migration factors
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Emigration is one of the sorest problems in Lithuania. Emigrants from Lithuania most often fill the sector of unskilled labour in the target countries, one of which is elder care. Financial factors are considered the main motivation for emigration; however, migration is a complex phenomenon and requires a more nuanced investigation. The aim of this article is to analyse subjectively identified reasons of emigration from Lithuania to work in the elder care sector and motivation in choosing a particular country. The thematic data analysis of 13 semi-structured interviews revealed that emigration is motivated by an entirety of reasons: beside financial factors other „push“ (family, health) and „pull“ (knowledge about the country, family formation) factors are important. The move also is facilitated by the chain migration factors. The importance of the economic reasons for migration is revealed in cases of financial insecurity (loss of employment, threat of company bankruptcy, financial difficulties in the parents’ family etc.). Economic considerations become significant again, when comparing the job options and working conditions available to migrants. Work in the care sector for older people is seen as relatively easy, accessible and well paid. Other “push” factors were related to an unsatisfactory life situation, including stressful employment, and unsatisfying family relationships. The desire to get to know a foreign country, the opportunity to start a family or establish oneself there can work as „pull“ factors. The decision to emigrate was supported by the chain migration factors – encouragement, help and support of previously established immigrants. In some cases, it emerged as an independent factor of migration people emigrated, invited by relatives or acquaintances from abroad even though they did not initially plan to migrate. With the rapidly growing share of older people in Lithuania and the underdeveloped care services, the opportunity to retain potential emigrants by creating attractive working conditions for them in Lithuania, remains untapped. Policies should aim to improve the working conditions and opportunities in the care sector in Lithuania in order to encourage Lithuanians to stay in the country. In addition, regulations to better absorb (returning) migrants should be in place, given the ongoing movement between countries.

The author has made an attempt to determine the stimulating and restraining factors influencing both the dynamics and specifics of migration processes on the Crimean Region. The events of the Crimean spring have served as a key trigger of migration both to and from Crimea and in this sense the individual story of a migrating person allows for a deeper understanding of the reasons why people decide to leave Crimea or move to this region. This is the reason for the choice of the case-study method. The author systematizes the factors of migration. First of all, the factors of migration are divided into natural and social. All identified factors are divided into two large groups: stimulating and restraining. Among the stimulating factors natural factors prevail: climate, proximity to the sea, ecology and beautiful landscapes. It is important to note that they are joined by only one socio-cultural factor of migration: mental proximity and assessment of the prospects of the Crimean society in all its dimensions. Also all the stimulating factors are related to the current situation in Crimea. Among the restraining factors of migration the factors of social nature are predominant. They both arise in various spheres of social life and transform them. These include high prices for food, rent and purchase of real estate, services in the commercial sector, as well as sanctions and political and economic isolation. The restraining and stimulating factors of migration processes reflect both the problem areas in society and the directions of development.

We analyze the socio-cultural integration (SCI) of first generation immigrants as the outcome of economic integration and regularization. We focus on Greece for which similar evidence do not exist and report SCI levels and the factors that are conducive to them. We construct a simple socio-cultural integration index and analyze its variation against pre and post migration factors, using a sample of 200 first generation immigrants in Greece. Robust empirical estimation techniques are applied. Results reveal interesting findings with regard to immigrants’ types of adaptation to the host community. On a zero to ten scale, average SCI levels are estimated at 5.7  (± 2.5) which is high in absolute terms but low in terms of the degree (type) of integration. After controlling for the socio-demographic profile of the respondents, naturalization and their time living in Greece, we find that education and employment status are the most important determinants of socio-cultural integration.

The article discusses the problematic issues of preventing crimes committed by both international and internal migrants in the Republic of Kazakhstan, analyzes the causes and conditions that contribute to the commission of crimes by migrants, draws conclusions and provides recommendations for the development of new ways and means of preventing crime of migrants. The authors analyze the official statistics of migrant crime over the past three years (2017–2019) through the Information Service of the Committee on Legal Statistics and Special Accounts of the General Prosecutor’s Office of the Republic of Kazakhstan and pointed out the need for more detailed regulation of some quantitative and qualitative indicators of statistical information. It is concluded that it is necessary to differentiate statistics on criminal offenses committed by migrants. The authors substantiate the important role of improving the moral and legal culture of the population by involving the media and non-governmental organizations as a measure to prevent the crime of migrants. In order to reduce the crime rate of migrants, measures are needed that create favorable socio-economic conditions and a positive moral climate in society. Among the criminologically significant factors in the crime of migrants, the presence of negative phenomena, such as the existence of corruption in government bodies, is indicated. The authors propose to approve the temporary registration of migrants, which would be necessary when receiving various services and social assistance, and not an obligation, in case of violation of which legal liability arises.

