hypothalamic nuclei
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The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a telencephalic structure well-connected to hypothalamic regions known to control goal-oriented behaviors such as feeding. In particular, we showed that the dorsomedial division of the anterior BNST innervate neurons of the paraventricular (PVH), dorsomedial (DMH), and arcuate (ARH) hypothalamic nuclei as well as the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA). While the anatomy of these projections has been characterized in mice, their ontogeny has not been studied. In this study, we used the DiI-based tract tracing approach to study the development of BNST projections innervating several hypothalamic areas including the PVH, DMH, ARH, and LHA. These results indicate that projections from the dorsomedial division of the anterior BNST to hypothalamic nuclei are immature at birth and substantially reach the PVH, DMH, and the LHA at P10. In the ARH, only sparse fibers are observed at P10, but their density increased markedly between P12 and P14. Collectively, these findings provide new insight into the ontogeny of hypothalamic circuits, and highlight the importance of considering the developmental context as a direct modulator in their proper formation.

The aim: to study the effect of melatonin on the ultrastructural state of the supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus of rats under immobilization stress.Materials and methods. The experiments were performed on non-linear male white rats weighing 200-220 g. The animals were divided into 3 study series, in each of which the biomaterial was collected at 2 p.m. and at 2 a.m. using electron microscopic method. Long immobilization stress was simulated by keeping rats in special plastic penal cages for 6 hours daily for 7 consecutive days. Melatonin (Sigma, USA, 99.5% purification degree) at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg, in 1.0 ml of solvent (0.9% ethanol solution on physiologic saline) was injected daily, intraperitoneally.Results. When the animals were kept under the standard light regime, the ultrastructural organization of the hypothalamic nuclei at 2 p.m. indicated their low functional activity in comparison with the studies carried out at 2 a.m. Prolonged exposure of rats to immobilization stress was reflected in a significant rearrangement of the ultrastructural organization of supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. The established changes can be considered as a manifestation of neurosecretory activity suppression, a decrease in neurosecretase production by hypothalamic neurons. Melatonin injections against the background of immobilization stress resulted in relative normalization of ultrastructural state of neurons of supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus of animals. In particular, studies at 2 a.m. revealed light neurosecretory cells containing a large nucleus, it was pyknotically altered. Karyolema invaginations, euchromatin dominance in the nucleus were observed. Heterogeneous changes were observed on the part of mitochondria. Enlarged tubules of granular endoplasmic reticulum were seen. At the same time, a small number of ribosomes and few hormonal granules were noticeable in neuroplasm. The mentioned picture of neurosecretory cells reflects a relative improvement in their electron microscopic state, which is evidenced by the appearance of neurosecretory granules. However, the ultrastructure of other organelles of the studied neurons indicates a depleted state caused by prolonged immobilization.Conclusions. 1. In animals under standard photoperiod conditions, the structural organization of supraoptic neurons of the hypothalamic nuclei during the nighttime of the experiment reflects the intensity of intracellular synthesizing processes (at 2 a.m.). A decrease in the activity of the structures under study is noted during the daytime. 2. Under immobilization stress, the ultrastructural organization of the above neurons indicates a pronounced disturbance of reactive nature with the signs of decreased functional ability of the structures and the phenomena of edema and destruction during the period of observation. 3. Melatonin injections against the background of immobilization stress led to a relative improvement in the ultrastructural state of the animals’ hypothalamic nuclei neurons, which is evidenced by the appearance of neurosecretory granules. However, the ultrastructure of other organelles of the studied neurons indicated a depleted state caused by prolonged immobilization.

GNPDA2 has been associated with human obesity and type-2 diabetes by using a GWAS approach. GNPDA2 is an enzyme involved in the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway, which is known to be important for nutrient sensing in various organism. Its counter enzyme, GFAT, has previously been shown to be important to the development of insulin resistance in diabetes. The implication of GNPDA2 and GFAT in metabolism is scarce and the effect of both enzymes over appetite and glucose homeostasis is unknown.Aim: Identify the role of GNPDA2 and GFAT in nutrient sensing circuits of the CNS that are important for the regulation of both appetite and glucose homeostasis.Methods: Using Long Evans rats, we administered either a GNPDA2 or GFAT antagonist or vehicle in i3vt.Key Findings:GNPDA2 is highly expressed in hypothalamus and adipose tissue, followed by muscle and liver. GNPDA2 is expressed in different hypothalamic nuclei (ARC, DMH, LHA, PVN). GNPDA2 is downregulated in hypothalamus under diet-induced obesity (as previously described), but GFAT expression does not change. Moreover, i3vt infusion of GNPDA2 or GFAT inhibitor resulted in increased c-Fos in areas related to appetite and glucose homeostasis control as PVN and DMH and to a lesser extent in the LHA and ARC. Central inhibition of GNPDA2 does not alter either acute food intake or body weight; however, GFAT inhibition diminished appetite and body weight due to visceral illness. In addition, central administration of the GNPDA2 antagonist, prior to an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test, resulted in glucose intolerance in comparison to vehicle without altering insulin levels.Significance: These results suggest that central GNPDA2 does not control appetite, but regulates glucose homeostasis.

The article reviews the results of studies of the morphofunctional state of neurons of the supraoptic nuclei of the rat hypothalamus under conditions of different duration of light regime. Under standard light regime in rats, a diurnal rhythm of morphofunctional activity of supraoptic nucleus neurons with maximum activity during daytime (before 2 p.m.) is recorded. In animals subjected to prolonged light exposure, more pronounced changes in the morphofunctional state of the supraoptic neurons of the hypothalamus at 2 a.m. than at 2 p.m. were established. Thus, the neuronal nucleus area was 94.08 ± 9.55 μm2 and was significantly greater than that in intact animals. The nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio of supraoptic hypothalamic neuron at 2 a.m. was lower than that in intact animals due to a decrease in specific nucleus volume. In comparison with the day period (2 p.m.), before 2 a.m. there was revealed a decrease of the neuron body area of supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus due to possible decrease of the area of nucleus and nucleolus of cells. This was the reason for the increase in the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio in the neurons under observation at night, which was 2.51 ± 0.023 units. Constant light regime did not cause inversion of the rhythm of morphofunctional activity of the neurons under study, the maximum values, as in intact animals, occurred in the daytime observation period.

Obesity is commonly associated with sympathetic overdrive, which is one of the major risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension and heart failure. Over the past few decades, there has been a growing understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying obesity development with central origin; however, the relative contribution of these molecular changes to the regulation of cardiovascular function remains vague. A variety of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and their downstream signaling pathways activated in distinct hypothalamic neurons by different metabolic hormones, neuropeptides and monoamine neurotransmitters are crucial not only for the regulation of appetite and metabolic homeostasis but also for the sympathetic control of cardiovascular function. In this review, we will highlight the main GPCRs and associated hypothalamic nuclei that are important for both metabolic homeostasis and cardiovascular function. The potential downstream molecular mediators of these GPCRs will also be discussed.