maternal behaviour
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Sows confined to farrowing crates are restricted in performing natural behaviour such as maternal behaviour. Loose-housing farrowing pens (LH) and farrowing pens with crates (FC) were compared regarding sows’ nursing behaviour via video analyses over four weeks per batch (one day per week). Nursing frequency was similar in LH and FC pens (1.25 ± 0.82 vs. 1.19 ± 0.75 nursings/sow/hour; p > 0.05). However, nursing duration differed between the two systems (LH: 5.7 ± 4.6 min vs. FC: 7.0 ± 5.0 min; odds ratio (OR) 1.168, p = 0.011). In LH pens, more nursing bouts were sow-terminated than in FC pens (OR 0.427, p = 0.001). The probability of sow-terminated nursing occurring increased from week 1 to week 4 (OR 3.479, adjusted p (padj) < 0.001), while that of observing unnursed piglets decreased from week 1 to week 4 (OR 0.301, padj < 0.001) and rose with increasing litter size (OR 1.174, p = 0.010). We conclude that nursing behaviour was affected by the farrowing system, with shorter nursing duration and more nursing terminations by the sow in LH than in FC pens. Since this corresponds to the nursing behaviour of sows in semi-natural conditions, it can be assumed that sows in LH pens are more likely to exhibit natural nursing behaviour.

The neuroendocrine regulation of rabbit maternal behaviour has been explored in detail. However, little is yet known about the hormonal regulation of aggression in concurrently pregnant-lactating does, a reproductive condition that prevails during group housing of rabbits on farms. Therefore, in this study we determined the relation between a) the levels of progesterone, testosterone, and oestradiol during lactation; b) the anogenital distance at artificial insemination; and c) the timing of grouping with the intensity of agonistic behaviour, published previously. We performed four consecutive trials, where three groups of eight does each were artificially inseminated on day 10 postpartum (pp) and grouped on either day 12, 18 or 22 pp. Using Dipetalogaster maxima, a reduviid blood-sucking bug, we collected blood samples during the pregnant-lactating phase (days 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23 pp) on one or two randomly chosen does per treatment group. Testosterone levels varied little across the pregnant-lactating phase, agreeing with results from pregnant-only rabbits, while progesterone levels increased from day 3 (=13 dpp) to day 7 (=17 dpp) and remained unchanged until day 13 (=23 dpp) of pregnancy. All oestradiol concentrations fell below the limit of detection. Overall, all concentrations were slightly lower in comparison to rabbit studies with pregnantonly does. The agonistic behaviour was not related to the respective hormonal concentrations at grouping. In conclusion, the time point of grouping does after artificial insemination (AI) in the semi-group housing system only had a weak influence on aggression and the hormonal profile did not indicate an optimum time for grouping.

This study was designed to explore the intergenerational roots of shame in the context of attachment. The sample comprised sixty-nine mothers with four- and five-year-old children (54 girls, M = 58 months) drawn from a study of parenting risk. The mothers (age range 25–48) were culturally diverse, educated, partnered, and middle to upper-middle class. Mothers completed the Adult Attachment Projective (AAP) (George & West, 2012) and children completed the Attachment Doll Play Assessment (ADPA) (Solomon et al., 1995). The dyad was also videotaped interacting with a realistic baby doll and maternal behaviour was rated using Britner et al.’s (2005) maternal scales. The authors developed a coding system to capture three shame-related variables from mothers’ narratives of parent–child conflict in response to one of the AAP stimuli (Child in Corner): 1) evidence of shame; 2) parental socialisation actions; and 3) parental efforts to regulate the child’s shame. Results showed that three-quarters of mothers referred to implicit or explicit shame, but socialisation depicting shame was unrelated to child attachment security. Most mothers described harsh socialisation practices and incomplete efforts to repair the child’s shame. Only mothers of securely attached children described socialisation actions to emotionally repair the relationship. The shame measures were partially validated with the maternal parent–child interaction observation rating variables. The utility and limitations of the new measures are discussed in terms of their potential usefulness to research, clinical assessment, and treatment.

