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ESSENTIALS

Applied Physics

ESSENTIALS OF Applied Physics

A FOUNDATION COURSE FOR TECHNICAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND

ENGINEERING STUDENTS

By

ROYAL M. FRYE,

Ph.D.

Professor of Physics, Boston University

NEW YORK

P R E

H A

L L

INC.

1947

COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY

PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
70 FIFTH AVENUE,

NEW YORK

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM, BY MIMEOGRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES Of AMERICA

Preface

a prerequisite for courses in the curriculum of junior colleges, evening engineering schools, technical institutes, and advanced trade schools, owing to the fundamental position of the subject in all branches of engineering work. This book is one of a series of applied science textbooks designed to meet the needs of schools where a more concise course is given than is found in the
Physics
is

average college physics textbook, and where numerous topics not found in a preparatory course in physics are essential. The orthodox arrangement of, first, mechanics, then sound, heat,
electricity,

and

light

is

followed.

Numerous

illustrative

problems

are completely worked out.

A summary of the irreducible minimum

of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry necessary for a clear understanding of physics is included in the appendices.
light have been employed, while at the advantage of the wave theory of light has been retained. The electron current is used exclusively, rather than the conventional positive current. The practical electrical units are used instead of the two c.g.s. electrical systems of units. As preparation

Modern viewpoints on
full

same time the

for this, the kilogram-meter-second system, as well as the English system of units, is used in mechanics. Likewise the kilogram-calorie

used instead of the gram-calorie. This work is the outgrowth of the author's experience in teaching engineering physics to many groups of students in evening engineering schools. The material was developed and tested in the class room over a period of many years. It has proven effective for students whose needs for practical and applied knowledge of mechanics, heat, light, and electricity were paramount.
is

ACKNOWLED9MENTS
The pen sketches at the heads of the chapters and some of those in the body of the text are the contributions of Louise A. Frye. The diagrams, in addition to many of the pen sketches, were done by
Ralph E. Wellings.

great

many

of the illustrative problems, as

vi

PREFACE

well as the index, were prepared by Virginia M. Brigham, who also typed the manuscript. The author is indebted to Robert E. Hodgdon
for

numerous suggestions made during the course

of

many

years

association in the teaching of the physics of engineering. It is impossible for the author to make adequate acknowledge-

ment
he
is

to a long line of predecessors in the field of physics to

whom

indebted.

ROYAL M. FRYE
Boston

Contents

CHAPTER

PACE

1.

PREFACE INTRODUCTION Why study physics? What

NEWTON'S LAWS

V
1

is

the territory of physics?

Why

is

physics the basis of all engineering training? Physical theories. Units.

2.

Physical facts.

Newton's first law. Technical terms. Newton's second law. Newton's third law. Examples of forces which do and do not illustrate Newton's third law. Newton's law of gravitation. How the law was discovered.
Historical.
3.

FORCE; WORK; ENERGY; POWER

Forces.

14
Illustrations of

Work. Energy; Conservation

Potential energy.

of energy.

energy. energy.
4.

Kinetic energy.

Power.

Units of

EFFICIENCY; MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION; SIMPLE MACHINES

Efficiency.

...

23

advantage. Simple machines; compound machines. The lever. The pulley. The inclined plane. The jackscrew. The hydraulic press. PresPressure energy.

Mechanical

Coefficient

of

friction.

sure.
5.

FLUIDS
Density and specific gravity. Pascal's Hydrostatic pressure. Buoyant force; Archimedes'
Boyle's law.
principle. principle.

36

Determination of

specific gravity.

Bernoulli's principle.

'

6.

ELASTICITY
Elasticity.
rods.
Stress.

45
Strain.

Modulus

Bulk modulus. Shear modulus.

Ultimate strength.

of elasticity. Hooke's law. Bending of beams; twisting of

7,

VECTORS
Scalars and vectors. The triangle method of adding vectors. The parallelogram method of adding vectors. Resolution of forces
into components.

53

Properties of certain triangles.

vii

viii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
8.

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER OF GRAVITY

...

PACE

64

Translatory versus rotatory motion. Causes of motion. Moment of force. Equilibrium. Rules for solving an equilibrium problem.

Center of gravity.
9.

ACCELERATION
More general conditions. Acceleration. Uniform acceleration. The two fundamental equations. Graphical representation. Derived equations. Summary of equations. The acceleration of
gravity.

73

Hints concerning the solution of problems involving uniform acceleration.

. .

10.

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

Velocities

83

and accelerations are vector quantities. Projectiles. A simple 'projectile problem. A more general projectile problem.
Centripetal acceleration.
11.

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

Newton's second law. Formulation of Newton's second law. Mass. Inertia. Engineering units and absolute units. Systems of units. Kinetic energy.
of acceleration.

90

The cause

12.

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

Angular speed. Rotatory motion. Angular velocity. Equations of angular acceleration. Relations between linear magnitudes on the circumference and the corresponding
Units of angle.
angular magnitudes at the center.

103

The gyroscope.
Ill

13.

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
Moment
Units of
of inertia.

Derivation of formula of

moment

of inertia.

moment
of inertia

Moment
14.

of inertia. Work and energy of rotation. about axis other than center of gravity.

CONSERVATION LAWS
General survey of the field of mechanics. Impulse and momentum. Conservation of momentum. Conservation of angular momentum. Illustrations. Variation of mass with speed. "Law of conservation of mass" no longer held to be true. Conservation
of energy.

119

15.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION; SIMPLE PENDULUM;

'

COMPOUND PENDULUM

126

Radial acceleration. Simple harmonic motion. The velocity in simple harmonic motion. The acceleration in simple harmonic motion. Technical terms associated with simple harmonic motion. Force in simple harmonic motion. The simple pendulum. The physical or compound pendulum. Derivation of fundamental

lum equation

equation of the compound pendulum. Use of compound penduto measure moments of inertia. Energy of a body executing simple harmonic motion.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
16.

ix

PAGE

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Essential characteristics of a

139

wave transmitting medium. Trans-

verse waves. Longitudinal waves. Technical terms. Reflection. Refraction. Diffraction. Interference. Polarization. Stationary

waves.
17.

SOUND
No sound in a vacuum. Speed of sound. Dependence of speed of sound on temperature. Pitch, loudness, and quality. Harmonics. The Doppler effect. Reflection of sound.
Definitions.

148

Sound represents energy.

of sound.

Time

of reverberation.

Diffraction

Interference of sound.

Kundt's tube.

Organ

pipes.

Violin strings.
18.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE: THE TWO LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

as a form of energy. Theoretical basis of temperature. Conversion of energy of motion into heat. Orderly motion tends to become chaotic, but chaotic motion does not tend to become orderly. Distinction between heat and temperature. Properties that depend on temperature. Temperature scales. How to change from one scale to another. The first two laws of thermodynamics. Generalization of the second law. Entropy; efficiency of a heat engine.

161

Heat

19.

HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction; ComNumerical of conduction. heat values of of transfer by putation More complicated cases. Convection. heat conductivities. Radiation. Computation of transfer of heat by radiation. An Perfect reflectors and perfect illustration of heat insulation.

170
transfer.

Three general methods of heat

absorbers.
20.

Thermal equilibrium.
178
of
solids.

EXPANSION
Linear expansion Balance wheel on a watch.
liquids.

Coefficients

of

linear

expansion.

Volume expansion

of solids

and
184

Volume expansion
heat.
is

of gases.

21.

CALORIMETRY
Measurement of matter. Energy
point diagram.
Definition of specific heat. required to separate molecules.

States of

The

triple

Artificial refrigeration.

Heat

of vaporization.

Heat
22.

of fusion.

MAGNETISM
theory. magnetism. Elemetary earth as a magnet. Magnetic lines of force. Quantitative aspects of magnetism. Demagnetization. Additional evidence of the identification of magnetism with arrangement of elementary
facts of

192

The underlying

The

magnets. Magnetism not confined to iron.

x
CHAPTER
23.

CONTENTS
PAGE

STATIC ELECTRICITY
atoms are put together. Conductors and insulators. Static Coulomb's electrostatic law. Condensers; capacielectricity. tance. Voltage. Comparison of magnetic and electrostatic effects.

202

How

24.

ELECTRICITY IN MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

210

Electric currents. Drift speed of the electrons versus signal speed. Electromotive force. Ohm's law. Distinction between electroResistivity. Heat produced by an Hot wire ammeters. Electric light. Electric power. Thermoelectricity. Some practical aspects of an electric

motive force and voltage.

electric current.

circuit.

25.

VOLTAIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Voltaic
cells.

221

Dry

cells.

Storage batteries.
Series

Chemical

effect of the

electric current. in parallel

Hill diagram.

and

parallel circuits.

Cells

and

in series.

26.

MAGNETISM AND THE ELECTRIC CURRENT

Some
of the effects of
fields

231

Magnetic

an around a current

electric current are not inside the wire.

in a wire.
fields

The electromagnet.

The electric bell. Comparison of by magnet poles. Flux density.

produced by currents and Flux. Dimensions. Effect of a

magnetic field on a current. Comparison of forces exerted by a magnetic field on poles and currents. Motors and meters. Induced electromotive force. Induction coil; transformer. Inductance. Lenz's law.
27.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
Qualitative description of an alternating current. Mechanical analogies. Effect of resistance alone. Effect of inductance alone.
Effect of capacitance alone.

249

The

joint effect of resistance, in-

ductance, and capacitance. The rotating vector diagram. The

alternating current equation. Resonance. current meters. Parallel circuits.
28.

Power.

Alternating

RADIO;
Speed
sound.

RADAR

260

message versus speed of Four reasons why radio at one time seemed impossible. Amplification by means of the radio tube. Oscillation produced by the radio tube. Modulation proElectromagnetic waves.

of transmission of a telephone

duced by the radio tube.

tube.

Alternating current radio Radar in war. Radar in peace.

Rectification produced by the radio sets. Electronics, Radar.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
29.

xl

PAGE

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

OF LIGHT
Brief history of the theory of light. The "wave mechanics" theory of the nature of light. Meaning of "frequency" and "wave

271

length" in photon theory. Speed of light. Electromagnetic radiation. Units of length. Photometry. Reflection of light. Images. Curved mirrors. Refraction of light.
30.

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Lenses.

283

image by a converging lens. Algebraic relationships. Formation of virtual images. Dispersion by refraction. Diffraction and interference. Dispersion by difof a real

Formation

fraction.

Measurement

of

"wave lengths."

Spectra. Polarization

of light.

APPENDIX
factors

1:

Common

physical constants and conversion

293
.
.

295 APPENDIX 2: Significant figures and computation rules 299 APPENDIX 3: Abbreviated multiplication and division 301 APPENDIX 4: Summary of essentials of algebra 304 APPENDIX 5: Geometrical propositions essential to this book APPENDIX 6: Definition of sine and cosine; sine law, cosine law 305 307 APPENDIX 7: Table of sines and cosines 308 APPENDIX 8: Three-place logarithm table .311 APPENDIX 9: The two fundamental theories of physics 313 APPENDIX 10: List of symbols used in this book 315 INDEX
.
.

....
.

....

ESSENTIALS

Applied Physics

CHAPTER

Introduction

1-1.

Why

Study Physics?

By

far the larger

group of subjects

is that containing history, and philosophy, which desociology, languages, biology, psychology, on their direct relations to living, intellifor their importance pend

in the curriculum of the average school

gent beings. The smaller group contains, for example, physics, chemall of which deal with inanimate istry, astronomy, and geology, nature; we study these either out of a sheer desire for knowledge for its own sake, or because of possible applications of this informa*-2^ tion in our daily lives. Mathematics occupies something of a middle position; it consists of a set of rules in accordance with which a series of operations are performed, but in this case it is we who devise the rules. All we ask of these rules is consistency. Most of us hope that the mathematical rules will also be usefill (and it is true that they usually are) yet there is gossip to the effect that certain mathematicians have been guilty of praying that no practical use would ever be found for their particular creations.

INTRODUCTION

[1-2

But mathematics is a subject that requires rigorous concentration and therefore is not overpopular. Much of physics the nonmathematician. The demand for physicists is hidden from considerably exceeds the supply. This book contains a minimum of
for its mastery,

mathematics. It is written for those who quite frankly intend to use physics as a prerequisite for engineering. 1-2. What Is the Territory of Physics? Pure physics concerns itself with things that our senses reveal to us heat, electricity, natural forces, forms of energy, properties of matter, sound, and light; we also find it convenient to add to this list all sorts of devices made by man which depend on a knowledge of natural phenomena. By
:

means of the telescope and spectroscope, the sense of sight is extended to such enormous distances that we are enabled to tell the sizes, chemical constitutions, temperatures, physical states, amount, and direction of motion of objects completely invisible to the naked eye.

We also have knowledge of particles so small that they are beyond the
power of being made visible by the best optical or electron microscope
that

We

man has yet invented. And the science of physics is still growing. continue to observe facts about nature. We are still inventing
fit

theories often lead us to suspect the existence of new facts as yet undiscovered. Then we carry out experiments in search of these supposed new facts. Sometimes we
theories to

these facts.

The

discover that the "facts" do not exist, and as a result we have to throw away the theory which involved them. If on the other hand

the facts are there, our respect for the theory increases. Physics is a study of the facts of the nonliving part of nature together with those
interconnecting theories that so far have stood the test of experiment. 1-3. Is Physics the Basis of All Engineering Training?

Why

Engineering schools train students to be

civil engineers,

mechanical

engineers, metallurgical engineers, electrical engineers, illuminating engineers, biological engineers, chemical engineers, sanitary engi-

marine engineers, torpedo engineers, public health engineers, naval engineers, and aeronautical engineers. Almost anyone reading this list will take pleasure in adding to it. But all of these branches of engineering grow directly from the subdivisions of physics itself or
neers,

from the

ics itself includes at

closely associated sciences of chemistry and biology. Physpresent the subjects of mechanics, sound, heat,

magnetism, electricity, and light. Formerly all the natural sciences combined, including physics, chemistry, astronomy, and biology, were considered to be within the capabilities of single individuals to
master.

But

as these sciences grew in scope,

it

became increasingly

1-4]

INTRODUCTION

difficult for

any one man

to master

them all, or even any one of them.

