substitution error
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To facilitate our interactions with the surroundings, the human brain sometimes reshapes the situations that it faces in order to simplify them. This phenomenon has been widely studied in the context of reasoning, especially through the attribute substitution error. It has however been given much less attention in the field of perception. Recent research on the bat-and-ball problem suggests that reasoners are able to intuitively detect attribute substitution errors. Using a perceptual illusion drawn from the field of magic, we investigate the extent to which a perceptual form of attribute substitution depends on executive resources and can be detected. We also investigate the relationship between susceptibility to attribute substitution error in the flushtration count illusion and in a French adaptation of the bat-and ball problem. Finally, we investigate the link between the intuitive cognitive style (assessed by the Cognitive Reflection Test) and the susceptibility to the flushtration count illusion. Our results suggest that participants do not detect perceptual attribute substitution error, that this phenomenon could be independent of the executive resources allocated to the task, and could rest on mechanisms distinct from those that produce errors in reasoning. We discuss differences between these two phenomena, and factors that may explain them.

Abstract Background Recently, a next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based method has been used for the successful detection of circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) in various cancer types. Thus, the use of NGS on liquid biopsies will improve cancer diagnosis and prognosis. However, the low-allelic fraction of ctDNA poses a challenge for the sensitive and specific detection of tumor variants in cell-free DNA (cfDNA). To distinguish true variants from false positives, the characteristics of errors that occur during sample preparation and sequencing need to be elucidated. Methods We generated capture-based targeted deep sequencing data from plasma cfDNA and peripheral blood leucocyte (PBL) gDNA to profile background errors. To reveal cfDNA-associated DNA lesions, background error profiles from two sample types were compared in each nucleotide substitution class. Results In this study, we determined the prevalence of single nucleotide substitutions in cfDNA sequencing data to identify DNA damage preferentially associated with cfDNA. On comparing sequencing errors between cfDNA and cellular genomic DNA (gDNA), we observed that the total substitution error rates in cfDNA were significantly higher than those in gDNA. When the substitution errors were divided into 12 substitution error classes, C:G>T:A substitution errors constituted the largest difference between cfDNA and gDNA samples. When the substitution error rates were estimated based on the location of DNA-fragment substitutions, the differences in error rates of most substitution classes between cfDNA and gDNA samples were observed only at the ends of the DNA fragments. In contrast, C:G>T:A substitution errors in the cfDNA samples were not particularly associated with DNA-fragment ends. All observations were verified in an independent dataset. Conclusions Our data suggested that cytosine deamination increased in cfDNA compared to that in cellular gDNA. Such an observation might be due to the attenuation of DNA damage repair before the release of cfDNA and/or the accumulation of cytosine deamination after it. These findings can contribute to a better understanding of cfDNA-associated DNA damage, which will enable the accurate analysis of somatic variants present in cfDNA at an extremely low frequency.

<p align="center"><strong>Abstrak</strong></p><p>Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian </p><p align="center"><strong>Abstrak</strong></p><p>Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan kesalahan dalam pengucapan vokal Bahasa Inggris, penyebab terjadinya kesalahan dan jenis kesalahan yang terjadi. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan 224 kata yang sering salah diucapkan oleh mahasiswa.  Hal ini terjadi karena perbedaan vokal dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan Bahasa Inggris, ada beberapa vokal dalam Bahasa Inggris yang tidak dimilliki oleh Bahasa Indonesia sehingga mahasiswa seringkali menggantinya dengan suara yang mirip dengan Bahasa pertama mereka. Jenis kesalahan yang terjadi dalam pengucapan vokal Bahasa Inggris adalah kesalahan substitusi, kesalahan sisipan, dan kesalahan penghilangan. Kesalahan substitusi terjadi hampir 90% dari seluruh pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh responden.</p><p> </p><p>Kata kunci: kesalahan pengucapan, substitusi, sisipan, penghilangan</p><p align="center"><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p>This is a descriptive qualitative research which aims to describe the error pronunciation of English vowel, the cause of the error, and the type of the error. The result of this research shows there are 224 words which is frequently mispronounce by the students. This is caused by the discrepancies of the vowel words in English and in Indonesian language. Some of the English vowel words do not exist in Indonesian language as a result most of the students replace those words which have similar sounds to their native language. The types of error often happened are the substitution error, inserting error, and omission error. The substitutions error is the highest error made by the students. Nearly 90% of the mispronounce words is caused by the substitution error.</p><p> </p><p>Keywords: error pronunciation; substitution; inserting; omission</p>