Reproductive experience leads to long-lasting changes in anxiety-like behaviour and fear extinction, the laboratory model of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. For example, fear extinction is influenced by estrous cycle in nulliparous (no reproductive experience) female rats, but this effect is abolished in primiparous (one reproductive experience) females. It is unclear whether such changes are driven by pregnancy, maternal experience of caring for offspring during the postpartum period, or a combination of both experiences. The present study sought to determine the influence of maternal experience (i.e., exposure to pups and mother-pup interactions) on fear extinction in primiparous rats. In Experiment 1, we tested whether pup exposure is necessary to mitigate estrous effects on fear extinction in primiparous rats. Age-matched nulliparous rats, primiparous rats, and primiparous rats who experienced pregnancy but not pup exposure, underwent fear conditioning on day 1 (2 months post-parturition), extinction training during proestrus (high sex hormones) or metestrus (low sex hormones) on day 2, and extinction recall on day 3. Replicating past research, nulliparous rats showed impaired extinction recall when they were extinguished during metestrus compared to proestrus. In contrast, primiparous rats with and without pup exposure showed comparable extinction recall irrespective of estrous phase. In Experiment 2, we assessed whether naturally-occurring variation in mother-pup interactions predict future fear extinction performance and anxiety-like behaviour. During the first week of lactation, primiparous rats were measured for maternal behaviours toward pups. Primiparous rats were then tested on the light-dark box and elevated plus maze to measure anxiety-like behaviour and underwent a fear extinction protocol 1 month post-weaning. We found no significant correlations between maternal behaviour and fear extinction outcomes or anxiety-like behaviour. Our findings suggest that pregnancy, not maternal experience, mitigates the impact of estrous cycle on fear extinction. In addition, natural variation in maternal experience does not appear to contribute to variability in future fear extinction outcomes or anxiety-like behaviour in primiparous rats.

<p>Within childbirth there is a common and widely known explanation of labour and birth which describes and defines the birth process as that of stages and phases. The boundaries between the stages and phases have been determined by cervical dilatation with time parameters set to measure progress. The measurement of cervical dilatation is determined by a health professional and has resulted in an apparent inability of women to determine themselves whether they are in labour and their closeness to the impending birth. The aims of this thesis were threefold; the first was to critically examine the knowledge base of labour progress, so that the influences on knowledge development were fully understood. Through exploring the historical and theoretical development I found that the current knowledge has come from a male understanding of female anatomy and observational data constructed within a discourse of male, medical, scientific superiority. The second aim of the thesis was to explore the perspectives of women who had experienced a spontaneous labour and birth in order to determine whether the discourse of labour as stages and phases resonated with them. This leads to the third aim of providing a description of the women’s voices and perspectives based on their experiential knowledge of spontaneous labour and birth. A critical feminist ontology and feminist standpoint methodology guided the research which used in-depth one-to-one interviews with 18 women who had experienced a spontaneous labour and birth. Early thematic analysis was developed further through feedback from the participants supporting a coconstruction of knowledge. Analysis revealed that women considered the stages and phases of labour to be an abstract concept which did not resonate with their experiences of labour and birth. An important aspect of labour was having support during the process, in terms of both emotional and physical support from midwives, partners, family and friends present during the labour and birth. Women’s perceptions were dominated by their feelings and a linear pattern of feelings was discerned consistently amongst the participants. The emotions of labour were an important finding in this research but during the feedback process the women requested a scientific foundation to support the findings. I therefore explored the recent advances in theoretical understanding of the role of emotion, cognition, physiology and behaviour. Contemporary theories define emotions and neurohormones as bi-directional and intricately linked to behaviour change and physiological adaptations. I argue that the feelings women have described give an indication of an underlying hormonal influence and a directing of behaviour, necessary for labour to move towards birth. The hormones involved in labour also support maternal behaviour and attachment to the baby. I suggest a new conceptual understanding of labour as the integration of the mind, body and behaviour in which the feelings and hormones that initiate and sustain labour to birth also support the necessary adaptation and transition to becoming a mother. This integrated neurophysiologic concept will help midwives and other health professionals involved in maternity to recognise emotions as a key to understanding physiological labour and birth. It has also highlighted the importance of emotional and physical support during labour. Further research is necessary to test the hypothesis that women experience a similar range of emotions at similar times during a spontaneous labour and birth and to what extent the described emotions resonate with other women’s experiences.</p>