Today

it is

the business of chemistry to study several hundred thou-

sand compounds; of astronomy, to catalogue nearly 100 billion stars in our own galaxy along with a billion other galaxies; and of biology, to classify hundreds of thousands of zoological and botanical species. Yet in these three sciences the relationships between entities are far more important than the large numbers of entities involved. And even as chemistry and astronomy are already considered as separate sciences, it may well be that other portions will in the future be detached from physics, but physics will still remain basic, not only to the other "physical sciences/' but to all branches of engineering. 1-4. Physical Facts. The two important things in our uni-

and intelligence. The latter we leave to psychologists, biologists, and philosophers, and confine our attention to the former. At a suitable point, we shall define energy, and
verse as

we know

it

are energy

one of the manifestations of For the energy present, however, we shall find it convenient to take over a few terms from everyday life such as time and space, and by means of these, define more terms for technical use. Once we have defined a technical term, we shall be careful not to use that word in any other way, and
later

we

shall see that

is

matter.

physical facts of a general type (often called laws or principles) will be stated using these technical

sometimes defined as that a vacuum also of and that a furthermore matter) (absence occupies space, vacuum has pronounced physical properties. Consequently it will be better at present to think of matter as the substance of which physical bodies are made, and reserve until later a discussion of
terms.

Although matter

is

that which occupies space,

we must remember

the

of measuring quantity of matter, or mass. may temporarily think of energy as a storehouse out of which comes the ability to change either the shape or the state of motion of

method

We

matter. A physical fact may be described as something that actually can be demonstrated in the laboratory to a high degree of precision (although never to a precision of one hundred per cent, for both practical and theoretical reasons). We shall not be surprised at the necessity of discarding a theory occasionally for a better one, but we do expect our physical facts, once established, to remain physical facts. 1-5. Physical Theories. A large collection of isolated physical facts without any interconnecting theory would be hard to keep in

INTRODUCTION

[1-6

mind, and for this reason would lose much of its usefulness to the engineer. The mathematical network, as self-consistent as geometry, which has been developed slowly over the years, and which weaves together the vast accumulation of physical data into one integrated
referred to as physical theory. Thus we talk of the theory of elasticity, electrical theory, theory of light; or even in connection with mechanical devices we are apt to ask, "What is the theory back

whole,

is

machine?" The importance of theory, however, increases as more advanced. In this elementary treatment of physics, we shall be much more concerned with facts than with
of that

the student becomes

In concluding this chapter, it is proper to say a few words about units. Outside of the field of electricity, the engineer finds that he can get along very well with just three fundamental units: a unit of time, say the second; a unit of distance, such as the foot or the meter and a unit of force, for example the pound or the
\

theory. 1-6. Units.

newton.

In defining the second,

is

it is

of the average "solar

The second

common

day" to both the English and metric systems. As a

into 86,400 equal parts (24

customary to divide the length X 60 X 60).

basis for the units of the metric system, there are carefully preserved two pieces of metal at as nearly as possible constant conditions. The

distance between two fine scratches on one of

scientific

them is taken by the world as the definition of the meter, and the mass of the other piece of metal defines the kilogram. A newton is somewhat smaller than the kilogram; a kilogram weighs about 9.8 newtons. In
there exist similarly the standard yard and the standard pound. Such units as the foot per second, the foot-pound, and so on are obvious combinations of these fundamental units. There are

London

3.2808 feet in a meter, and 2.2046 pounds in a kilogram. In the United States, we are legally on the metric system; our foot is defined
1200 , 4 as ^r^r of a meter,

and our pound as TT-^TZTO

r
*

a kilogram.

-i

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

Technical Terms Defined

Physics. Physics is a study of the facts of inanimate nature together with the theories that thus far have stood the test of experiment.
Fact.

Facts, in physics, are the direct result of physical experimentation

and observation.
Theory.
sistent,

An

assumption or system of assumptions not only mutually conbut also consistent with all known facts.

INTRODUCTION

Physical Unit. An arbitrary portion of a physical quantity, of a convenient size, and established by general agreement.

Second.

5455

of a

mean

solar day.

Meter. Distance at the temperature of melting ice between two scratches on a platinum-iridium bar preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, France. Yard. In England, the distance between two scratches on a standard bar
preserved at London. In the United States ^25 of a meter. This makes one meter equal to 3.2808 feet. Kilogram. The amount of matter in a certain platinum cylinder also preserved at Paris, France.

Newton.

the metric system

unit of force or weight which will be found to tie in with both and the practical system of electrical units. One

kilogram weighs about 9.8 newtons. Pound. The United States r pound is defined by J law as Tr^Trrr^ of a 2.204622 ... kilogram.

EXERCISES

AND PROBLEMS

1-1. Name ten practical illustrations of physical principles, so distributed that at least one application will be drawn from each of the five

branches of physics.
1-2.

As an

illustration of the

terms fact and theory, state a nonphysical

fact; also

a nonphysical theory.

1-3. Mention several important industries of today which owe their existence entirely to theories developed during the previous century. 1-4. From the data in section 1-6, find* the number of inches in a meter; also the number of kilograms in an ounce.
1-5.

How many

1-6. If there are 62.4

newtons are there in a pound? pounds of water in a cubic

foot, find the

number

of

kilograms of water in a cubic meter.

CHAPTER

Newton's Laws

2-1. Historical.

One

of the earliest

books on physics was written

by Aristotle (385-322 B.C.)- He was a remarkable man, and is credited with having possessed the most encyclopedic mind in all
history. However, Aristotle lived before the experimental era, and for this reason he made many statements that could have been dis-

proved easily by simple trial. One of these statements, concerning falling weights, was not shown to be false until the time of Galileo (1564r-1642). Galileo made numerous scientific discoveries, but due to ecclesiastical and civil opposition, he never reached the point of generalizing his findings; on the contrary, he was forced to renounce some of them as false! Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born in England the year Galileo died in Italy. He too had a most unusual mind, and an almost uncanny sense regarding physical phenomena. Moreover, he had the advantage of living at a time when it had be-

come customary
Latin, which

physical conclusions.

to perform scientific experiments before drawing Newton published a book in 1687 (written in

was then a universal scientific language), in which he summarized Galileo's work in the form of three laws that are known to this day as Newton's first, second, and third laws respectively. These laws are the basis of what is known as Newtonian mechanics. They hold for distances somewhat greater than those between atoms up to astronomical distances. (Advanced students will learn that, for atomic dimensions, we have to use what is known as quantum mechanics, a form of mechanics which automatically becomes New6

2-2]

NEWTON'S LAWS

Ionian mechanics with increased distances). Therefore, for the purposes of the engineer, there is no need of questioning the exactness
of

Newton's laws.
2-2.

Newton's First Law.

ball

If

we

should pass

by a

store win-

dow

in

which a croquet

such a

way

in rolling about in as to describe figure eights, our intuition would tell us,

was busily engaged

"Something is wrong; there is more here than meets the eye!" We all have in mind a notion of what an object ought to do when left to
itself,

and

it is

not to describe figure eights.

sliding along a
itself,

If

we

start

an object
it

smooth

sur-

face,

then leave

to

the object will

move

more and more slowly in a straight line and If we repeat the experifinally come to rest. ment on a still smoother surface, say some glare ice, the object will take much longer to come to rest, and still continue to travel along a straight line. But it is not correct in either of these two cases to say that the object is left to itself. In
were slowing down the moving object. were actually zero friction, the object would never come to rest when "left to itself." This statement constitutes a part of Newton's first law. A more complete statement is as follows: A body left to itself will remain at rest if it is already at rest, and if it is already in motion, it will continue in motion with uniform velocity in a straight

both

cases, forces of friction

If there

line.

law represents such an idealization that we never encounter a pure case of it in practice. No object that we have ever met can be said to be "left to itself." Gravitation is always present to pull objects toward the earth friction or air resistance is always acting to slow down the motion of bodies. In fact, it would even be

Newton's

first

difficult to

say just what

we mean by
rest is

"at rest."

Any

table in front

moving about 700 miles per hour due to the rotation of the earth, about 66,000 miles per hour due to the earth's orbital motion about the sun, and faster yet on account of galactic rotation. In general we consider it a sufficiently good illustration of Newton's first law if we find ourselves nearly plunging over the seat in front of us on a trolley when the motorman suddenly applies the brakes. We were in motion and physical law does its best
of us

which appears to be at

to keep us in motion! Another illustration is the possibility of removing a book from under a pile of books by means of a quick jerk.

The books on top were

at rest

and they

therefore tend to remain so.

NEWTON'S LAWS

[2-3

The property of matter by virtue of which it is necessary to apply a force in order to change its condition of rest or motion is called the inertia of matter. The inertia of a body at a particular point on the earth's surface is proportional to (but not equal to) its weight. 2-3. Technical Terms. By the time we have completed this course in physics, we shall find ourselves using in a very particular
was mentioned
(inertia) of these words are in the previous section. already familiar to us; we shall merely restrict their rather long list of everyday meanings to some one scientific meaning. Time and

way a list of something under a hundred words, one of which

Many

distance

may
Time

well appear at an early point on our

list

of technical

in physics means measured or measurable duration, and It does not mean the pleasant or unpleasant evening else. nothing we have just spent or the jail sentence we did or did not serve.

terms.

Similarly, distance in physics

means measured

or measurable space,

the separation in relationship between a couple of third cousins, or the lack of cordiality in manner affected by one's former friend. Another word that we must define
else.

and nothing

It

does not

mean

to get well started on our subject is force. force is defined as that the to a in size or will tend which produce change shape of an object. force will also produce other effects such as changes in the motions

of objects, but this relationship will be reserved to enable us to define mass when the time comes. Everyday terms which are practically

equivalent to force or at least special cases of force are

push, pull,

resistance, tension, effort, attraction, repulsion, friction, thrust, compression, and so on. With combinations of the three words, time, distance, and force, we shall find it possible eventually to produce a
fairly

comprehensive

list

of technical terms.

Newton's Second Law. The next question to be asked concerns the behavior of an object when it is not left to itself, that is, when a push or a pull is applied. Under these conditions the object
2-4.
deviates from
size
its

and direction
If

uniform straight-line motion in accordance with the of the force that is being applied. This is Newton's
is

second law.

the force

applied to the object in the direction of the

motion and not balanced by an opposing force, such as friction, the object will move faster and faster. In practice it becomes difficult after a time to continue to apply this unbalanced force, otherwise there would be no limit to the velocities which could be acquired.

Newton's Third Law. A force is always exerted by some on some other object. The only one of these bodies that interobject ests the engineer is the one on which the forces act; these forces de2-5.

2-5]

NEWTON'S LAWS

termine the subsequent motion of the object involved, or help to hold it in equilibrium, or tend to change its size or shape. A force that is exerted by an object will have no direct influence on that
object, but will affect some other object on which the same force is being exerted. Newton's third law, however, states that forces al-

and that a force exerted on an object is to be with an equal and opposite force exerted by the object, the paired latter being of no interest unless we decide to include in our investigation the other body upon which that happens to be acting. A more useful statement of Newton's third law will include for each force the object exerting the force as well as the object upon which the force is exerted. Thus, Newton's third law may be restated as follows: // body A exerts a force on body B, then under all conditions and with no exceptions, body B will simultaneously exert an equal and opposite force on body A. From what has just been said, it will be clear that only one of these two forces will affect body A and the other will affect body B. A common way of stating this law is to
ways
exist in pairs,

say that "action and reaction are equal." Isaac Newton would be somewhat surprised if he should return to earth and hear some of the erroneous statements occasionally

THERE ARE NO EXCEPTIONS TO NEWTON'S THIRD LAW.

For example, one such boner makes the law apply only at uniform speeds, and another leaves the impression that it applies only in such cases as tugs of war with the teams evenly balanced. But as a matter of fact, if there were any exceptions at all to this law, one of the most important generalizations of all physics would cease to hold, namely the law of conservation of energy.
this law.

made about

Another point in connection with this law sometimes disturbs the student. If the two forces involved in the law arc always equal and opposite to each other, why do they not balance each other, and since there are no cases where the law does not hold, then how can

anything ever happen in the physical universe? A careful reading of the first paragraph of this section will help to answer this question. Two forces will never balance each other unless they act upon the same body. For example, if I exert an upward force of 25 pounds upon a suitcase and you exert a downward force of 25 pounds upon

10

NEWTON'S LAWS

[2-6

some spot on the floor, the forces will be equal and opposite, but they will not balance each other because they act upon different bodies. Body A and body B are two different bodies, and since one force is exerted on each, there is no chance of the forces balancing each other. 2-6. Examples of Forces Which Do and Do Not Illustrate Newton's Third Law. The two sparrows and the worm furnish several illustrations
Newton's third law as well as several combinations of forces that do not The ground pushes up on the left-hand sparrow and this sparrow pushes down on the ground with an equal and opposite force. This illustrates the law. But these two forces do not balance each other because one acts on the sparrow and the other on the ground. The left-hand sparrow exerts a force toward the left on the worm and the worm exerts an equal force toward the right on the sparrow. These forces also illustrate the law, and again they do not balance each other because one force acts on the worm and the other on the sparrow. Now consider some forces that do balance each other and therefore do not illustrate Newton's third law. Gravity pulls down on the left-hand sparrow and the ground pushes up on this sparrow. These forces are equal and opposite to each other and they both act upon the same object, the sparrow. They balance each other but they do not illustrate Newton's third law. Similarly both sparrows exert opposing forces on the worm. If these forces are numerically equal, they balance, but they do not illustrate Newton's third law. When two forces balance each other, they do not illustrate Newton's third law; and when two forces illustrate Newton's third law, they do not balance each other.
of
illustrate the law.

2-7. Newton's Law of Gravitation. It has long been understood that bodies free to do so "fall," but it was not until the time of Sir Isaac Newton that the relations between the forces and the

masses of the objects involved were clearly stated. Since the forces are small except when objects of astronomical size are concerned, it will probably be best to get the astronomer's point of view in this discussion, although once more the law under consideration is per-

and holds between two small objects just as well as for large objects like the sun and earth. The sun and the earth each exert an attracting force on the other. By the third law, stated in the previous section, the forces exerted by the sun and earth on each other are equal and opposite; by the law now about to be stated, these forces each depend on the distance between, as well as on the masses of, the sun and the earth. As the mathematician would put
fectly general

two

it,

either of these forces

is

directly proportional to the product of the

two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. But, if we are not yet expert mathematicians, it may be well to put it somewhat differently. Any object in the universe
exerts a gravitational attraction upon every other object. When we compare these attracting forces we find two things to be true: (1) if

2-8]

NEWTON'S LAWS
the mass of either

1 1

body the force will also double, or if we mass by any number of times the force will increase the same number of times, and (2) if we double the distance between
increase either

we double

these objects the force will be reduced to one quarter of the original value, or if we multiply the distance between the bodies by any
factor, the

new

force will be found

by

dividing

by

the square of

this factor.*
2-8. Illustrations.

