vegetation phenology
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Climate warming has changed vegetation phenology, and the phenology-associated impacts on terrestrial water fluxes remain largely unquantified. The impacts are linked to plant adjustments and responses to climate change and can be different in different hydroclimatic regions. Based on remote sensing data and observed river runoff of hydrological station from six river basins across a hydroclimatic gradient from northeast to southwest in China, the relative contributions of the vegetation (including spring and autumn phenology, growing season length (GSL), and gross primary productivity) and climatic factors affecting the river runoffs over 1982–2015 were investigated by applying gray relational analysis (GRA). We found that the average GSLs in humid regions (190–241 days) were longer than that in semi-humid regions (186–192 days), and the average GSLs were consistently extended by 4.8–13.9 days in 1982–2015 period in six river basins. The extensions were mainly linked to the delayed autumn phenology in the humid regions and to advanced spring phenology in the semi-humid regions. Across all river basins, the GRA results showed that precipitation (r = 0.74) and soil moisture (r = 0.73) determine the river runoffs, and the vegetation factors (VFs) especially the vegetation phenology also affected the river runoffs (spring phenology: r = 0.66; GSL: r = 0.61; autumn phenology: r = 0.59), even larger than the contribution from temperature (r = 0.57), but its relative importance is climatic region-dependent. Interestingly, the spring phenology is the main VF in the humid region for runoffs reduction, while both spring and autumn growth phenology are the main VFs in the semi-humid region, because large autumn phenology delay and less water supply capacity in spring amplify the effect of advanced spring phenology. This article reveals diverse linkages between climatic and VFs, and runoff in different hydroclimatic regions, and provides insights that vegetation phenology influences the ecohydrology process largely depending on the local hydroclimatic conditions, which improve our understanding of terrestrial hydrological responses to climate change.

The accurate evaluation of shifts in vegetation phenology is essential for understanding of vegetation responses to climate change. Remote-sensing vegetation index (VI) products with multi-day scales have been widely used for phenology trend estimation. VI composites should be interpolated into a daily scale for extracting phenological metrics, which may not fully capture daily vegetation growth, and how this process affects phenology trend estimation remains unclear. In this study, we chose 120 sites over four vegetation types in the mid-high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, and then a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) MCD43A4 daily surface reflectance data was used to generate a daily normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) dataset in addition to an 8-day and a 16-day NDVI composite datasets from 2001 to 2019. Five different time interpolation methods (piecewise logistic function, asymmetric Gaussian function, polynomial curve function, linear interpolation, and spline interpolation) and three phenology extraction methods were applied to extract data from the start of the growing season and the end of the growing season. We compared the trends estimated from daily NDVI data with those from NDVI composites among (1) different interpolation methods; (2) different vegetation types; and (3) different combinations of time interpolation methods and phenology extraction methods. We also analyzed the differences between the trends estimated from the 8-day and 16-day composite datasets. Our results indicated that none of the interpolation methods had significant effects on trend estimation over all sites, but the discrepancies caused by time interpolation could not be ignored. Among vegetation types with apparent seasonal changes such as deciduous broadleaf forest, time interpolation had significant effects on phenology trend estimation but almost had no significant effects among vegetation types with weak seasonal changes such as evergreen needleleaf forests. In addition, trends that were estimated based on the same interpolation method but different extraction methods were not consistent in showing significant (insignificant) differences, implying that the selection of extraction methods also affected trend estimation. Compared with other vegetation types, there were generally fewer discrepancies between trends estimated from the 8-day and 16-day dataset in evergreen needleleaf forest and open shrubland, which indicated that the dataset with a lower temporal resolution (16-day) can be applied. These findings could be conducive for analyzing the uncertainties of monitoring vegetation phenology changes.

Phenological change is an emerging hot topic in ecology and climate change research. Existing phenological studies in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) have focused on overall changes, while ignoring the different characteristics of changes in different regions. Here, we use the Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS3g) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) dataset as a basis to discuss the temporal and spatial changes in vegetation phenology in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau from 1982 to 2015. We also analyze the response mechanisms of pre-season climate factor and vegetation phenology and reveal the driving forces of the changes in vegetation phenology. The results show that: (1) the start of the growing season (SOS) and the length of the growing season (LOS) in the QTP fluctuate greatly year by year; (2) in the study area, the change in pre-season precipitation significantly affects the SOS in the northeast (p < 0.05), while, the delay in the end of the growing season (EOS) in the northeast is determined by pre-season air temperature and precipitation; (3) pre-season precipitation in April or May is the main driving force of the SOS of different vegetation, while air temperature and precipitation in the pre-season jointly affect the EOS of different vegetation. The differences in and the diversity of vegetation types together lead to complex changes in vegetation phenology across different regions within the QTP. Therefore, addressing the characteristics and impacts of changes in vegetation phenology across different regions plays an important role in ecological protection in this region.

Urbanization can induce environmental changes such as the urban heat island effect, which in turn influence the terrestrial ecosystem. However, the effect of urbanization on the phenology of subtropical vegetation remains relatively unexplored. This study analyzed the changing trend of vegetation photosynthetic phenology in Dongting Lake basin, China, and its response to urbanization using nighttime light and chlorophyll fluorescence datasets. Our results indicated the start of the growing season (SOS) of vegetation in the study area was significantly advanced by 0.70 days per year, whereas the end of the growing season (EOS) was delayed by 0.24 days per year during 2000–2017. We found that urbanization promoted the SOS advance and EOS delay. With increasing urbanization intensity, the sensitivity of SOS to urbanization firstly increased then decreased, while the sensitivity of EOS to urbanization decreased with urbanization intensity. The climate sensitivity of vegetation phenology varied with urbanization intensity; urbanization induced an earlier SOS by increasing preseason minimum temperatures and a later EOS by increasing preseason precipitation. These findings improve our understanding of the vegetation phenology response to urbanization in subtropical regions and highlight the need to integrate human activities into future vegetation phenology models.