Steel Bridges
Steel Bridges
Steel Bridges
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STEEL BRIDGES -II
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It was shown in the previous chapter, Steel Bridges - I, that many different types of steel
bridges may be designed, depending upon the span length, type of loading and approach
road conditions. In this chapter, the design of plate girder and truss girder bridges, which
are the most common type, are discussed in detail. An example design of truss girder
bridge is presented in appendix.
Design is an open-ended process, wherein different engineers attempting solution to the
same problem come up with different designs. In the conceptual design stage, decisions
regarding the structural systems to be used, span, spacing and configuration of the main
and sub-members of the system are made. The decisions made at this stage have a major
impact on the economy, efficiency and aesthetics of the bridge, although very little
information is available at this stage. Therefore, experience of the designer is very
important at this stage of design. An inexperienced designer may have to try different
options and carry out the design of each option to a greater level of detail, before
finalising one design for execution.
The Indian Standard Code of Practice for Steel Bridges (IS: 1915 - 1961) is based on the
Working Stress Method. Since Limit States Method of design is more rational and leads
to more efficient, economical design and uniform reliability, most international standards
have adopted it. Indian standards are also in the process of such a change. Hence, the
Limit States method has been followed in this chapter. Since Indian Codes on the Limit
States Method are just now evolving wherever necessary BS: 5400 - Part 3: 1982
provisions have been followed.
2.0 PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES
Plate girders became popular in the late 1800's, when they were used in construction of
railroad bridges. The plates were joined together using angles and rivets to obtain plate
girders of desired size. By 1950's welded plate girders replaced riveted and bolted plate
girders in developed world due to their better quality, aesthetics and economy. Fig. 1
shows the cross sections of two common types of plate girder bridges. The use of plate
girders rather than rolled beam sections for the two main girders gives the designer
freedom to select the most economical girder for the structure.
If large embankment fills are required in the approaches to the bridge, in order to comply
with the minimum head-room clearance required, the half through bridge is more
appropriate [Fig. 1(a)]. This arrangement is commonly used in railway bridges where the
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maximum permissible approach gradient for the track is low. In this case the restraint to
lateral buckling of compression flange is achieved by a moment resisting U-frame
consisting of floor beam and vertical stiffness which are connected together with a
moment resisting joint. If the construction depth is not critical, then a deck-type bridge, as
shown in Fig. 1(b) is a better solution, in which case the bracings provide restraint to
compression flange against lateral buckling.
2.1 Main plate girders
The design criterion for main girders as used in buildings, was discussed in chapters on
Plate Girders. In the following sections some additional aspects that are to be considered
in the design of plate girders in bridges, are discussed.
Generally, the main girders require web stiffening (either transverse or both transverse
and longitudinal) to increase efficiency. The functions of these web stiffeners are
described in the chapters on plate girders. Sometimes variations of bending moments in
main girders may require variations in flange thickness to obtain economical design. This
may be accomplished either by welding additional cover plates or by using thicker flange
plate in the region of larger moment. In very long continuous spans (span> 50 m) variable
depth plate girders may be more economical.
Initial design of main plate girder is generally based on experience or thumb rules such as
those given below. Such rules also give a good estimate of dead load of the bridge
structure to be designed. For highway and railway bridges, indicative range of values for
various overall dimension of the main girders are given below:
(a) Half through type plate girder bridge (b) Deck type plate girder bridge
Fig. 1 Common types of plate girder bridge
Plate girders
Deck
Plate girders
Deck
Bracings
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Overall depth, D: l/18 D l/12 (Highway bridges)
l/10 D l/7 (Railway bridges)
Flange width, 2b: D/4 2b D/3
Flange thickness, T: b/12 T b/5
Web thickness, t: t D/125
Here, l is the length between points of zero moment. The detailed design process to
maximise girder efficiency satisfying strength, stability, stiffness, fatigue or dynamic
criteria, as relevant, can be then carried out. Recent developments in optimum design
methods allow direct design of girder bridges, considering minimisation of weight/cost.