As an

illustration of

for small objects, imagine two spheres material on our planet. Gold is 19.3 times, and

tion

is

how small the force of gravitamade of about the heaviest

osmium
22.5 times as

heavy

as water.

and

of these spheres weigh one ton and the other two tons, let their centers be two feet apart. The gravitational force of attraction

Let one

that either, of these spheres would exert on the other would figure out to be just under half a grain (0.466 grain). Since there are 7,000 grains to the pound avoirdupois, this is rather a feeble force. Yet if one of the two objects to be considered is the earth itself (about 6,570,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons) and the other is, say a one-pound body on the earth's surface, with the centers of the two objects now four thousand miles apart (approximately
the earth's radius), then either will exert on the other an attracting force of one pound. The gravitational force exerted by the earth on some object upon its surface is known technically as the weight of this object. If our one-pound body is now removed from the surface of the earth to a distance of 240,000 miles, which is about sixty times as far from the earth's center,
its

weight
is,

will

that

the

amount

then be reduced to -^QQ of a pound. However, of matter in it, will still remain the same.

its

mass,

2-9. How the Law Was Discovered. The story of the discovery of the law of gravitation involves principally three men: Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), a Danish astronomer; Johann Kepler (1571-1630), a German astronomer and mathematician; and Isaac Newton. Brahe made a series of painstaking observations on the positions of the planets of our solar system over a considerable
period of time, making no particular effort to deduce anything therefrom. With Brahe's mass of data before him, Kepler drew the conclusions (1) that the paths of the planets about the sun are ellipses,

and not circles as had been previously supposed, and that the sun was at a focus and not at the center, (2) that a line, joining the center
of the sun with the center of the planet, sweeps over equal areas in
this law is as follows. If m\ and the distance between them in meters, and in newtons pulling each mass toward the other, then

The mathematical statement of

is

m<t

expressed in kilograms, d

F the gravitational

represent two masses force

where k z

is

the physical quantity 6.66

10~ u newton-meter2 per kilogram1 ,

12

NEWTON'S LAWS

[2-10

equal times, and (3) that the time that it takes for each planet to go around the sun once is proportional to the square root of the cube of its average distance from the sun. But Kepler made no effort to answer the question as to why the planets behave in this way. This was Newton's problem; he discovered that the law of gravitation described in section 2-7 would just account for Kepler's conclusions. As a final test, Newton then tried his law of gravitation on the moon, using data then available. To his dismay, the law failed to account for the data; so Newton tucked his work away in a drawer and busied himself with other things. Years afterward, his attention was called to new data bearing on the problem; he dug out his nearly forgotten work, and lo! it now checked beautifully. And so he published his results without further delay.
If a man can leap five feet in a standing on how contest the earth, high could he leap in a similar contest high jump on the moon, assuming (1) that he had the same strength on the moon as on the earth, (2) that the mass of the moon is one eightieth of that of the earth, and (3) that the radius of the moon is one fourth of the earth's radius?

2-10. Illustrative Problem.

If we first focus our attention on the fact that the two objects Solution: involved in the problem are now the man and the moon instead of the man and the earth, remembering that the force of gravitation increases when either mass increases and vice versa, our first conclusion is that the man now appears to weigh only one eightieth as much on the moon as on the earth. This would mean that he could jump eighty times five feet or 400 feet! But the gravitational force also depends on the distance between the gravitating bodies. On the moon the centers of the two objects (the moon and the man) are only one fourth as far apart as on the earth, and since four squared is sixteen, the force of gravitation will be increased sixteen times on this account. This will decrease the height to which he can jump by a factor of sixteen. Four hundred divided by sixteen is twenty-five; our answer is therefore that the man can leap to a height of twenty-five feet on the moon. He could thus jump over a small house without difficulty.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Time.
Force.

Technical Terms Defined

Time

is

measured or measurable duration.

Distance.

Distance
is

A force

measured or measurable space of one dimension. that which will tend to produce a change in the size or
is

shape of an object. Familiar synonyms are push, pull. Inertia is that property of matter which causes it, in the absence Inertia. of all forces, to remain at rest when at rest, and when in motion, to continue in motion at uniform speed in a straight line. An equivalent definition is: inertia is that property of matter by virtue of which it is necessary to apply a force in order to change its condition of rest or motion.

NEWTON'S LAWS
Gravitation.

13

The phenomenon

that any two particles in the universe exert

attracting forces

on each other.

Weight.

The

objects concerned
face of the earth.
force of gravity."

gravitational attraction in the special case is the earth and the other object is a

when one of the body on the sur-

Common synomyms
Laws

are "the pull of gravity" or "the

Newton's

First

Law.

Inertia

is

a universal property of matter.

Newton's Second Law. When a force is applied to a body, the body will deviate from its condition of rest or uniform straight-line motion in accordance with the size and direction of the force that is being applied.

Newton's Third Law.

If one body exerts a force upon a second body, the second body will simultaneously exert an equal and opposite force upon the first body. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. Every particle in the universe exerts on every other particle a force of attraction that is directly proportional to the masses of the two particles, and inversely proportional

to the square of their distance apart.

EXERCISES

AND PROBLEMS

2-1. man standing on a stepladder pushes downward on the stepladder. According to Newton's third law, by what is the reacting force exerted, and on what is it exerted? 2-2. If every force is accompanied by an equal and opposite reacting force, why do the acting and reacting forces never balance each other? How would one proceed to accomplish something in a physical world that was put together on the basis that whenever a force acted on a body, another force, equal and opposite to the first, acted on the same body?
2-3. If one of the sparrows in section 2-5 pulled harder than the other,

would there still be an illustration of Newton's third law in the sketch? Give a reason for your answer. 2-4. In order for an automobile to start forward from rest, something must push forward on the car. Can the car itself exert this forward push on itself? What outside agency is capable of exerting a forward push on the car, and why? 2-5. Give an illustration of Newton's first law. 2-6. Give an illustration of Newton's second law. 2-7. If the sun weighs 300,000 times as much as the earth and has a diameter 100 times that of the earth, how much would an object that weighs 150 pounds upon the surface of the earth weigh upon tHe surface of the sun? 2-8. If a 2,000-pound projectile can be made to rise 100 miles above the surface of the earth, what does it weigh at this altitude? 2-9. The earth is flattened at its poles. Where would a certain gold brick weigh more, in Alaska or in New York? 2-10. Isaac Newton is said to have constructed a horseless carriage which went by jet propulsion. Which one of his laws was involved most
in the operation of the carriage?

CHAPTER

Force; Work; Energy;

Power

3-1. Force.

The
two
sled.

Consider a boy pushing a sled along a straight route. traveling in a more or less irregular fashion subject to varying forces, one of which opposes the motion and is due to
sled
is

friction, while the

other

is

the force exerted

by the boy pushing the

two forces were uniform as well and opposite, then, in accordance with Newton's first law, the sled would conIf the

as equal

tinue

moving along
if it

constant speed

remain at rest if it the route remains straight, the greatest complication that we can have in the matter of forces will be as to whether they are positive or negative, that is, whether, the forces act along the line in one direction or the other. 3-2. Work. In physics, the word work has a very limited and important use. Technically, no work is done unless something moves. An artist's model does no work in the physical sense while he is posing, although the model earns a living thereby and is tired at the end of a long session. In order to compute the numerical value of the work done on a body, it is necessary to multiply the force exerted on the body by the distance that the body moves. Also, in computing the work done, the force that is multiplied by the distance must be
14

its straight path with were already moving, or were already at rest. If

3-2]

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

15

parallel to that distance. If we multiply a force, expressed in pounds, by a distance, expressed in feet, the product is said to be expressed in

a force acting on a body multiplied by the distance through which the body moves, in a direction parallel to the force. If the boy mentioned in the preceding section exerts a constant forward force of 20 pounds on a sled which during the process moves forward 50 feet, we may compute the work he has done by multiplying 20 pounds by 50 feet. The product has a two-fold aspect: one part is numerical, 1,000 in this case, and the other feature is the unit involved, foot-pounds, obtained by combining the feet with the pounds through the use of a hyphen. Thus the work done by the boy is 1,000 foot-pounds. Other possible units of work are foot- tons, called joules), and so on; any unit of force are newton-meters (which may be hyphenated with a unit of distance to obtain a unit of work. Work also may be negative. Suppose a man to walk along a track behind a slowly moving freight car for 10 feet, exerting a backward force of 40 pounds on the car. Since the force and the distance are in opposite directions, it is customary to call one of them positive and the other negative; which is which is immaterial so long as we make a definite choice. The product of a positive 10 feet and a negative 40 pounds is a negative 400 foot-pounds of work done by the man on the freight car. Another illustration of negative work can be obtained from the boy-sled problem. Suppose a force of friction of 20 pounds to oppose
foot-pounds.
shall, then, define

We

work as

the product of

the motion of the sled throughout the 50-foot distance. Then the work would be a negative 1,000 foot-pounds of work done by friction

on the sled. Another way of looking at negative energy may seem more reasonable. According to Newton's third law, when a man exerts a backward force of 40 pounds on a freight car, the freight car exerts a forward force of 40 pounds on the man. If we multiply this for-

ward 40-pound

force

by the

distance the

man

moves, 10

feet,

we

obtain a positive 400 foot-pounds of work. That is, while the man does a negative 400 foot-pounds of work on the car, the car does a
positive 400 foot-pounds of

work on the man. Since

this

happens

every time work is done, it begins to look as if work is something that can not be created out of nothing; whenever there is positive work
done, negative work is also done to the same extent. Of the two objects or bodies involved, one is the giver and the other is the
recipient;

something

is

passed along.

16

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

[3-3

3-3. Energy. Conservation of Energy. The "something" is involved in the work situation mentioned in the previous section is called energy. Energy is the ability to do work; it is measured
that
for work, foot-pounds, joules, idea at the end of the previous section may thus be expressed in terms of energy: whenever a body gains energy it is always at the expense of some other body. It therefore seems reasonin terms of the

same units that we use

and

so on.

The

able to assume that the total energy in the universe is a constant. This statement is known as the "law of conservation of energy," which is a direct consequence of Newton's third law, and to the present, no exceptions to it have been found either in nature or in the laboratory. The law of conservation of energy denies the possibility of such things as perpetual motion machines, which are efforts to create energy out of nothing. In the boy-sled illustration, there were two transfers of energy: 1,000 foot-pounds of energy passed from the boy to the sled and 1,000

foot-pounds of energy were transferred to the surfaces responsible for the frictional force, this time into the form of heat-energy. Frictional forces may or may not be accompanied by motion. When there is

motion against friction, heat energy is always developed, which may be computed by multiplying the frictional force by the distance. If
there
is no motion, no energy relations are involved. 3-4. Illustrations of Energy. A partial list of the

many

do work and therefore to store energy is as follows: (1) by compressing a gas, which can expand and give the work back, (2) by coiling a spring, which can uncoil and drive a

ways

in

which

it is

possible to

watch,

by raising a weight, (4) by setting a body in motion, (5) by the raising temperature of a body, (6) by changing the state of a from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas, (7) by charging a body
(3)
field, (9)

storage battery or condenser, (8) by creating a magnetic creating waves in liquids or solids, or sound waves in air,

and

(10)

by by

producing radiation, which may travel for thousands of years from one star to another. There are other forms of energy which are quite interesting. If we should divide a piece of paper into sufficiently small pieces, there would come a time at length when any further subdivision would result in substances that were no longer paper, but more simple chemicals, namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The smallest portion that could still be called paper is termed a molecule; one molecule of paper consists of a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Random molecular motion, that is, .haphazard motions of individual' molecules relative to each other,

3-5]

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

atoms to form

17
different

constitutes heat energy. Rearrangements of

kinds of molecules involve changes in chemical energy; the burning of paper, the rusting of iron, and the explosion of gunpowder are
examples.

The atoms themselves

shall describe later.

are also complicated structures

it

atoms; completely impossible. But when certain atoms are split up (for example, by exposure to slowly moving subatomic entities called neutrons), tremendous energy changes take place such as those involved in radioactivity, both natural and artificial, and in "atomic bombs" when the atom is split, we notice that some matter disappears and energy appears in its place. That is, matter itself is one form of energy. All sorts of energy can be converted into all other kinds of energy, but to varying extents. For example, any form of energy may be converted one hundred per cent into heat energy, but it is possible to convert only a relatively small per cent of heat energy into mechanical, electrical, chemical, or other forms of energy.
for

which we

It is difficult to disintegrate

many

years scientists considered

3-5. Potential Energy. The type of energy that results from raising a weight ((3) in section 3-4) is called energy of position, or
potential energy. When we wind a cuckoo clock this kind. To find its value we have merely to

we

store energy of

done

in raising the weight. The necessary force is upward lifted; the distance h equal numerically to the weight

compute the work and is

is

also

and h, upward, therefore the potential energy is the product of and may be measured in foot-pounds, joules, or any other convenient unit of work.
Potential energy

= Wh

Putting two quantities next to each other, as Wh, implies multiDivision is represented in algebra by the plying one by the other. f fraction notation; for example six divided by two equals three

would be written -

3.

3-6. Kinetic Energy. The type of energy that results from setting a body in motion ((4) in section 3-4) is called kinetic energy,
or energy of motion. It will be discussed again in connection with the question of change of velocity, but its formula will be stated here for
reference purposes.
TT4 Kinetic energy
.

In this expression, v
of

which

is

W,

the velocity of a moving body the weight and g represents a constant the numerical value of
is

18

FORCE;
is

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

[3-7

which

per second.

32.2 feet per second per second or 9.80 meters per second have met this constant in its metric form as the

We

Both forms will appear ratio between a kilogram and a newton. is in pounds, v on numerous occasions again. Note that when in feet per second (which may be written ft/sec.), and g in feet

2 per second per second (which may be written ft/sec. ), the kinetic energy will come out in foot-pounds. That is
, .

(pounds)

/ feet
I

V
I

foot-pounds r

Vsecond/
T

feet

second 2
is in newtons, v in meters per second, and g in meters per If second squared, the kinetic energy will come out in newton-meters

(or joules).
3-7. Illustrative

Problem.

One boy

is

drawing another on a

cart.

The

tension in the tongue (which is horizontal) is 30 pounds. Find the work done in drawing the cart a horizontal distance of 200 feet. Express the

answer both in foot-pounds and in joules. The product of the horizontal forward force (30 pounds) and the horizontal distance (200 feet) is 6,000 foot-pounds, which is one answer. Since there are 4.45 newtons in a pound (see problem 1-5) and 0.305 meter in a foot, the forward force of 30 pounds may be expressed as 133.5 newtons and the 200 feet as 71.0 meters. Therefore the work may also be expressed as the product of 133.5 newtons by 71.0 meters or 9,480 ncwton-meters, or 9,480 joules, which is the second answer required. 3-8. Second Illustrative Problem. A ball weighing one pound is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 100 feet per second. What is the kinetic energy given it by the thrower? If the ball continues to rise until its
kinetic energy is zero of the kinetic energy,

potential energy is equal to the original value high will it rise? = 1.00 pound, Since the kinetic energy of the ball is Wv 2 /2g, where v = 100 feet per second (this is written 100 feet/second because distance must be divided by time to get the speed), and g = 32.2 feet/second2 the
its

and

how

kinetic energy is (1.00) (100) 2 /(2) (32.2) or 155.3 foot-pounds. If the ball rises until the kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is 155.3 foot-pounds, we must set 155.3 foot-pounds. Since 1 00

Wh =

pound, h

W=

155.3 feet, which

is

the distance that the ball will

rise.

