mixed samples. The theoretical values are in acceptable agreement with the experimental calculations of the XCom software. The linear attenuation coefficient (μ), mean free path (MFP), half-value layer (HVL) and the exposure buildup factor (EBF) were also calculated by knowing the μm values of the examined samples. The gamma-radiation shielding ability of the selected Bentonite–Cement mixed samples have been studied against other puplished shielding materials. Knowledge of various factors such as thermo-chemical stability, availability and water holding capacity of the bentonite–cement mixed samples can be analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the materials to shield gamma rays.

This paper aims to study the radiation shielding characteristics and buildup factor of some types of granite in Egypt. The mass attenuation coefficient (MAC) for three types of granite (gandola, white halayeb, and red aswani) was experimentally determined, and the experimental results were validated by XCOM software. The relative deviation between the two methods does not exceed 3% in all discussed granite samples, which means that MAC calculated through the experimental and XCOM are in suitable agreement. The effective atomic number (Zeff) varies from 13.64 to 10.69, 13.68 to 10.59, and 13.45 and 10.66 for gandola, white halayeb, and red aswani, respectively. As well as the equivalent atomic number (Zeq) was calculated in a wide range of energy to deduce the exposure (EBF) and energy absorption (EABF) buildup factors for the studied granite materials. The linear attenuation coefficient (LAC), half-value layer (HVL), mean free path (MFP) were calculated at each investigated energy and showed that the most effective shielding ability at high energy was red aswani, while at low energy, the shielding ability was nearly constant for studied granites. The present study forms the first endeavor to obtain the radiation shielding properties of the studied materials to be used in practical applications.

This study aimed to investigate different types of glasses based on the 46V2O5-46P2O5-(8-x) B2O3-xCuO system in terms of their nuclear radiation shielding properties. Accordingly, five different CuO-doped vanadate glasses were investigated extensively to determine the necessary gamma shielding parameters along with effective conductivity at 300,000 and buildup factors. Phy-x PSD software was used for determination of these vital parameters. Furthermore, these parameters, such as half value layer, tenth value layer, and mean free path were investigated in a broad energy range between 0.015 and 15 MeV. The results revealed that the amount of CuO reinforced in each sample plays an essential role in determination of the shielding abilities of the samples. The sample with the highest CuO content had the highest linear attenuation coefficient and mass attenuation coefficient values. Additionally, the lowest mean free path, half value layer, and tenth value layer values were recorded for glass sample VPCu8. There was an inverse relation between the effective conductivity and effective atomic number and photon energy; that is, as energy increases, the effective conductivity and effective atomic number decreased rapidly, especially in the regions of low energy. Glass sample VPCu8 reported the highest values for both parameters. Moreover, glass sample VPCu8 had the lowest exposure buildup factor and energy absorption buildup factor values. Our findings showed that CuO-reinforced vanadate glass composition, namely 46V2O5-46P2O5-8CuO, with a glass density of 2.9235 g/cm3, was reported to have superior gamma ray attenuation properties. These results would be helpful for scientists in determining the most appropriate additive rare earth type, as well as the most appropriate glass composition, to offer shielding characteristics similar to those described above, taking into consideration the criteria for usage and the needs of the community. The results of this research will be useful to the scientific community in evaluating the prospective characteristics of CuO-doped glass systems and related glass compositions. CuO-doped glass systems and associated glass compositions have a wide range of properties.

The coconut dust gypsums were fabricated and investigated through shielding radiation properties, energy absorption buildup factor (EABF), and exposure buildup factor (EBF). The mass attenuation coefficient (mm) was investigated by using the Compton scattering technique at energy 662 keV and theoretical values of the mass attenuation coefficients were computed by using the WinXCom software program at different photon energies from 1 keV - 100 GeV. EABF and EBF values were computed by the Geometric Progression (G-P) fitting method at photon energies ranging between 0.015 and 15 MeV up to deep penetration of 40 mean free path (mfp). After the addition of coconut dust volume into gypsum board, it was found that mm values of the experiment and theory were generally in a good agreement. The results also indicated that the mm increased while the EABF and EBF decreased along with the increase in the coconut dust volume. The EABF and EBF values with photon energy and deep penetration for coconut dust gypsums were found at a minimum value, i.e., at low and high energy range whereas, at the intermediate energy range, it could become high. These results suggest that coconut dust gypsums can be used as shielding radiation building material.