2.1.1 Detailed design of main plate girders in bridges
The load effects (such as bending moment and shear force) are to be found using
individual and un-factored load cases. Based on these, the summation of load effects due
to different load combinations for various load factors are obtained. Since bridges are
subjected to cyclic loading and hence are vulnerable to fatigue, redistribution of forces
due to plastic mechanism formation is not permitted under BS 5400: Part - 3. The design
is made based on Limit State of collapse for the material used considering the following:
Shape limitation based on local buckling
Lateral torsional buckling
Web buckling
Interaction of bending and shear
Fatigue effect
Shape limitation based on local buckling
Depending on the type of cross section (compact or non-compact) the variation of stress
over the depth at failure varies. A compact section can develop full plastic moment i.e.
rectangular stress block as shown in Fig. 2(a). Before the development of this full plastic
moment, local buckling of individual component plates should not occur. Thus the
compact section should possess minimum thickness of elements on the compression zone
such that they do not buckle locally before the entire compression zone yields in
compression. The minimum thickness of elements for a typical compact section is shown
in Fig. 3, where f
y
is to be substituted in SI units (MPa).
The section that does not fulfil the minimum thickness criterion of compact section is
defined as non-compact section. A non-compact section may buckle locally before full
section plastic capacity is reached. Therefore the design of such section is based on
triangular stress block wherein yielding at the extreme fibre, as shown in Fig. 2(b), limit
the design moment.
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The moment capacity of the compact and non-compact cross sections can be evaluated by
the following formulae:
where, f
y
- yield stress
Z
p
- plastic modulus
Z - elastic modulus
m
- partial safety factor for material strength (1.15)
) 1 (
/
a sections compact for f
Z M
m y p u
=
) 1 ( / b sections compact non for f Z M
m y u
=
f
y
Fig. 2 Design stresses
(b) Non-compact sections
(a) Compact sections
f
y
f
y
f
y
b
N
A
T
t
b 7T (355/f
y
)
1/2
28t (355/f
y
)
1/2
Fig. 3 Shape limitations for Plate girder
Limits for
compact section
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Even in the compact section, the use of plastic modulus does not imply that plastic
analysis accounting for moment redistribution is applicable. BS 5400: Part - 3 precludes
plastic analysis and does not allow any moment redistribution to be considered. This is to
avoid repeated plastification under cyclic loading and the consequent low cycle fatigue
failure. When non-compact sections are used the redistribution will not occur and hence
plastic analysis is not applicable.
Lateral torsional buckling
A typical bridge girder with a portion of the span, over which the compression flange is
laterally unrestrained, is shown in Fig. 4(a). Such a girder is susceptible to lateral
torsional buckling. Fig. 4(b) shows a laterally buckled view of a portion of the span. The
displacements at mid span, where the beam is laterally restrained, will be only vertical, as
shown in Fig. 4(c). A part of the beam between restraints can translate downwards and
sideways and rotate about shear centre [Fig. 4(d)]. Failure may then be governed by
lateral torsional buckling. This type of failure depends on the unrestrained length of
compression flange, the geometry of cross section, moment gradient etc. The procedure
in detail for calculating the value of the limiting compressive stress is given in chapters
on laterally unrestrained beams.
Web buckling
The web of plate girders resist the shear in the three modes, namely (i) pure shear, (ii)
tension field action and (iii) that due to formation of collapse mechanism. These are
discussed in detail in the chapters on plate girders. They are presented briefly below:
The elastic critical shear strength of a plate girder is given by
where,
where t, d and a are the web thickness, depth and distance between vertical stiffeners,
respectively.
The elastic local buckling of the web in shear does not lead to collapse Limit State, since
the web experiences stable post-buckling behaviour. In mode (ii), a tension field develops
in the panel after shear buckling. In mode (iii) the maximum shear capacity is reached,
when pure shear stress in mode (i) and the membrane stress, p
t
in mode (ii) cause yielding
( )
) 3 (
1 12
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
t
E
k q
c
0 . 1 34 . 5 4
0 . 1 4 34 . 5
2
< |
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
d
a
when
a
d
k
d
a
when
a
d
k
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of the panel and plastic hinges in the flanges. This is discussed in detail in the chapters on
plate girders.
Lateral restraints
l/2
(a) Girder with lateral restraints at supports
and mid-span section
l/2
(b) View showing lateral torsional buckling
h
(d) Section between restraints
v
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
) 5 (
2
3 4
3 4
1
) ( 264 . 5
3 4
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
(
(
+ +
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=
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.
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>
(
(
(
+
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.
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+ =
|
.