3-9.

Power.

Rate

the expression "rate of"

plied.

of doing work is called power. Whenever is used in physics, division by time is im-

Therefore another
of

way

of defining

the

amount

work done divided by

to say that it is the time required to do this

power

is

work.

Speed, or rate of motion, is similarly distance divided by so that another definition of power is "the product obtained time, by multiplying the force that caused the motion by the speed."

3-10
It will

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

19

be seen that these two definitions are equivalent since

power

(work)
)-;

(time)

^=

(force) ^

(distance) '-

/e

N ,

1N

(force) (speed)

(time)

computing the power the unit will come out This foot-pounds/second. unit, however, is not large enough to be very useful, so another unit, equal (very closely in this country and exactly in England) to 550 foot-pounds per second and called the horsepower is used in practice. A joule per second is called a watt; 1,000 watts is called a kilowatt. There are exactly 746 watts in a horsepower in the United States.

By

either

method

of

If a 200-pound man runs up a flight of 20 feet high in seven seconds, at what rate is he working? Express the result in foot-pounds per second, horsepower, and

3-10. Illustrative Problem.

stairs

watts.
First, find the

work done

to the next,

which

in climbing from one floor is equal to the potential energy

f/

*'-

gained.

(200 pounds) (20 feet) 4,000 foot-pounds Since the rate of doing this work, that is, the power, is the work divided by the time, we find the quotient obtained from (4,000 foot-pounds)/(7 seconds) or 571 foot-pounds per second. This is equivalent to 571/550 or 1.037 horsepower or in terms of watts, (1.037) (746) = 774 watts. It is perfectly possible for a man to work at the rate of a horsepower for a short time; it is also possible for a horse to work at the rate of many horsepower for a short time; but it takes a first-class horse to work at the rate of one

Work =

Wh =

horsepower for an entire day. A horse pulls a plow at the rate 3-11. Another Illustrative Problem. of two feet per second and exerts a forward force on the plow of 250 pounds. At what rate does the horse work? Express the result in foot-pounds per second, in horsepower, and in watts. How much work does the horse do in five hours? The rate of doing work is the power, one formula for which is the product of the force and the speed. Since the force is 250 pounds and the speed
2.00 feet/second, the required power is (250 pounds) (2.00 feet/second) or 500 foot-pounds/second. Since there are 550 foot-pounds/second per horsepower, this power is 500/550 or 0.909 horsepower. It will be noticed that the numerator together with its units is 500 foot-pounds per second, and the denominator together with its units is 550 foot-pounds per second per horseWhen we divide the power, or 550 foot-pounds/horsepower-second. numerator by the denominator, all the units cancel except horsepower, which being in the denominator of the denominator can be transferred to the numerator and survives in the result. By multiplying 0.909 horsepower by the conversion factor 746 watts/horsepower, the horsepower cancels
is

20

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

[3-12

giving 678 watts. Since power is the ratio of work to time, it follows that work is the product of power and time. We may therefore multiply any one of our three answers by an amount of time corresponding to five hours and get the work done by the horse. Five hours is 18,000 seconds. When we multiply 500 foot-pounds/second by 18,000 seconds, the seconds cancel and we have 9,000,000 foot-pounds. If we multiply 0.909 horsepower by 5.00 hours, we have 4.54 horsepower-hours. If we multiply 678 watts by 5.00
hours,

we have 3,390 watt-hours. Since 1,000 watts equals one

If

kilowatt,

this is equivalent to 3.39 kilowatt-hours.

3-12. Units of Energy.

equation
1

we multiply both

sides of the

horsepower

550 foot-pounds/second

by one second, we obtain

1

horsepower-second

550 foot-pounds

The horsepower-second is thus a

power-minute
(33,000

unit of energy. Similarly the horsefoot-pounds) and the horsepower-hour

(1,980,000 foot-pounds), also the watt-hour and the kilowatt-hour often use the kilowatt-hour to measure are units of energy.

We

We have now accumulated so many units of both and energy power that it will perhaps be well to relate them in
electrical energy.

tabular form.
1

So the table

will

go as follows:
1
1

joule

joule

3,600 joules 1,000 watt-hours 0.746 kilowatt-hour

= = = = = = =

newton-meter
watt-second watt-hour kilowatt-hour (kw.-hr.) horsepower-hour (hp.-hr.) horsepower-second
hp.-hr.
joule

1
1

== 1
1

550 foot-pounds
3,600 hp.-seconds 0.738 foot-pound

1
1

other units of energy which be tabulated here for reference.

10,000,000 ergs 1 erg 4,190 joules 778 foot-pounds
3.97 British thermal units

Some

we have not

yet met

may

also

= = = = =

1 1 1 1

joule

dyne-centimeter Calorie* (used to measure heat energy) British thermal unit

Calorie

It will be noticed that since

energy

energy
*The unit Calorie
is

= =

(power) (time) and

(force) (distance)

sometimes called a kilogram-calorie.

3-13]

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

21

of the

there are two types of energy units, the watt-hour being an example first, and the foot-pound an example of the second.

3-13.

Power

Units.
1

A similar table may be constructed with

= = = = =
1
1 1

power

units:

joule/second 1,000 watts 746 watts

watt
kilowatt

550

ft.-lb./sec.

1 1

33,000 ft.-lb./min.

horsepower horsepower horsepower

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Work.

Technical Terms Defined

Product of a force by a distance in the same direction as the force. Energy. Ability to do work. Power. Rate of doing work, that is, work divided by the time consumed
in doing the work.

Laws
Conservation of Energy. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But it can be passed along from one body to another, or changed from one form to another with efficiencies ranging from very small values up to 100 per cent.

PROBLEMS
3-1. How much work is done in winding a church clock if the weight weighs 50 pounds and has a vertical motion of 30 feet? Express the answer in foot-pounds, foot-tons, horsepower-seconds, and joules. 3-2. One boy is drawing another on a sled. The tension in each of the two sled ropes is 10 pounds, the ropes are horizontal, and the distance covered by the sled is 200 feet. Compute the work done, and express the result in foot-pounds and in joules. (3.28 feet equal one meter and 4.45 newtons equal a pound.) 3-3. A 200-pound man climbs a flight of stairs which is 50 feet along the slant and which rises vertically 20 feet. How much work does he do?

3-4. If Niagara Falls is 160 feet high, how much potential energy is changed into kinetic energy when two pounds of water drop from the top to within an infinitesimal distance from the bottom? What is the velocity of the water just before it strikes the bottom? How much heat in British thermal units is produced when the two pounds of water strike the bottom? 3-5. What is the kinetic energy of a 3,000-pound automobile moving at the rate of 90 feet per second? What will be the speedometer reading corresponding to 90 feet per second? 3-6. A mule, walking along the tow-path on the bank of a canal, exerts a force on a canal boat of 100 pounds. How much work does the mule do
in a mile?

22

FORCE;

WORK; ENERGY; POWER

3-7. If the mule of the previous problem walks at the rate of three miles per hour, at what rate is work being done? Express the answer in horse-

power and
3-8.

in kilowatts.

ISO-pound boy runs up a flight of stairs in six seconds. The between floors is 22 feet and the slant length of the stairs is 46 feet. At what rate is the boy working? 3-9. A man exerts a force of 200 newtons on the chain of a differential pulley while pulling 10 meters of rope through his hand. How much work does he do? If it takes him a minute to do this, find the power in watts,
vertical distance

also in horsepower.

3-10.

air is 1,000

Assume that the force necessary to move an airplane through the pounds when the plane moves at 100 feet per second and doubles

every time the speed doubles. Find the power necessary to drive the plane at 200 feet per second; at 400 feet per second.

CHAPTER

Efficiency; Mechanical Advantage;

Coefficient of Friction; Simple Machines

4-1. Efficiency.

A machine is a contrivance that transfers energy from one body to another. Very few machines are capable of transferring all the energy received, however, and so it is customary to refer to that fraction of the energy received by a machine which is handed on as the efficiency of the machine. Stated mathematically, the efficiency of a machine is the ratio between the output of a machine and its input. The output and input may both be considered as energy handled in a given time or, better, they may both be expressed as power.

pure number, that is, a number without units. No machine can be expected to deliver in a given time more energy than it receives; it does well if it delivers as much energy as it receives. The only occasion when we have one hundred per cent efficiency is when the output is in the form of heat energy. If we could have frictionless processes, they would also result in one hundred per cent efficiencies. The latter are talked about in physics courses (for the sake of simplicity) but never realized in practice. The only case approaching frictionless motion that we know of is that

The

efficiency is a

of heavenly bodies through empty space; the planets apparently move in their orbits around the sun with practically no friction. Occasionally one hears of the invention of a perpetual motion machine.
It has already been pointed out (section 3-3) that such machines are impossible; in the present connection it may be stated

23

24

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

[4-2

that a perpetual motion machine would be a machine the efficiency of which is greater than one hundred per cent! To summarize then

^
or

efficiency

power delivered by the machine power delivered to the machine

more simply
efficiency

-^^
input

(a)

Mechanical Advantage. It is also convenient to speak of the force exerted on or by a machine. For example, in the case of a bicycle, we exert a large force on the pedals, and in turn the bicycle
4-2.
exerts a comparatively small force
pulley,

we

exert a small force on the machine

on the road. In the case of a and the machine exerts

But we must remember that these statements represent only half of the story. The large force on the pedals of the bicycle is exerted through a small distance, and the small force on
a large force.
exerted through a large distance; with the pulley it is just the other way around. The ratio between the force exerted by a
the road
is

machine, considered
chine
is

frictionless,

and the

force exerted

on the ma-

called the ideal mechanical advantage of the machine. In this

is

case there
or
it

no

limit to the value of the ratio;

it

may be less than one

may be greater than one. But in any case it is again a pure number. In order to save words, engineers agree to call the force
exerted on a machine the
the resistance.
Similarly
effort,

and the
call

force exerted by the

machine

we

through which the

effort is exerted the effort displacement,

the distance (or displacement) and the

corresponding distance for the resistance the resistance displacement. Therefore the output of a machine in a given time is the product of
the resistance
in the

by the resistance displacement. Likewise the input same time interval is the product of the effort by the effort

displacement. Therefore, using equation (a) of the previous section,

\vf*
rt

^ v^
.

ffi

(resistance) (resistance displacement)

(effort) (effort

displacement)

Multiplying both sides of the equation by (effort displacement) and

dividing both sides

by

(efficiency)

(resistance displacement), this

equation becomes
effort

displacement

resistance
(effort) (efficiency)

resistance displacement

4*3]

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

25

Each of these fractions may be called the ideal mechanical advantage

of the machine. Therefore
.

ideal mechanical

effort displacement

advantage
resistance displacement
j
^

/M

ideal mechanical

advantage

resistance
(effort) (efficiency)

If the efficiency

1.00 (100 per cent), the last equation reduces to

r
i

mechanical advantage

resistance
effort

W
fA \

This ratio of resistance to

effort is often called actual

mechanical

advantage, regardless of the efficiency, just as equation (b) gives the ideal mechanical advantage regardless of the efficiency. However
it is

this is the

the ideal mechanical advantage which is commonly used because one that depends solely on the dimensions of the machine.

The

actual mechanical advantage fluctuates with the condition of the machine. From here on, if it is not specified which mechanical

advantage is being used, it will be assumed that the ideal is intended. Most machines have a mechanical advantage greater than one. A mechanical advantage of less than one is sometimes desired for purposes of convenience, as in the case of tongs, or in situations where we wish to gain speed at the expense of force, an example of which
is

the bicycle.

4-3. Coefficient of Friction.

used in mechanics

is

the roughness of two magnified, becomes miniature

third ratio (or pure number) called coefficient of friction. PYiction is due to surfaces that are in contact. This roughness,
hills

and

valleys in the surface.

The

more two surfaces are pressed together, the harder it is to move one surface over another, because the hills and valleys of one surface sink farther into the valleys and hills of the other surface. However,
other, the friction is not so great, because in that case the hilltops of one surface merely ride over the hilltops of the other surface, and do not have time to sink

when one

surface

is

moving against the

into the valleys. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the force necessary to pull one surface against friction along the other to the

perpendicular force pressing the two surfaces together. The latter force is often called the normal force because in mathematics normal

means

perpendicular. Therefore
force of friction
coefficient of friction

normal force

26

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

[4-4

The

coefficient of friction

may be either greater or less than

one.

We

also distinguish between the value of the coefficient of friction when the surfaces are at rest relative to each other, and when they are in

motion.

The former

is

called static coefficient of friction

and the

latter kinetic coefficient of friction. is less than the static coefficient.

friction,

heat is produced, and found be by multiplying the force of friction by the distance may moved. The heat may be expressed in either British thermal units or Calories, the familiar heat units used in dietetics, by using the
facts that

indicated, the kinetic Wh'en a surface is moved against the amount of heat in foot-pounds

As has been

778 foot-pounds

4180 joules
3.97 B.t.u.

= = =

1 1

B.t.u.

Calorie

Calorie

When

the fraction

is

computed by using the equation

force of friction

(coefficient of friction)

(normal force)

which is another form of the equation occurring earlier in this section, it is necessary to remember that friction is not an active force; friction can only oppose an active force. An active force, for instance, could cause a book lying on a table to start moving. In the absence of any other forces, friction will not start the book moving, but is to be subtracted from any force that does tend to move the book. If there is no active force from which to subtract the friction, we assume that there is also no frictional force. Or, if the application of the coefficient of friction formula gives a force greater than the active
force,

we

active force.
of

use only that part of the friction necessary to neutralize the Friction always tends to oppose the relative motion

two

surfaces.

4-4. Illustrative

Problem.

100-pound weight

is

feet along a floor; the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2.

to be dragged four What horizontal

force

is required and how much energy is converted into heat in the process? In this case the normal force exerted by the floor on the 100-pound weight is exactly equal and opposite to the 100-pound pull of gravity on this weight. Therefore the force of friction is (0.2) (100) or 20 pounds, which necessitates a 20-pound horizontal force to keep the weight moving along the floor once it is started. The heat that is produced is the product of this 20 pounds by the four feet, that is, 80 foot-pounds. Converted into British thermal units, we have 80/778 or 0.1028 B.t.u. or 0.0259 Calorie.

4-5. Simple
as the lever,

of the sections following, certain simple

In a few machines are discussed, such pulley, inclined plane, screw, wheel and axle, and hy-

Machines; Compound Machines.

