brominated flame retardants
Recently Published Documents

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) presents the dual characteristic of containing both hazardous substances and valuable recoverable materials. Mainly found in WEEE plastics, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are a component of particular interest. Several actions have been taken worldwide to regulate their use and disposal, however, in countries where no regulation is in place, the recovery of highly valuable materials has promoted the development of informal treatment facilities, with serious consequences for the environment and the health of the workers and communities involved. Hence, in this review we examine a wide spectrum of aspects related to WEEE plastic management. A search of legislation and the literature was made to determine the current legal framework by region/country. Additionally, we focused on identifying the most relevant methods of existing industrial processes for determining BFRs and their challenges. BFR occurrence and substitution by novel BFRs (NBFRs) was reviewed. An emphasis was given to review the health and environmental impacts associated with BFR/NBFR presence in waste, consumer products, and WEEE recycling facilities. Knowledge and research gaps of this topic were highlighted. Finally, the discussion on current trends and proposals to attend to this relevant issue were outlined.

Abstract The most common and consequently analysed brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), tetrabromobisphenol S (TBBPS), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). As these persistent organic pollutants are widespread in the environment and have a number of harmful effects on human health, the production and use of most has been banned for several years. The aquatic environment is polluted by these compounds through their deposition from the atmosphere, sewage sludge, wastewater treatment plants, and landfills, and higher levels are found in areas with developed industry and agriculture and near landfills. Each compound also seems to show preference for specific compartments of the aquatic environment, i.e. water, sediment, or aquatic organisms, according to their physicochemical properties. The aim of this review was to take a closer look at the analysis of BFRs, as without reliable analysis we would not be able to determine their levels and distribution across the aquatic compartments and assess human exposure and health risks. Particularly worrying are the health risks associated with PBDEs in fish, whose levels generally exceed the permitted values.

Plastics containing brominated flame retardants (BFR) currently contain both “legacy” regulated and non-regulated BFR (R-BFRs and NR-BFRs), as evidenced by the increasingly lower correspondence over time between total bromine and R-BFRs content. The portion of substitutive NR-BFR present in the plastics and their toxicity and ecotoxicity properties are documented. Data relating to plastics and foam present in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), waste EEE, vehicles, textiles and upholstery, toys, leisure and sports equipment show how 88% of plastic waste contains bromine from NR-BFRs. BFR substances mentioned in the catalogs of the three main producers (Albemarle, ICL, Lanxess) and BFR on the official used list of 418 plastic additives in the EU were gathered and the toxic and ecotoxic properties of these compounds as listed in their ECHA registration dossier were compiled. Fifty-five preparations using 34 NR-BFRs substances, including polymers and blends, were found. Seventeen of these substances featured an incomplete dossier, 12 were equipped with a complete dossier, whilst 11 substances (including 2 ill-defined blends) should be reassessed. Eight substances have been notified for assessment by the ECHA as persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic, or as endocrine disruptors, including decabromodiphenylethane; 3 substances display functional concentrations (the concentration of additives that retards flame) exceeding the concentration limits classifying a waste as hazardous but are “reactive” (they bind to the polymer). The technical limit of 2 000 mg total Br/kg indicated for further recycling (EN 50625-3-1) relates to all brominated substances and is relevant in the sorting of all poorly classified new substances.