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\
|
y
c
y
t
fw
y
u
y
t
fw
y
t
y
t
fW
y
c
y
u
y
t
fw
q
q
Sin
q
p
a
d
m
q
q
Sin
q
p
d
a
m If
Sin Cot
q
p
f
p
m Sin
q
q
q
q
Sin
q
p
d
a
m If
yw
p
fw
f t d
M
m
2
=
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Fatigue effect
Under cyclic load, experienced by bridges, flaws in tension zone lead to progressively
increasing crack and finally failure, eventhough stresses are well within the static strength
of the material. It may be low cycle fatigue, due to stress ranges beyond yielding or high
cycle fatigue, at stresses below the elastic limit. IS: 1024 gives the guide line for
evaluating fatigue strength of welded details, that may be used to evaluate the fatigue
strength.
Stress concentration may lead to premature cracking near bracing stiffener and shear
connector welds. Proper detailing of connections is needed to favourably increase design
life of plate girders.
2.2 Lateral bracing for plate girders
Plate girders have a very low torsional stiffness and a very high ratio of major axis to
minor axis moment of inertia. Thus, when they bend about major axis, they are very
prone to lateral-torsional instability as shown in Fig. 6(a). Adequate resistance to such
instability has to be provided during construction. In the completed structure, the
compression flange is usually stabilised by the deck. If the unrestrained flange is in
compression, distorsional buckling, Fig 6(b), is a possible mode of failure and such cases
have to be adequately braced. Thus, lateral bracings are a system of cross frames and
M
R
Fig. 5 Shear - Moment capacity interaction diagram
Moment capacity
Shear
capacity
M
R
/ 2
M
D
V
D
V
R
/ 2
V
R
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bracings located in the horizontal plane at the compression flange of the girder, in order
to increase lateral stability.
Loads that act transverse on the plate girders also cause the lateral bending and the major
contribution is from wind loads. Since plate girders can be very deep, increase in girder
depth creates a larger surface area over which wind loads can act. This, in addition to
causing lateral bending, contributes to instability of compression flange of the girder.
Hence, design of lateral bracing should take account of this effect also.
Triangulated bracing as shown in Fig. 1(b) is provided for deck type of plate girder
bridges to increase lateral stability of compression flange. But, it can not be adopted for
the half-through or through girder bridges because it interferes with functions of the
bridge. In these cases, the deck is designed as a horizontal beam providing restraint
against translation at its level and the flange far away from the deck is stabilised by U-
frame action as shown in Fig. 1(a). The degree of lateral restraint provided to the
compression flange by U-frame action depends upon the transverse member, the two
webs of the main girder (including any associated vertical stiffener) and their
connections. In this case, the effective length of a compression flange is usually
Compression
flange
Fig. 6 Modes of instability of plate girders
(b) Distorsional
buckling
(a) Lateral torsional
buckling
Tension flange
Tension flange
Compression
flange
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calculated similar to the theory of beams on elastic foundations, the elastic supports being
the U-frames.
3.0 TRUSS BRIDGES
Truss Girders, lattice girders or open web girders are efficient and economical structural
systems, since the members experience essentially axial forces and hence the material is
fully utilised. Members of the truss girder bridges can be classified as chord members and
web members. Generally, the chord members resist overall bending moment in the form
of direct tension and compression and web members carry the shear force in the form of
direct tension or compression. Due to their efficiency, truss bridges are built over wide
range of spans. Truss bridges compete against plate girders for shorter spans, against box
girders for medium spans and cable-stayed bridges for long spans. Some of the most
commonly used trusses suitable for both road and rail bridges are illustrated in Fig. 7.
(a) Warren truss
Fig. 7 Some of the trusses that are used in steel bridges
(e) Varying depth
Warren truss
(d) Double Warren truss
(b) Howe truss
(c) Pratt truss
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For short and medium spans it is economical to use parallel chord trusses such as Warren
truss, Pratt truss, Howe truss, etc. to minimise fabrication and erection costs. Especially
for shorter spans the warren truss is more economical as it requires less material than
either the Pratt or Howe trusses. However, for longer spans, a greater depth is required at
the centre and variable depth trusses are adopted for economy. In case of truss bridges
that are continuous over many supports, the depth of the truss is usually larger at the
supports and smaller at midspan.
As far as configuration of trusses is concerned, an even number of bays should be chosen
in Pratt and modified Warren trusses to avoid a central bay with crossed diagonals. The
diagonals should be at an angle between 50
and 60