4-6]

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

27

xiraulic press.

There are others, such as the wedge, which we are not Most actual machines represent combinations to discuss. yet ready a combination is called a compound masuch of simple machines;

and derricks are examples of machines. The mechanical advantage compound of a compound machine is the product of the mechine.

Bicycles

chanical advantages of its constituent parts. The mechanical advantage of the compound machine also may be found directly from its resistance
lever is a rigid bar upon which, in the forces three act, each one perpendicular to the simplest case, only bar. Two of these forces are the effort, usually
small, and the resistance, usually large. The third force acts at the axis, which is called the

and 4-6. The Lever.

effort or their displacements.

fulcrum, and which may be either at the end of the bar or somewhere between the ends, but usually nearer to the point of application of the
resistance.

One type

of lever

is

diagrammed

in figure 4-1, where the third force is not shown, but if it were, the force would be applied upward at the axis and would be equal in magnitude to the sum of both effort and resistance.

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 4-1.

By

applying the geometrical theorem concerning the propor-

tionality of corresponding sides of similar triangles, figure 4-1 that

effort

we

see

from

displacement

__

effort

resistance displacement

resistance

arm arm

It therefore follows

from equation

(b) of section 4-2 that

ideal mechanical

advantage of lever

effort

resistance

arm arm

28

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

[4-7

4-7. The Pulley. In figure 4-2, in order to raise the lower block one foot, it is necessary to exert the force (the effort) through a distance of four feet. By section 4-2, equation (b), the mechanical advantage is the ratio

of the effort displacement to the resistance displacement, which in this case is 4/1 or 4.
It will be observed that in order to find the mechanical advantage of a pulley of this simple type, it is only necessary to count the number of ropes against which the resistance In more complicated pulley arrangepulls. where some of the ropes have twice or ments,

three times the tensions of others, it is necessary to fall back on the more general relation,

equation (b). 4-8. The Inclined Plane. In such operations as putting a box into a truck, an inclined plane furnishes a convenient means for raising a given weight by exerting a force considerably less than the weight. Let an inclined plane of length s make an angle with the horizontal,

and let us assume that the

problem
to raise the weight (figa vertical distance h by exerting a force E which is less than
is

ure 4-3)

(which will

now be

the resistance).
vertically

is

called R, a force acting

Figure 4-3.

downward.

We shall find the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane from a consideration of the law of conservation of energy, assuming no friction. The potential energy gained by raising the level of pounds h feet is Wh foot-pounds. If this energy is obtained by doing

the work represented tance of s feet, then

that is, the

by exerting the force Epounds through the disEs foot-pounds should equal Wh or Rh footis

pounds. Therefore the ideal mechanical advantage

ideal mechanical

R/E=s/h;

advantage

of inclined plane

or, stated in

words, the ideal mechanical advantage equals the ratio

4-9]

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

29

of the length of the plane to the vertical height of plane with respect to the other end.
4-9.

one end of the

pulled

Problems Illustrating Inclined Plane. A 1,000-pound block is up a rough inclined plane by a force of 925 pounds. The plane rises 50 feet in a slant height of 100 feet. The block starts from rest at the bottom and has acquired a speed of 17.94 feet per second by the time it arrives at the top. Find (1) the mechanical advantage of the plane, (2) the work done by the 925-pound force, (3) the gain in potential energy from the bottom of the plane to the top, (4) the gain in kinetic energy, (5) the part of the work that goes into heat, and (6) the force of friction. (7) If the normal force is
866 pounds, find the coefficient of friction. (1) The mechanical advantage of the plane
(2)
is

100 ft./50

ft.,

or

2.

The work done by

feet, since

the 925-pound force

is

the product of 925 pounds

by 100

the two are parallel.

(3) The gain in potential energy is block and the vertical height through which it rises. Notice that the weight (a vertical force) and the height are parallel with each other. Numerically,

The product is 92,500 foot-pounds. Wh, the product of the weight of the

therefore, the gain in potential energy is (1,000

pounds) (50

feet) or

50,000

foot-pounds. (4) At the bottom of the incline, the kinetic energy was zero since the block was at rest there. At the top, the kinetic energy is by section 3-6 equal to Wv*/2g; we may write the equation
kinetic energy

'

'

5,000 foot-pounds

(5) The total work, 92,500 foot-pounds, accounts for three things, the gain in potential energy of 50,000 foot-pounds, the gain in kinetic energy of

5,000 foot-pounds, and the heat developed.

By

subtraction, therefore,

we

find that 37,500 foot-pounds of heat are developed.

(6) Since the heat is the product of the force of friction and the slant height of the plane, the force of friction is the quotient of 37,500 foot-pounds and 100 feet, or 375 pounds. (7) The coefficient of friction is the quotient of the force of 375 pounds, and the normal force, 866 pounds, or 0.433.

friction,

Figure 4-4 represents a jackscrew. Let the effort be applied through one whole circumference of the dotted circle of radius r. The effort displacement is therefore 2 IT r. The corresponding resistance displacement is called the

4-10.

The Jackscrew.

pitch of the screw

and may be represented by

p.

It is the vertical

distance that the weight rises

angle of 360 degrees.

4-2, equation (b),

when the screw is turned through an The mechanical advantage is, then, by section given by the expression
advantage
of jackscrew

ideal mechanical

30

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

[4-1

The efficiency of a jackscrew is fairly low; more than half of the work is done against friction. As a matter of fact, it would be inconvenient to have the efficiency of a jackscrew greater than fifty per cent; this would mean that when the effort dropped to zero, the weight of the load

t^^-zz^^") "

would turn the screw back down again.

One may think

of the jackscrew as a modification of the inclined plane in which the "plane" has been twisted in-

to a helix.
4-11. Illustrative Problem.
(1)

jack-

Figure 4-4.

screw has four threads per inch, and an efficiency of 25 per cent. How great a weight can the jack lift when a force of 100 pounds is exerted at the end of a two-foot bar in order to turn the screw? (2) What force must be applied at the end of the two-foot bar in order to let the same weight back down again with the same jack?

Use the equation, efficiency equals output divided by input. The efficiency is 0.25. The input is the effort, 100 pounds, multiplied by the effort displacement, (2) (TT) (24 inches). The output is the product of the resistance, pounds, by the resistance displacement, 0.25 inch. 0.25
(a)

inch is the pitch of the screw, since there are four threads to the inch. these values substituted, the equation becomes
0.25

With

0.25

(2 T) (24) (100)

efficiency is a pure number; both output and input are in inch-pounds. Divide both sides of the equation by 0.25 and multiply both sides by = 15,070 pounds. 4,800 ir, and the equation becomes 4,800 TT = W, or It will be noticed that during this one revolution the input is 15,070 inch-pounds, the output is 3,700 inch-pounds, and 11,300 inch-pounds of heat are developed. The difference between input and output is

The

practically always heat.

heat,

When we let the weight back down again, there is no output except and when heat is the only output, a process is always 100 per cent efficient. The output is now 11,300 inch-pounds of heat, and the input is the sum of 3,770 inch-pounds recovered from the load together with the work done by exerting an unknown force, F, through a distance of (2 TT) (24) inches. The efficiency equation therefore becomes
(b)

1.00

11,300

3,770+(2)(24)(/9

4-12]

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

31

Clear of fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the denominator of the right-hand side

3,770+

150.7

F =

11,300
is

Subtracting 3,770 from both sides of this equation, which posing the 3,770," we have
150.7

called "trans-

F =

7,530

Dividing both sides of the equation by 150.7 gives

F=

50.0 pounds, answer

The method employed in solving this problem is typical of a large number of physics problems. In general the successive steps are (1) recognition of the physical principle involved and the selection of an equation embodying this principle, (2) substitution of the numerical values of the problem into the equation, leaving the unknown values represented by letters, and (3) algebraic manipulation in order to solve for the unknown
quantities.
It is very important to make sure that the physical quantities are expressed in the proper units. When the units are correct, they may be introduced into the equation along with the numerical values, and it will then be found that the units completely cancel.

4-12. Problem Illustrating "Wheel And Axle." The wheel of a "wheel and axle," figure 4-5, has a radius of two feet and the axle, a diameter of six inches. Assuming no friction, compute the force which must be applied to the rim of the wheel in order to lift a 400-pound weight by means of a rope wrapped around the
axle.
If

What

is

the mechanical advantage?

the wheel is turned through one complete revolution, the unknown force on the rim (the

E) acts through a distance of (27r) (2) the circumference of the wheel: this is the At the same time the effort displacement. resistance, 400 pounds, is lifted a distance of (27r) (0.25) feet, the circumference of the axle:
effort
feet,

this is the resistance displacement.

The

ideal

mechanical advantage

may

be found immedi-

ately by dividing the effort displacement by the resistance displacement and obtaining 8.

Since in this case we are assuming no friction, the efficiency is 100 per cent and the ideal mechanical advantage is also equal to the resistance divided by the effort.

FAS
IQure

Therefore

400

E
for the effort.

and solving

for E,

we obtain 50 pounds

32

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

[4-13

4-13. The Hydraulic Press. The hydraulic press consists of two hollow cylinders of different diameters and therefore different cross-sectional areas, a and A, connected by means of a tube (see

Each cylinder is equipped with a tightly fitting piston, and the whole is filled with some liquid. A
figure 4-6).

exerted through the distance n, results in the exertion of a large force 2?, exerted through the

small force

small distance m. Levers are also used in practice to increase further the mechanical advantage but will not be

included in this discussion.

By section 4-2, equation (b), the mechanical advantage is equal to n/m.

The volume
Figure 4-6.

of the liquid na, which

leaves
essarily

the

small
to

mA, which enters the large cylinder. Therefore n/m = A/a, another expression for the mechanical advantage. 4-14. Pressure. In section 3-4, the first illustration of energy (1) could be termed pressure energy. Pressure may be defined as the ratio of a force exerted at right angles to the surface of a fluid to the
liquid

equal

cylinder is necthe volume of

area of the fluid upon which the force

pressure

is

acting.

force

area

unit of pressure is of the form, pounds per square foot, pounds per square inch, or newtons per square meter. It should be emphasized that the force is perthat
is,

pressure

is

force per unit area.

The

pendicular to the area and directed toward the area. We shall see eventually that pressure is a special case of a "stress."

4-15. Pressure Energy.

When

a fluid

is

compressed,

we may

state with sufficient accuracy for our purpose that the pressure energy stored by the process is equal to the product of the pressure

and the decrease in volume. If the pressure is expressed in pounds per square foot and the volume in cubic feet, the energy will come
out in foot-pounds. Consider the following example a tightly fitting piston moves a distance of d feet into a cylinder of cross section A square feet against a constant pressure of p pounds per square foot.
:

The

force necessary to do this is therefore pA pounds, and since this force is parallel to the distance d, work will be done by the force

4-15]

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

33

equal to pAd foot-pounds. But the volume V moved through by the piston is the cross section A times the distance d. Therefore the

energy put into the fluid

is

pV foot-pounds.
=
pV

Pressure energy

press affords another illustration of pressure and pressure energy. The area of one of the pistons, multiplied by the pressure in the liquid, will equal the force exerted by the liquid on

The hydraulic

that piston, and also, by Newton's third law, will equal the force exerted by the piston on the liquid. That is, force equals pressure times area. The pressure throughout the liquid has practically a constant value; therefore, disregarding friction, the forces on the two
pistons are proportional to the cross-sectional area of the pistons. The smaller force may be taken as the effort (, figure 4-6) and the
larger as the resistance
J?,

and the

mechanical advantage

-=
rL

=
a

A and a are the areas of the two pistons. This relation may also be obtained from the energy point of view, still considering the machine frictionless. If n and m are the
where
displacement and the resistance displacement respectively, is the output and En the input energy; these energies could be written in terms of pressures and volumes by putting areas in both numerators and denominators, that is
effort

then

Rm

Rm = En, since the efficiency is one hundred per cent. If we divide Rm = En by mA = na, we obtain R/A = E/a which
Therefore

may

be rewritten

R/E =

A/a.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4
Technical Terms Defined

Simple Machine.
Input.

device for transferring energy.

Compound Machine.
Rate
Output.
Effort.

A combination of two or more simple machines. work on a machine. Rate at which a machine does work.
of doing

Efficiency.

Ratio of output to input, usually expressed in percentage.. Force exerted on a machine. Force exerted by a machine.

Resistance.

34

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

Effort Displacement. exerted.

An

arbitrary distance through which the effort

is

Resistance Displacement.
resistance
is

The corresponding
Ratio of
effort

distance through which the

exerted.

Ideal Mechanical Advantage.

displacement to resistance

displacement. The meActual Mechanical Advantage. Ratio of resistance to effort. chanical advantage of a compound machine is the product of the mechanical

advantages of

its parts.

Normal Force.

by one object upon another object which

Coefficient of Friction.
coefficient of friction"

force perpendicular to the surface of contact exerted rests or slides upon the first.

Ratio of force of friction to normal force; called

"static coefficient of friction"

when

surfaces are at rest

and "kinetic

when

in relative motion.

Pressure.

Ratio of force to area; force must be normal to area and

it.

directed toward

Pressure Energy.
the pressure.

Product of pressuie by change of volume produced by

Laws
Heat may be changed
Other forms
of energy

to other forms of energy at

low

efficiencies.

may

be converted into heat with one hundred

per cent efficiency.

The

difference

except when the output

between input and output is rate of production of heat, itself is rate of production of heat.
is

Displacement multiplied by force of friction

heat energy.

PROBLEMS
4-1. Find the force of friction between sled and snow if the sled and load weigh 100 pounds and the coefficient of friction is 0.1. How much work will be done in pulling the sled 50 feet with the rope horizontal? What

becomes
4-2.

of this

work?

Show

R/r, where R which the rope

4-3.

that in the case of a windlass, the mechanical advantage is is the length of the crank and r is the radius of the axle on
is

wound.

weighing 180 pounds is lowered into a well by means of a windlass, the arm of which is 30 inches long and the axle of which is 6 inches in diameter. Assuming no friction, find the force required to let him down with uniform speed.
4-4. What horsepower is necessary to run a 700-watt generator, the efficiency of which is 90 per cent? 4-5. What wattage is necessary to drive a one-horsepower motor, the efficiency of which is 80 per cent?
4-6. State the data necessary to determine the mechanical advantage of a bicycle (1) if one is to be restricted to an examination of the bicycle itself; (2) if one is allowed to experiment with the bicycle on the road.

A man

EFFICIENCY;

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE; SIMPLE MACHINES

35

4-7. A jackscrew with four threads to the inch, lifting a weight of 10,000 pounds, is turned by a capstan rod, and the force required to turn the screw is 100 pounds, the lever arm being 18 inches. Find the efficiency. 4-8. Prove that a jackscrew, the efficiency of which is 50 per cent, requires no force to let the load back down after being raised.