<p>Within childbirth there is a common and widely known explanation of labour and birth which describes and defines the birth process as that of stages and phases. The boundaries between the stages and phases have been determined by cervical dilatation with time parameters set to measure progress. The measurement of cervical dilatation is determined by a health professional and has resulted in an apparent inability of women to determine themselves whether they are in labour and their closeness to the impending birth. The aims of this thesis were threefold; the first was to critically examine the knowledge base of labour progress, so that the influences on knowledge development were fully understood. Through exploring the historical and theoretical development I found that the current knowledge has come from a male understanding of female anatomy and observational data constructed within a discourse of male, medical, scientific superiority. The second aim of the thesis was to explore the perspectives of women who had experienced a spontaneous labour and birth in order to determine whether the discourse of labour as stages and phases resonated with them. This leads to the third aim of providing a description of the women’s voices and perspectives based on their experiential knowledge of spontaneous labour and birth. A critical feminist ontology and feminist standpoint methodology guided the research which used in-depth one-to-one interviews with 18 women who had experienced a spontaneous labour and birth. Early thematic analysis was developed further through feedback from the participants supporting a coconstruction of knowledge. Analysis revealed that women considered the stages and phases of labour to be an abstract concept which did not resonate with their experiences of labour and birth. An important aspect of labour was having support during the process, in terms of both emotional and physical support from midwives, partners, family and friends present during the labour and birth. Women’s perceptions were dominated by their feelings and a linear pattern of feelings was discerned consistently amongst the participants. The emotions of labour were an important finding in this research but during the feedback process the women requested a scientific foundation to support the findings. I therefore explored the recent advances in theoretical understanding of the role of emotion, cognition, physiology and behaviour. Contemporary theories define emotions and neurohormones as bi-directional and intricately linked to behaviour change and physiological adaptations. I argue that the feelings women have described give an indication of an underlying hormonal influence and a directing of behaviour, necessary for labour to move towards birth. The hormones involved in labour also support maternal behaviour and attachment to the baby. I suggest a new conceptual understanding of labour as the integration of the mind, body and behaviour in which the feelings and hormones that initiate and sustain labour to birth also support the necessary adaptation and transition to becoming a mother. This integrated neurophysiologic concept will help midwives and other health professionals involved in maternity to recognise emotions as a key to understanding physiological labour and birth. It has also highlighted the importance of emotional and physical support during labour. Further research is necessary to test the hypothesis that women experience a similar range of emotions at similar times during a spontaneous labour and birth and to what extent the described emotions resonate with other women’s experiences.</p>

Non-human primates respond to the death of a conspecific in diverse ways, some of which may present phylogenetic continuity with human thanatological responses. Of these responses, infant corpse carrying by mothers (ICC) is the most frequently reported. Despite its prevalence, quantitative analyses of this behaviour are scarce and inconclusive. We compiled a database of 409 published cases across 50 different primate species of mothers' responses to their infants' deaths and used Bayesian phylogenetic regressions with an information-theoretic approach to test hypotheses proposed to explain between- and within-species variation in ICC. We found that ICC was more likely when the infant's death was non-traumatic (e.g. illness) versus traumatic (e.g. infanticide), and when the mother was younger. These results support the death detection hypothesis, which proposes that ICC occurs when there are fewer contextual or sensory cues indicating death. Such an interpretation suggests that primates are able to attain an awareness of death. In addition, when carried, infant age affected ICC duration, with longer ICC observed for younger infants. This result suggests that ICC is a by-product of strong selection on maternal behaviour. The findings are discussed in the context of the evolution of emotion, and implications for evolutionary thanatology are proposed.