Purpose: Many previous studies related to speech recognition of hearing-impaired elderly have found that the elderly have difficulty in monosyllable recognition under noisy situations, but there is still lack of their specific information to perceive the monosyllables in terms of error pattern. The purpose of the present study was to measure and analyze the prominent errors of consonant (C)- vowel (V) combinations as a function of noise levels in the hearing-impaired elderly. Methods: A total of twenty older adults with sensorineural hearing loss participated. While randomly presenting 122 syllables which consisted of the Korean CV and VC combinations under quiet and two signalto-noise ratios (SNRs, +6 and +3 dB) conditions, the participants were asked to respond the syllables heard in a way of either discrimination or identification. Error rate (or percent incorrect) and error patterns of the syllables were analyzed in each condition. Results: Substitution error of the initial consonant showed the highest rate regardless of the background conditions. As the medial phoneme, the vowel errors were decreased as the level of noise increased. In the final consonant, additional error rate of /k/ was abruptly increased as SNR decreased. Furthermore, it was an interesting pattern that the initial consonants such as /s/, /l/, and /t*/ had a high substitution error rate when combined with /i/, /o/, and /ɛ/ vowels, respectively. Conclusion: Based on the current results, the hearing-impaired older adults seem to have their unique error patterns although there is individual difference. We expect that these results will be fundamental data to understand characteristics of speech perception in the older adults at the monosyllables level.

We often fall victim of an illusory sense of control and agency over our thoughts and actions. Magicians are masters at exploiting these illusions, and forcing techniques provide a powerful way to study apparent action causation—the illusion that our action caused the outcome we get. In this article, we used the Criss-Cross force to study whether people can tell the difference between an action which had an impact on the outcome they get and one which has no impact. In the Criss-Cross force, participants are asked to cut to a card, and while they are genuinely free to cut the cards at any position, the cut does not affect the card they are given (i.e., they always get the top card). We investigate the psychological processes that underpin the success of this force. Experiment 1 ( N = 60) showed that participants cannot tell the difference between a forced and a controlled outcome. Experiment 2 ( N = 90) showed that contrary to common magicians’ knowledge, misdirection does not play a role in the success of the force. Finally, Experiment 3 ( N = 60) suggests that rather than misdirection, an attribute substitution error explains why people fail to understand that their action does not have an impact on the outcome they get. Debriefing also shows the importance of participants’ expectations in the perception of the trick, as well as the role of prediction of the outcome in participants’ sense of agency over the events.

The purpose of this study is to identify and systematize speech-behavioral situations (SBS) and speech-cultural scripts (scenarios) (SCS) of intentional paronymy, which traditionally include paronomasia and paronymic attraction, in the Russian linguocultural space. The object of study is paronyms used intentionally in various speech-behavioral situations of the Russian linguocultural space. The subject of the research is the originality of the system of speech-behavioral situations and the speech-cultural scripts caused by them provided that paronymy is intentionally used. The facts were investigated based on the Russian paronyms dictionaries. As a result of the work carried out, it was possible to show that in situations of intentional paronymy, two types of speech-behavioral tactics (SBT) can be used: the tactics of intentional paronymic replacement / substitution / error and the tactics of artistic design of speech. The author's conclusions are as follows: firstly, speech-behavioral situations of the intentional use of paronymy arising in the tactics of intentional paronymic substitution / error are a slip of the tongue, a misspelling, a mishearing, a misreading with possible speech-cultural scenarios of jokes, satire, irony, humorous or comic overtones, as well as overtones of condemnation, resentment, humiliation, ridicule, adventure, deception and others. In this case, only the wrong component of the paronymic opposition organized according to the principle of the „right” // „wrong” dichotomy is used. An exception is the mishearing situation, where both components of the paronymic pair are represented. Secondly, speech-behavioral situations arising in the tactics of artistic design of speech using paronymy are patronymic convergence and paronymic rhyming. These two speech-behavioral situations are accompanied by a speech-cultural script of enhancing the artistry and / or expressiveness of the text and the SCS of described assessment. In speech-behavioral situations of patronymic convergence and paronymic rhyming, at least two components of the paronymic series are represented, since intentional paronymy appears in these situations as a binary stylistic device.