4-9. An automobile is stuck in the mud. Given: a horse, a long rope, a pair of triple pulleys, and a tree growing at a convenient spot. Show how to rig the pulleys so as to obtain the maximum mechanical advantage. If the efficiency of the pulleys is 50 per cent and the horse can exert a pull of 700 pounds, what pull can be exerted on the car?

4-10. The wheel of a "wheel and axle" has a radius of two feet and the axle a diameter of six inches. Assuming that 25

per cent of the applied force

is

necessary to

overcome friction, compute the force which must be applied to the rim of the wheel in order to lift a 400-pound weight by means of a cord wrapped around the axle. What is (1) the mechanical advantage; (2) the
efficiency?

4-1 1. In figure 4-7, which illustrates a differential pulley (sometimes called a chain
hoist or chain fall), the
(radii r

two upper pulleys

Show
is

respectively) turn together. that the ideal mechanical advantage

rz

and

?
r2

Does the radius

of the lower

wheel affect the mechanical advantage? 4-12. A differential chain hoist has one wheel nine inches in diameter and the other Figure 4-7. ten inches. If the efficiency is 40 per cent, how large a force on the chain is necessary to lift a one-ton load? What is the largest efficiency that the chain hoist may have without dropping back when the effort is removed?

CHAPTER

Fluids

5-1. Boyle's Law. Liquids and gases are both fluids; neither of them has a fixed shape, but both take the shape of the container. The distinction between a liquid and a gas is that a liquid has a definite volume, and therefore a free surface, and stays in the bottom of the receptacle, whereas a gas occupies the whole volume of the container. For this reason the expression "volume of a gas" means no more than the volume of the container. The pressure exerted by the walls of the container on a gas may be computed if we know the weight and temperature of the gas, and the volume of the container. If the mass and temperature of a gas remain constant, decreasing the volume of a gas increases its pressure in accordance with the

equation

v V2

p* Pi

where PI and V\ represent the original pressure and volume and P 2 and F 2 the new values. It will be noticed that P\V\ = P^V^ expresses the same mathematical fact more concisely; still another way is to say that the product of the pressure and the volume is constant. This relation goes under the name of Boyle's law. The pressure here is the total pressure, not the excess over and above atmospheric pressure, which generally goes under the term "gage
,

pressure." 5-2. Density

sity

and

Specific Gravity.

The conceptions of den-

and

specific gravity are particularly useful in dealing with fluids.

36

5-3]

FLUIDS

37

density (sometimes called weight density to distinguish it from mass density, a term often used in theoretical physics) of a substance
is

The

determined by dividing

its
,

weight by
.

its

volume. That

is

density

weight 2

volume

3 Since 62 .4 typical unit of density will therefore be lb./ft pounds of water has a volume of one cubic foot, and one gram (one thousandth of a kilogram) of water has a volume of one cubic centi-

meter,

it

units is

follows that the density of water in two common systems of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, and one gram per cubic centimeter.
in the

(The mass density

is
i

standard kilogram-meter system of units

1,000 kilograms per cubic meter.) Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance under consideration to
)

Both densities must be the density of water. in before dividing. This the same units expressed

means that specific gravity itself is a pure number; it has no units. For this reason the specific gravity of a substance will be the same in one
system as it is in any other. Specific gravity may also be defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of that substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. Since specific gravity is the ratio of two weights, it will still come out a pure number. 5-3. Pascal's Principle. In section 4-15, it was assumed that increasing the pressure under Figure 5-1. the smaller piston of a hydraulic press had the effect of increasing the pressure by the same amount under the larger piston. This is, in fact, the case. We may make this state-

ment more

general as follows: when a fluid (gas or liquid) is confined within a given volume, an increase in the pressure of any part of the fluid will result in the same increase of pressure everywhere else in

the fluid.
to

This

is

lecture table

by

Pascal's principle. It is often illustrated on the the so-called Cartesian divers. They are weighted

have about the density of water. If the pressure is increased in any part of the apparatus, as at A (figure 5-1), the air inside the divers is compressed, water enters, and both divers become heavier and sink simultaneously. 5-4. Hydrostatic Pressure. The concept of density becomes useful when we are given the volume of a substance and wish to know its weight; the weight will be the product of the volume and the

38
density.

FLUIDS

[5-5

As an illustration of this use of density, let us compute the at the bottom of a rectangular tank filled with some liquid. pressure Let the density of the liquid be Z>, the horizontal cross section of the
tank A, and the height of the liquid above the point in question (the bottom of the tank) h. The volume of the liquid in the tank is therefore A h, and the weight of the liquid DAh. The weight is the force exerted on the bottom of the tank. Since the pressure on the bottom
is

or hD.

the ratio of the force to the area, the pressure in this case is DAh/ A That is, the area cancels out, leaving the pressure a function

of the density

and depth

of liquid only.

P = hD
In other words, at a given depth in a liquid there will be a given pres-

everywhere the same at this level. If there is already a pressure at the upper surface of the liquid, this pressure must be added to hD to get the total pressure. When a force is the product of a pressure by the area over which the pressure is distributed, the force is always at right angles to the area and pushing toward it. This means that if we had a vertical surface in the liquid we could still use the formula we have just derived (P = hD) to compute the pressure; after that, to compute the horizontal force on a given vertical area, the necessary formula would be F = PA, which we have met before.
sure,

The

for the center of the area in question. Problem. If the volume of an air bubble is 10 cubic centimeters when 34 feet below the surface of a pond, what will the volume be just below the surface? The pressure on the air bubble just below the surface is one atmosphere or 14.7 pounds/square inch. The pressure 34 feet below the surface will be more than one atmosphere by hD, where h is 34 feet and D is the density of water, 62.4 pounds/cubic foot. The additional pressure is therefore (34) (62.4) or 2,120 pounds per square foot. In accordance with slide-rule precision, this number has been rounded off to three significant figures. Since

pressure

is

computed

5-5. First Illustrative

same as 2,120/144

there are 144 square inches in a square foot, this additional pressure is the or 14.7 pounds per square inch, making a total pressure

at a depth of 34 feet of 29.4 pounds per square inch. Assuming that the temperature is the same in both places, Boyle's law P<zVi. In this case PI is 29.4 pounds per square inch, V\ holds, or, P\V\

10 cubic centimeters, known. Therefore

is

P%

is

14.7

pounds per square

inch,

and

2 is

un-

(29.4) (10)

(14.7)
2

(F 2)
is,

Dividing both sides by 14.7, we obtain

when

the pressure

is

halved, the volume

is

20 cubic centimeters. That doubled.

5-6.

Second

Illustrative

Problem.

deep, and six feet long. If

it is filled

A tank is three feet wide, four feet with water, find the average pressure

5-7]

FLUIDS

39

side and on one end in pounds per square foot, also find the force on one side and on one end, in pounds. The center of one side, also the center of one end, is two feet from the

on one

feet is therefore the value of A. Since the fluid is water, the dentop. 3 Therefore the average pressure for the side is the same sity is 62.4 lb./ft. as the average pressure for the end, and both are equal to (2 ft.) (62.4
lb./ft. )

Two

force

3 which is 124.8 lb./ft. 2 Notice the cancellation of the feet. The on one end is PA, in this case (124.8 lb./ft. 2 ) (12 ft. 2 ) or 1,498 pounds. 2 2 Similarly the force on a side is (124.8 lb./ft. ) (24 ft. ) or 3,000 pounds.

As a third illustration of this type of brick a wire below the surface of a liquid a suspended by imagine problem, the density of which is 1.5 gm./cm. 3 Let the dimensions of the brick be 5 by 10 by 20 cm., and let the 10 by 20 side be on top and immersed 30 cm. below the surface of the liquid. Find the forces exerted by the fluid on all
5-7.

Third Illustrative Problem.

six surfaces of

the brick.

these surfaces top, bottom, sides, and ends. The values of A for these surfaces are 30 cm. for the top, 35 cm. for the bottom, and 32.5 cm. for the sides and ends. Therefore the pressures will be 45 gm./cm. 2 for the top, 52.5 gm./cm. 2 for the bottom, and 48.8 gm./cm. 2 for the sides and 3 ends, since the density of the fluid is 1.5 gm./cm. The forces will be 9,000

We can name

grams down on the top, 10,500 grams up on the bottom, two horizontal forces of 2,440 grams each (in opposite directions), one on each end, and two forces of 4,880 grams each, one on each side, these numbers being found

by multiplying each pressure by the appropriate area. This solves the problem, but let us continue and find the total force on the whole brick.

The

forces on the ends cancel each other, likewise the forces on the sides, but the top and bottom forces add (algebraically) to 1,500 grams, upward. This means that the liquid actually pushes up on the brick with a force of 1,500 grams, which is, incidentally, exactly the weight of the liquid that could be contained in the volume of the brick.

5-8.
is

Buoyant Force; Archimedes' Principle.

Let us now

consider whether the agreement mentioned in the previous sentence a coincidence or not. Imagine the vessel that contains the liquid,

discussed in the previous section, before the brick has been suspended in the fluid. The space later to be occupied by the brick is at that

time filled with 1,500 grams of liquid. This 1,500 grams of liquid is at rest; it has a tendency neither to rise nor fall. The only way in which to account for this is to assume that the surrounding liquid is
supporting it by exerting upon it an upward force of just 1,500 grams. This is known as a buoyant force. And it will be exerted by the surrounding fluid on whatever material occupies that particular 1,000 cubic centimeters of space. Therefore it was no coincidence when we

found at the end of the previous section that the upward force of the liquid on the brick was 1,500 grams. This general fact is known as Archimedes' principle and may be stated as follows a body immersed
:

40
in

FLUIDS

[5-9

fluid

a fluid experiences an upward force exerted by the surrounding and equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. If the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object, the object
will rise, as in the case of

of

wood placed under

a balloon, or a stick water. In the latter in-

stance, a portion of the wood will finally rise above the surface of the water, after which the

wood
of

will displace less water, until the

weight

the

water

displaced

is

equal to the weight of the

piece of wood.

The

floating

then be in equilibrium. Archimedes' principle holds just as rigorously for a floating as for a submerged object.
piece of
will

wood

.-*^_

""^

5-9.

A little

Determination of Specific Gravity. consideration will show that Archimedes' principle furnishes a direct method of determining the specific gravity of a body. P'or this purpose, we need to know both the weight of the body

^
-:

_d "

.&<
CJ

"'*

^^^
by

and the weight of an equal volume of water. But this "weight of an equal volume of
water"
is

simply the buoyant force when

readily be found

the object is immersed in water. It may subtracting the weight of the object when it is
its

supported under water from

the

weight in

air,

because (figure 5-2)

sum of the two upward forces B and F in must equal the downward force
is the order to maintain equilibrium. weight in air, B is the buoyant force, and F, the additional force needed for equilib-

rium, is called the "weight in water." If the density of the object is less than that
of water, a modification of this

method

is

sinker, attached to the obnecessary. water while the object under is kept ject,
is

weighed both

in air

and

in water.

Thus

the difference between the two weights still

gives the buoyant force on the given object.
5-10. Illustrative Problem.

block of

wood weighs 200 grams.

sinker

and when the sinker is below the surface of water with the wood above the surface, the two together weigh 500 grams. If
is

fastened to

it,

5-11]

FLUIDS

41

volume and the

both are below the surface, the combination weighs 150 grams. Find the specific gravity of the block of wood.

When only the sinker is submerged, the upward force necessary for equilibrium is 500 grams. When both block and sinker are submerged, the necessary upward force is only 150 grams, 350 grams less. This means that in the second case the buoyant force is 350 grams more. In the first position the wood is out of water and in the second position the wood is under water, therefore the 350 grams represents the buoyant force of the water on the wood, and by Archimedes' principle, is the weight of the water displaced by the wood. Since one gram of water occupies one cubic centimeter, the volume occupied by the wood is 350 cubic centimeters.
The specific gravity of the wood is the ratio of the weight of the wood to the weight of an equal volume of water. The weight of the wood is 200 grams and the weight of the same volume of water is 350 grams, therefore the specific gravity is (200 grams)/(350 grams) or 0.571, a number without units.
If the density had been required, it would have been necessary to find the quotient, (200 grams)/(350 cubic centimeters), and the result would have been 0.571 gram/cubic centimeter.

5-11. Bernoulli's Principle. The discussion has so far concerned fluids at rest; if we let the fluids move, there will be deviations from the laws already stated. For instance, in a fluid at lest, the
force on a unit area at a certain depth has the same numerical value no matter whether the unit area be vertical, horizontal, or slanted. But if the fluid is in motion, this force will depend on the direction
of the motion.

Moreover,

let

us consider the relations involved

when a

frictionless,

incompressible liquid flows without any eddying

motion through the pipe shown in figure 5-3. The potential energies of small quantities of water at B, C, and D are all equal and less than

Figure 5-3.

level

are all on the the potential energy at A, because B, C, and and A is at a higher level. The velocities at ^4, J5, and

same

D are

equal and greater than at C because the pipe has the same cross section at -4, B, and Z), and a larger one at C; therefore the kinetic than at C. The pressure energies energies are greater at A, B, and at B and are equal and greater than at A because the lower down

fluid,

other things being equal, the greater the pressure.

But other

42
things are not equal at C.

FLUIDS

[5-12

Since the kinetic energy at

is

small,

some other energy must be greater there to compensate. Since this cannot be the potential energy, it must be the pressure energy. A statement of this fact is known as Bernoulli's principle, and is as
the velocity of an enclosed moving fluid changes, the pressure changes in the other direction in such a way as to keep the total energy per unit volume constant.
follows:

when

5-12. Illustrations of Bernoulli's Principle. Some peculiar experiments illustrating Bernoulli's principle can be performed. As one example, push a common pin through a card, and hold the card against the hole in a spool so that the pin enters the hole. The card can naturally be held- against the spool by drawing air through
the hole in the spool from the opposite end because of the low pressure of the air as it moves
rapidly between the card and spool. But for the same reason, the card can also be held in

place nearly as well by blowing air through the hole toward the card. Another illustration is

that of a light ball riding on an air jet. (See figure 5-4). Three forces act on the ball: A, B, and the weight. The forces A and B are due

because the than on the side where A is. Therefore, in whatever way the ball starts to fall out of the jet, the action of the Figure 5-4. forces will be such as to push the ball back up into the jet. The suction between two ships moving parallel to each other, the curving of baseballs, the Venturi meter, and the hydraulic suction pump (or aspirator) so commonly used in laboratories are
to air pressures. speed of the air
is

greater than
is

on that side

less

all illustrations of

Bernoulli's principle.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Fluid.

Technical Terms Defined

state of matter such that

it

conforms to the shape of the con-

tainer; includes liquids

and

gases.

Liquid.

A A

fluid

with a definite volume.