The relevance of the problem under consideration is related to the expansion of distance employment both in connection with the development of digital economy and under the influence of the pandemic as a new phenomenon that can affect migration. The purpose of this article is to identify the possibility of the emergence of new anti-migration factors, new measures to consolidate the population in a particular territory in connection with the development of remote employment. In contrast to the existing studies of labor migration and remote employment, a synthesis of these processes is proposed, the understanding of which has not yet been reflected in scientific papers, as the analysis of the scientific works showed. Methodology of the study is based on the results of theoretical understanding of sociological surveys of Internet recruitment data for the reasons and directions of labor migration and distance employment. People who leave for other regions and are engaged in remote work are in general characterized by higher education, relatively young age and the desire to move to large cities with developed infrastructure. Nevertheless, they differ in the types of work performed. When working remotely, they are engaged in IT technologies, accounting, audit, and legal services. During labor migration, they work in construction industry, enterprises of raw materials extraction, and industrial production, i.e. jobs involving hard physical labor. At the same time young people are more focused on intellectual work and are not interested in physical work. It is facilitated by the focus of the current education system on the development of creativity and project activities with little attention paid to the development of physical abilities. The development of distance employment is just a new factor in the consolidation of the permanently settled population in the region. For this purpose, it is suggested to change the approaches to infrastructure development, which is confirmed by the experience, for example, of Innopolis and the proactive formation of individual labor careers, primarily for native population but also for the newly arrived people. Such a policy is most important for the federal entities of the Southern Federal District the reason for moving to which is a unique natural factor and a favorable climate.

Migration is an obvious response to political, economic, socio-demographic, and ecological crises. In recent decades, several crises have occurred in the Mediterranean region; consequently, migration has intensified, the geography of flows has been altered, and the roles of some countries within the Mediterranean migration system have rapidly changed. This paper aims to delineate an overview of migration flows in this region over the last 20 years, focusing on the new migration flows related to humanitarian crises. In doing so, the present study also examines similarities and differences between past and current migration factors that shape the decisions of individuals. Migration flows are closely linked to the needs and fears of European societies. Following this logic, and by analysing challenges related to demographic and geopolitical dimensions in the future scenario, this study discusses the necessity of new policy responses.

AbstractEuropean populations are ethnically and culturally diverse due to international migration. Evidence indicates large ethnic inequalities in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. This review discusses the burden of type 2 diabetes and its related complications, and the potential explanatory mechanisms among migrants in Europe. The current available data suggest that the rate of type 2 diabetes is higher in all migrant groups and that they develop this disease at an earlier age than the host European populations. The level of diabetes awareness among migrant populations is high, but glycaemic control remains suboptimal compared with Europeans. The culturally adapted lifestyle modification intervention trials to prevent type 2 diabetes mainly focus on South Asian adults in Europe. Diabetes-related microvascular and macrovascular complications remain a major burden among migrant populations in Europe. Earlier studies found higher mortality rates among migrants, but recent studies seem to suggest a shifting trend in favour of first-generation migrants. However, the extent of the burden of type 2 diabetes varies across migrant groups and European countries. Despite the higher burden of type 2 diabetes among migrants, the key underlying factors are not well understood mainly due to limited investment in basic science research and development of prospective cohort studies. We hypothesise that the underlying risk factors for the high burden of type 2 diabetes and its related complications in migrants are multifaceted and include pre-migration factors, post-migration factors and genetic predispositions. Given the multi-ethnic nature of the current European population, there is a clear need for investment in research among migrant populations to gain insight into factors driving the high burden of type 2 diabetes and related complications to facilitate prevention and treatment efforts in Europe. Graphical abstract

Syria has been the main country of citizenship of refugees in Germany since 2013. Syrians face numerous human rights violations in their country that can be accompanied by the experience of potentially traumatic events, loss and displacement. Along the migration process, refugees are exposed to various factors that can have an impact on mental health. The aim of this study is to investigate sociodemographic, war- and flight-related as well as post-migration factors as predictors of posttraumatic stress, depression, somatization and anxiety in Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress symptoms based in Germany. Data were based on the baseline sample of the “Sanadak” randomized-controlled trial. A total of 133 adult Syrian refugees participated in the study. A questionnaire covered sociodemographic and flight-related questions as well as standardized instruments for symptoms of PTSD (PDS-5), depression (PHQ-9), somatization (PHQ-15), anxiety (GAD-7), generalized self-efficacy (GSE), religiousness (Z-Scale), social support (ESSI) and mental health stigma (SSMIS-SF). Linear regression models were executed to predict mental health outcomes. Sociodemographic predictors (i.e., female sex, higher education) and flight-related predicting factors (i.e., variability of traumatic events) have a negative impact on mental health in Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress symptoms in Germany. Mental health stigma predicts worse mental health outcomes. Post-migration factors have a major impact on mental health, such as low income, lack of social support, low life satisfaction or a strongly felt connection to Syria. Somatization is an important manifestation of mental distress in Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress symptoms. Our study showed a range of factors predicting the mental health of Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress symptoms. Measures to foster mental health could be securing financial security, promoting gender equality and tailored psychosocial programs addressing mental health stigma, loss and social support networks.

This article focuses on the school-to-work trajectories of early school leavers in Sweden. I use sequence analysis of population-level registry data covering the first 10 years after compulsory school for 6404 early school leavers to identify four clusters of school-to-work trajectories: an exclusion trajectory characterized by not being in employment, education, or training; an education trajectory characterized by second-chance education and an increasing share of tertiary education; a precarity trajectory; and a career trajectory. Having an immigrant background or being a woman was associated with a lower likelihood of being in the career trajectory than having a non-immigrant background or being a man. Differences in the likelihood of being in the education trajectory between persons with immigrant and non-immigrant background could however be fully explained by parents’ education, if education level was measured relative to their country of origin. This highlights the importance of pre-migration factors for post-migration outcomes