Gas.

fluid

Weight Density.

which tends to expand indefinitely. Ratio of weight to volume.

Ratio of the density of substance under consideration to Specific Gravity. the density of water, or ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.

FLUIDS

43

Derived Relations.
is

equal to the product of the average density of the fluid

Increase of hydrostatic pressure with increase in depth by the increase

in depth.

Laws
Given a definite quantity of gas by weight, at a definite Boyle's Law. temperature, the product of its total pressure and the volume of its container will be a constant.

A local increase in pressure Pascal's Principle. of an enclosed fluid.

is

transmitted to

all

parts

Archimedes' Principle. A body immersed in a fluid experiences an upward force (buoyant force) exerted by the surrounding fluid and equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.

At a given level of a moving fluid, changes of veBernoulli's Principle. locity are accompanied by compensating changes of pressure in such a

way

as to keep the total energy constant in a given volume.

PROBLEMS
5-1. If 2 cubic feet of sulphur weigh 250 pounds, compute (1) the density in English units, (2) the specific gravity, and (3) the density in grams

per cubic centimeter. 5-2. Find the excess above atmospheric pressure 50 feet below the surface of a pond in pounds per square foot; in

pounds per square

5-3.

inch.

cubical tank, six feet on each edge, is half full of water. The upper half contains oil of specific gravity 0.8. Find the excess of the force exerted by the water on the lower half of one side of the tank, over what it would be if the tank

were

filled

with

air.

5-4. Figure

5-5

represents a vertical tube open at the

bottom and closed at the top. Tt was originally filled with mercury (density = 13.59 gm./cm. 3 ), the end closed with the thumb and inverted into another dish of mercury. Some of the mercury ran out when the thumb was removed, leaving a vacuum above A. The pressure at A is therefore zero. (1) If

B is 38.0 centimeters below A, find the pressure at B. (2) Find are Figure 5-5. the pressure at C, 76.0 centimeters below A. (3) If C and on the same level, how do their pressures compare? (4) Express in pounds per square inch. (5) If a small hole were made the pressure at in the tube at J5, would mercury run out or air go in? This apparatus (without the hole at B) is called a mercury barometer and is used to measure

atmospheric pressure.

Compare the pressures at points A, B, and D, all on the same level. Compare qualitatively the pressures at points C, D, and E. If the lower end of the tube is opened, will air enter the tube or will water run out? A tube used in this way is called a siphon. Why will it not work when the vertical distance from B to C is such that the difference in pressure between these two points
is

5-5. Figure 5-6 represents a vessel containing water into also full of water, dips. The tube is closed at the lower end.

which a tube,

greater than one atmosphere?

44

FLUIDS

5-6. A rock weighs 250 pounds in air and 150 pounds in water. Find its specific gravity and
its

density.
5-7.

pump
raise

What force must be exerted on a forcepiston that is three inches in diameter to

7.6.

water 100 feet?

The specific gravity of iron is hollow piece of iron weighs six grams in
5-8.

A
and

air

four

grams in water. What is the volume of the cavity in the iron? 5-9. A sinker weighing 38 grams is fastened to a cork weighing 10 grams, and the two together are in equilibrium when immersed in water. Find the specific gravity of the sinker if that of the cork is 0.25.
5-10.
If

A dam is 10 feet in height and 100 feet the water level is even with the top of the long. dam, find the thrust of the water against the dam.

Figure 5-6.

5-11. A horizontal water pipe two square inches in cross section widens out to four square inches in cross section. If the speed of the water is six feet per second in the narrower part, what is the speed in the wider part? If the gage pressure in the narrower part of the pipe is five pounds per square inch, what is the gage pressure in the wider part?

CHAPTER

Elasticity

6-1. Elasticity.

In everyday

life

the concept of elasticity

is

prob-

ably more definitely associated with rubber than with any other substance. But when we use the word in its technical sense, we are
obliged to admit that rubber is elastic not because it can be stretched so far, but because after being stretched, it has a tendency to return to its original dimensions. Elasticity is the tendency of a body after

being deformed to return to

of

discuss elasticity intelligibly, two more technical terms: stress

In order to with we must become familiar the use

its original

dimensions.

and

strain.

6-2. Stress.
stress.

Stress is the ratio

is

between a force and an area

shall discuss three types of

over which the force

applied.

We

may be perpendicular to the area or in the plane of the area. If the force is perpendicular to the area, it may push on the area or pull on the area. We have already met the case where the force pushes perpendicularly on the area, and have called this type of stress pressure (see section 4-15). When the force pulls on the area, we have a tensile stress, and its tendency is always to lengthen the wire or whatever object the force is acting upon. If the
force

The

force is exerted in the plane of the given area, it gives rise to what is known as a shearing stress. In all three cases, the unit of stress is the

45

46

ELASTICITY

[6-3

pound per square inch, the newton per square square meter, or some similar unit.
stress

inch, the

newton per

force

area

6-3. Strain.

A strain has no units; it is always a pure number.

own type
of strain, or deformation.

Each type

of stress produces its

pressure tends to decrease the volume of the object on which the pressure is applied; and the numerical measure of the volume
strain
is

the ratio of the decrease in volume

to the original volume.

volume

strain

decrease in volume
original

v_

volume

~V

Since a tensile stress tends to increase the

length, the accompanying strain to the original length.
.,
.

is

the ratio of the increase in length

tensile strain

increase in length
r-. ri 1 original length

T L

A shearing stress tends to distort a cube into a solid figure having two rhomboid, two oblong, and two square faces. A reference to
shows the nature of the change in shape. For a force exerted on the cover of a thick book, example, imagine parallel to the direction of a line of reading matter on the cover.
figures 6-1 arid 6-2

-P
Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-2.

The The
In

to change the shape but not the volume of the book. shearing strain is the ratio of x to y in figure 6-2. with vertex at Q. It is thus roughly proportional to the angle
result
is

three of these cases, if the substance is elastic, the strain disappears when the stress is removed, and the object resumes its
all

original shape

and

size.

6-4]

ELASTICITY

47

of Elasticity. It is possible to produce a unit band; that is, the stretch may be made equal to the original length. The stress necessary to produce this unit strain is the numerical measure of the elasticity of the rubber band; stress is also the force per unit cross section with which the rubber band resists the stretching and tries to return to its original dimensions. Half of this stress would be enough to produce a strain of 0.5. In
6-4.
strain in a rubber

Modulus

general the stress

also

and the

strain are proportional, so that the elas-

be obtained by dividing the existing stress by the ticity may accompanying strain. This is fortunate because rubber is nearly the only substance the elasticity of which could be determined by
measuring the
stress necessary to

produce unit

strain,

although

it is

possible in the case of any substance to measure a given stress and the corresponding strain and obtain the ratio. The ratio of the stress
to the strain
is

the modulus of

elasticity.
r
i

11 modulus

of elasticity

4-

stress rstrain
is

The numerical value

Any

fraction

may

decreasing its erator of the modulus) are large, and corresponding strains (in the denominator of the modulus) are small, we are not surprised to find,

always very large. be increased by increasing its numerator or by denominator. Therefore, since stresses (in the num-

of a

modulus

of elasticity

for example, that the stretch modulus (called Young's modulus} for steel is in the neighborhood of 30,000,000 pounds per square inch.

Hooke's Law. In the preceding section the statement was made that in general, stress and strain arc proportional. This fact is known as Hooke's law, and is true providing the stress does
6-5.

not become too great. If the stress does become too great for Hooke's law to hold, we say that the elastic limit has been exceeded. Mathematically, the two statements, "Stress is proportional to strain, "Stress is equal to strain times a constant" are equivalent.

"

and

The

proportionality constant is the modulus of elasticity. Since for a given cross section, stress is proportional to force, and for a given original length, strain is proportional to elongation, it is
also possible to state Hooke's law: for a given specimen, elongation is proportional to stretching force. This may be expressed by the

equation

F=
where k
is

ke

a constant for a given specimen.

We may

also set

up a

similar expression for the restoring force which, by Newton's third law,

48
is

ELASTICITY

[6-6

equal and opposite to the stretching force, F.

This equation

is

F = 6-6. Illustration of the

in
will

ke

Use of Hooke's Law. A force of 10 pounds helical a certain spring a strain of 10 per cent. What adproduce ditional force will produce an additional strain of 10 per cent of the new length, assuming that the elastic limit is not reached?
Using Hooke's law in the form, elongation
force,
is

proportional to stretching

we have
0.1

L _

0.1

(L

+ 0.1
F

L)

10

where L is the original length and right-hand side may be rewritten

F is

additional force which

we

seek.

The

0.1 (1.1L)

0.11Z,

so that the original proportionality

becomes
0.11L

aiL =
10

F
11 pounds.
(1)

Canceling the

Z,'s

6-7. Illustrations of the

and solving for F, we find that F is Use of Young's Modulus.

Let us consider

the following problem. What force is necessary to produce a stretch of an eighth of an inch in a steel wire 10 feet long (120 inches long) and one hundredth of an inch in diameter?

The strain in this case is 0.125/120 or 0.001042. Since the material is 2 steel, we shall take the modulus to be 30,000,000 lb./in. By multiplying both sides of the equation in section 6-4 by (strain), we obtain the relation that stress = (strain) (modulus). The necessary stress in the present case
is

The

therefore (0.001042) (30,000,000) lb./in. 2 or 31 ,300 pounds per square inch. cross section of this wire is [7r(0.01) 2 /4] in. 2 , or 0.0000785 in. 2 Since stress is the ratio of force to area, the force is the product of area and
,

stress, or in this case

(2)

(0.0000785

in. 2 )

(31,300 lb./in.

2
)

2.46 pounds.

has a
of

certain wire illustration, assume a literal problem. cross section of inches. If a force square inches, and a length of

As a second

F pounds
The
is

produces an elongation of
is,

e inches, find

stress

then, F/A, and the

strain e/ L.

Young's modulus, F. Therefore the modulus,

F,

(F/A)/(e/L) or

F = FL/Ae

it

rather than numbers, the result is general, that is, be taken as a formula useful in solving any problem involving may Young's modulus.

Since

we have used letters

Bulk Modulus. The modulus obtained by dividing presvolume strain is called the bulk modulus. The reciprocal of by the bulk modulus is called the compressibility. If B represents the
6-8.
sure

6-9]

ELASTICITY

49

bulk modulus, V the original volume, and v the decrease in volume, then v/ V is the volume strain, and the formula connecting the four
quantities
is

B=

pv
v

where

gases and shear moduli.

water
is

all

have volume

represents the pressure (the stress). Solids, liquids, and elasticity, but solids alone have stretch moduli

6-9. Illustration of
is 1.03,

Bulk Modulus.

find the increase in pressure that one miles below the surface of the ocean. (2) If the bulk

(1) If the specific gravity of sea would encounter five

31,900,000 lb./in
if

2
,

how much would

modulus of sea water a cubic foot of water decrease in

at a point five miles below

volume
(1)

removed from the surface and placed

the surface?

We find

5-4).

In this case h

fore

P
2

lb./ft.

and D = (1.03) (62.4 lb./ft. 3 ), there= (5) (5,280) (1.03) (62.4) pounds per square foot, or 1,697,000 By dividing this by 144 we can change the result to 11,790 pounds

the increase in pressure from the formula

P = hD

(section

(5) (5,280) feet

1,900,000 lb./in. ) = (11,790 lb./in. ) (1 In other words, water is so nearly incompressible that its 0.000370 density at the bottom of an ocean five miles deep is practically the same as
cal values,

per square inch. = PV/v, (2) Since B

it

follows that v
2

we have

= PV/B.

Filling in the

numeri2

ft. 8 )/(3

ft. 3

the density at sea level.

6-10. Shear Modulus. In figure 6-2, if the force F is applied to the area A (to which it is parallel) the shear modulus is

Ax
which
2
is

the ratio of the stress,

F/A,

to the strain, x/y.

Modulus. The shear modulus of glass is 10 10 newtons per square meter. A glass brick, 3 by 4 by 5 centimeters, rests on the 4 by 5 centimeter face. If a shearing stress of 2,000,000 newtons per square meter is applied to the upper surface, find the shearing strain, the relative displacement of the upper and lower surfaces, and the shearing
6-11. Illustration of Shear

force.

Modulus
stress 2

(stress) /(strain);

modulus

10 10

newtons/ w

and

106

newtons/ w

2.

Substituting the numerical values into the

strain
,

10 we Multiplying both sides by strain and dividing both sides by 2 X 10 obtain strain = 10~4 or strain = 0.0001. This strain is x/y in figure 6-2,
,

and y

3 centimeters.

We

therefore have

0.0001

50
Solving for x9
of the

ELASTICITY

6-12

we obtain x

upper and lower

shearing stress

surfaces.

the equation

- - - --

0.0003 centimeter, the relative displacement The shearing force may be obtained from
-

shearing force

area of surface on which force

TTT-T

is

T^-J

applied

= Substituting into this equation the numerical values, shearing stress 2 106 newtons/w2 and area = (0.05) (0.04) or 0.0020 square meter, we

have

2v X

106

0.0020

Solving for the shearing force, we obtain F = 4,000 newtons. The result may be changed to kilograms by dividing by 9.80. This will give, to three significant figures, 408 kilograms for the shearing force. To give an idea of the magnitude of this force, we can multiply it by 2.2 (there are 2.2 pounds in a kilogram) and obtain its equivalent in English units, which would be 898 pounds.

6-12.

Bending

of

Beams; Twisting

of Rods.

In more ex-

tended treatises, other applications of elasticity would be discussed. One of these could well be the sag to be ex"^

pected in a beam of given dimensions and given material, supported at the ends and carrying a given load with a given distribution. This expression would involve Young's modulus. The behavior of a spring board can also be com-

putcd by the help of Young's modulus. Another common problem concerns the amount of twist that could be expected in a rod under This conditions. expression would involve the shear modulus, given which may also be called the rigidity modulus. It will be noticed that bending and twisting do not involve any new moduli of elasticity. In fact it may be shown that the three moduli that we have discussed are all related, so that if we knew any one of them for a given ma_JI
***

__
._

A __

terial,

we

could compute the other two.

6-13. Ultimate Strength. In testing materials, it is imporknow not only Young's modulus, the compressibility and rigidity modulus, and the elastic limits, but also the stresses that will cause the specimen to fail. For example, it is possible to carry the tensile stress beyond the elastic limit to a point such that the specimen will break in two. This stress is known as the ultimate strength of the material. Data of this type may be found in engineering handbooks.
tant to

ELASTICITY

51

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6
Technical Terms Defined
Stress.
Strain.

Ratio of a force to the area on which

it is

applied.

Ratio of deformation to original dimension. Ratio of stress to strain for a given material. Elasticity.

Young's Modulus.

Coefficient of stretch elasticity. tensile stress to the resulting tensile strain.

It is the ratio of the

Bulk Modulus.

Coefficient of

volume

elasticity.

Ratio of the pressure to

Ratio of the volume

the resulting volume strain.

Compressibility. Reciprocal of the bulk modulus. strain to the pressure producing it.

Shear Modulus.
Bending.
Twisting.

Coefficient of rigidity.

Ratio of the shearing stress to

the resulting shear.

Involves Young's modulus. Involves the shear modulus.

Stress

Elastic Limit.

beyond which specimen

will

not return to

its original

dimensions when released.

Ultimate Strength. Stress necessary to break the specimen.

Laws
Hooke's Law.
Within the
elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.

in a vertical

bar one quarter inch square is ten feet long. When the bar, is made to support a one- ton weight, the bar is stretched one hundredth of a foot. Compute the stress, strain, and Young's
position,
for this

PROBLEMS 6-1. A steel

modulus

sample of

steel.

6-2. If a bar, one half inch square and 20 feet long, made from a sample of steel the modulus of which is .32,000,000 pounds per square inch, be substituted in place of the bar in the preceding problem, what will be the stress,

the strain, and the elongation? 6-3. What should be the diameter of a circular steel rod 10 feet long, if the permissible tensile stress is 10,000 pounds per square inch, in order to support a load of 50 tons? If Young's modulus is 32,000,000 pounds per square inch, how much will the rod stretch?

Young's modulus for a sample of steel is 30,000,000 pounds per square inch, what is the value of this modulus in newtons per square meter? 6-5. If a pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch decreases the volume of a copper sphere, one foot in diameter, by 0.258 cubic inch, compute the bulk modulus of copper. 6-6. Two opposite forces of 5 newtons each are applied, as in figure 6-1, to opposite faces of a cubical block of jelly 10 centimeters on an edge, and produce a relative displacement of one centimeter. Find the stress, the strain, and the shear modulus.
6-4. If

52
6-7.

ELASTICITY

rectangular block of brass (shear modulus = 5,500,000 pounds per square inch) 10 inches high rests on a horizontal table. A force which is parallel to the surface of the table is applied to the upper surface of the block and produces a displacement of an eighth of an inch. What is the shear? Find the shearing stress.

6-8. If a tensile stress of 20,000 lb./in. 2 produces in a wire a strain of 0.000625, applying Hooke's law, what stress will produce a strain of 0.1

per cent?
6-9. Neglecting the friction of the plunger, how much work would be done in pulling an airtight piston far enough out of a cylinder against atmospheric pressure (14.7 pounds per square inch) to leave a vacuum under it the volume of which is 10 cubic inches?

CHAPTER

Vectors

7-1. Scalars

and Vectors.

distinction to which

we must

be-

between scalars and vectors. If a with the idea of direction, it is known as a scalar. Such values may be read from scales, such as dials of watches, steel tapes, speedometers, barometers, and the like. A scalar quantity has magnitude but not direction. Examples are: ten seconds, two cubic feet, or five pounds of sugar. It would be meaningless to speak of ten seconds "up," two cubic feet "west," or five
in physics is that physical quantity is not associated

come accustomed

pounds

of sugar "south!" On the other hand, physical quantities vector is a that are associated with direction are called vectors.

quantity having both magnitude and direction; a vector is not completely described until both are given. A vector is a combination of a quantity read from a scale and the associated orientation in space of that quantity. Examples of vectors are: a velocity of 50 miles per hour due north, a 25-pound pull vertically down, or a displacement of 20 feet to the east. If at any time we wish to discuss merely the magnitude of a vector without reference to its direction, we thereby reduce the vector to a scalar for the time being. For example, the speedometer of an automobile gives the speed but not the direction of motion; speed is therefore a scalar. In physics we reserve the

53

VECTORS

[7-2

word speed

to describe the scalar rate

and use the word

velocity for

the vector concept. A vector is conveniently represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow is made proportional to the magnitude (the numerical part) of the vector, and the direction of the

arrow corresponds to the direction of the vector quantity. 7-2. The Triangle Method of Adding Vectors. There is a branch of mathematics called vector analysis which deals with the
addition, multiplication, differentiation, and so on, of vectors, but for our purpose it will be
sufficient
if

we

learn to add vectors.

is

The sim-

plest illustration of a vector

a displacement; a displacement is the change in position that would be necessary to transfer an object in a straight line from a reference point (usually

called the origin) to the point that it now happens to occupy. For example, after a man has

walked due north four miles, his displacement is four miles due north; the displacement would still be the same if he had reached this point by If after that, he should walk three miles due route. a circuitous east, his displacement would then be five miles in a direction about 37 degrees east of north (see figure 7-1). We may consider that we have added a displacement of 4 miles due north to a displacement of 3 miles due east and that the vector sum (or resultant
Figure 7-1.

as

it is

often called)

The student may

scale

and

5 miles in a direction north, 37 degrees east. verify this result either by drawing the figure to measuring the length of the hypotenuse and using a prois

tractor to obtain the angle, or he may use the Pythagorean theorem 2 2 3 5 , and then use trigonometry to get and observe that 4 2

the angle. The ancient Egyptian "rope-stretchers," the equivalent of our modern surveyors, used ropes with knots at convenient places to

enable them to form right angles quickly through the use of 3-4-5 triangles.
general rule for the triangle method of is to put the vectors together, head vectors adding the to tail, and vector sum or resultant will be

The

obtained by drawing an arrow straight from the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second. The method may be extended to add
several vectors at a time.

In that case

we

talk of the polygon

7-3]

VECTORS

55
order,

method, and place all the vectors together head to tail in any and connect the beginning of the first to the end of the last.
7-3.

The Parallelogram Method

of

Adding Vectors.

When

the vectors under consideration are forces, it is usually more convenient to use another method of combining them, because the vectors representing the forces are all acting at the same point. Consider for

example the three-cornered tug-of-war depicted at the head

of this chapter. If each team exerts a force of 500 pounds and the angles are all 120 degrees, which team is winning? One could put up

a superficial argument to the effect that any one of the three teams is losing, for is it not opposing a mere 500 pounds to 1,000 pounds? But this can not be true; all three teams can not be losing! Actually we have to add two of the 500 pounds vectorially and compare this resultant with the third force. And in this case we can see from symmetry that the tug-of-war is a tie. The parallelogram rule which we find convenient in this case may be stated as

assuming that the two vectors to be added are both drawn from the same point, complete the parallelogram by drawfollows:

ing two
vectors.

more

lines parallel to the given

The parallelogram now

two

consists
Figure 7-2.

of the

original arrows and the two

additional lines.

The

vector

sum

or retails to

sultant will be the arrow

drawn from the two coinciding

the

opposite corner of the parallelogram. In the case of the threecornered tug-of-war, the diagram will be as shown in figure 7-2. In
this case the resultant cuts the parallelogram into two equilateral triangles and we have the rather unusual result that the vector sum

of

two 500-pound

500 pounds.

forces 120 degrees apart is itself another force of This is sufficient to offset the third team.

Only two
method.
7-4.
If

forces at a time can be

handled by the parallelogram

we had
add

of them, then

to add, we should add two the third to the resultant of the first two, and so on.

three or

more vectors

Illustration. On the physics lecture table convenient to illustrate the parallelogram law by the

Another

it is

shown

in figure 7-3.

Three strings are tied together at

<

56
weights of
3, 4,

VECTORS

[7-5

pounds respectively are attached to the strings. By letting the 5-pound weight hang directly down and using two forces on A of 3, 4, and 5 pounds pulleys, it is possible to exert three from their position of equiare If the displaced strings respectively. will to a position such that come back in librium any direction, they of 4 and 3 pounds will make an angle of the strings with the tensions 90 degrees with each other and angles of 37 degrees and S3 degrees and
5

Figure 7-3.

respectively with the vertical.

If a parallelogram be constructed arrows with using lengths proportional to 4 and 3 pounds respec-

tively,

and

in the directions indicated in figure 7-3,

it

will

be found

that their resultant, the diagonal of the parallelogram, will be vertical, and equal to 5 pounds. Thus the 5-pound weight exerts enough
force

downward

to balance the vector

7-5. Resolution of Forces Into

of

sum of the other two forces. Components. The procedure

combining vectors may be reversed: a single vector placed by two vectors. In this process, which is called resolving a vector into
components, a parallelogram (nearly always a rectangle) is drawn with the

may be

re-

given vector as its diagonal. Suppose the two forces C and Z?, figure 7-4, to

be at right angles to each other, and let the resultant be called R. In this
case,

C and

ponents of R.

are rectangular comBut the same diagram

may
order:

be constructed in the reverse

given either C or Z),

and the

direction of

possible to construct a rectangle such that shall be its sides of the and such that the diagonal
it is

Figure 7-4.

rectangle shall be either parallel or perpendicular to the given di-

7-6]

VECTORS

57

rection.

Given any force, it is always possible to resolve it into two components, one parallel, and the other perpendicular, to a

given direction. 7-6. Properties of Certain Triangles. In this chapter we shall confine ourselves to four kinds of right triangles (figures 7-5, 7-6, 7-7, and 7-8). The student will recall from his geometry two
facts,

one of which we have already mentioned

of the squares of the

the

sum

two

legs is

hypotenuse (Pythagorean theorem) and triangle are equal to the three angles of another triangle, the triangles are similar, and the sides of one triangle are proportional to the cor-

a right triangle, to the square of the equal (2) if the three angles of one
:

(1) in

0.600
0.500

0.866

0.800
Figure 7-6.

Figure 7-5.

responding sides of the other triangle, and conversely. Applying the

first

of these
2

(0.866)

two propositions, we
2
2
;

see that in the figures (0.500)

2

(l.OOO)

(0.600)

(0.800)

(l.OOO)

(which gives the

0.707

0.707

u
Figure 7-8.
2

Figure 7-7.

same set and that

say that

of ratios as 3 5
2

12

+4 =
2

5 ); (0.707)

(0.707)

(l.OOO)

13

2
.

Applying the second proposition

we could

if

we had a

30-, 60-,
feet,

potenuse equal to 20

and 90-degree triangle with the hythe shorter leg would be 10 feet and the

longer leg 17.32 feet. 7-7. Examples of Addition of Forces. (1) Suppose that two horizontal forces act on a post, one due north equal to 30 pounds, and one due east

58

VECTORS
same

[7-8
effect

equal to 40 pounds. Find a single force which would have the as the forces combined.
direction such as to suggest north

In order to solve the problem, we draw the arrow PR (figure 7-9) in a and of such a length as to suggest 30 For we could let each pounds. example, quarter inch represent 10 pounds, in which case 0.75 inch would represent 30 pounds. Similarly, from the same point draw another arrow PS pointing east and of such a length as to represent 40 pounds (one inch on
the scale suggested).

Complete the

parallelogram RPSQ and draw the It will measure 1.25 diagonal PQ. inch and represent 50 pounds. With-

40

lb.

out measuring it we could compute its value by comparing figures 7-6 and
7-9.

The

triangles

Figure 7-9.

similar

because

DE/PS = DF/PQ,
for

or 0.800/40

or 0.800/40

DEF and PSQ are DE/PS = EF/SQ,

Therefore

0.600/30.

l.OQQ/PQ, which gives us 50 pounds

PQ.

(2) Given a force of 100 pounds due northeast (that is, the angle with both the north direction and the east direction is exactly 45 degrees), find its northerly and its easterly components. In other words, find two forces, one due north and one due east that together will be equivalent to the

single

100-pound

force.

Draw a diagram (figure 7-10) in which an arrow the length of which is proportional to 100 pounds (say an eighth of an inch represents 10 pounds) points toward the northeast; call it TU. Now draw a rectangle in such a way that the sides will run north-south and east-west, and so that the 100shall be the diagonal. with figure 7-7, it will be seen that each component is 70.7 pounds. This fact may also be determined by measuring the arrows TV

pound

force

TU

By comparison

and TW.
7-8.

Problem

Illustrating Addition

of

The following horizontal forces act on a point: (1) a force of 750 pounds directed due
Several
Forces.

70.7

lb.

Figure 7-10. southwest, (2) a force of 750 pounds due south, (3) a force of 200 pounds directed 60 degrees north of west, and (4) a force of 1,600 pounds directed 30 degrees east of north. Find the northward and eastward

components

of the resultant.

7-8]

VECTORS
this

59

in figure 7-11 with a scale of, say,

problem is to draw the diagram as indicated one centimeter representing 200 pounds. To lay off the 750 pounds due southwest, a distance representing 750 pounds is measured on a line making a 45-degree angle with both the south

The first step in solving

Figure 7-11.

and the west lines. The 200 pounds 60 degrees north of west is measured on a line between the west and north directions making an angle of 60 degrees with the west, and similarly with the other forces. Next each of these forces must be broken up into components along the north-south and east-west axes. This is done by drawing the sides of a rectangle of which the original force is the diagonal. By reference to the
sample triangles of section 7-6, the values of these components may be found. The components of the 1,600-pound force are (1,600) (0.866) or 1,386 pounds north and (1,600) (0.500) or 800 pounds east. The 200-pound force has components (200) (0.866) or 173 pounds north and (200) (0.500) or 100 pounds west. The 750 pounds south is already along the north-south line and therefore does not need to be resolved. The 750-pound force southwest has components of (750) (0.707) or 530 pounds south and also 530

pounds west.

Now, let forces to the north and to the east be considered positive while those toward the south and west are considered negative. Combining the
components just found, we have

1,386

+ 173 - 750 - 530 = + 800 - 100 -530 =

279 pounds north 170 pounds east.

Although this completes the problem as stated, the student may be interested in checking the fact that the vector sum of these two components is a force of 327 pounds in a direction 31.3 degrees east of north. This may
be done by constructing to scale the rectangle having for its sides 279 and 170, measuring the length of its diagonal and measuring the angle with a protractor.

60
7-9. Illustrative

VECTORS

[7-9

Problem Involving a Simple Truss. For the purpose assume that the parts of the truss in figure 7-12 are weightWhich are tension members and which are compression members? less. Must point A be supported from beneath or held down? Find the tension or compression in each member. To find which are the compression members and which the tension
of simplification,
effect of breaking each member in turn while every other part remains as it is in the diagram. For example, if AC were broken, C would not fall toward A but would move farther from it. Therefore AC is a tension member. Applying the same test to CD, we see that it is also would promptly move toward J5, were broken, a tension member. If

members, consider the

ED

a compression member. try to form a straight line between A and BC is a compression member. Similarly
therefore
is

BD

BC were broken, A would bringing C toward #, therefore A B is a compression member.

If
Z),

CD

Figure 7- 12.

The whole
that is, point held down.

structure

somewhat resembles a seesaw with fulcrum at J5, must be supported from below while point A must be

Since the entire structure is in equilibrium, each point is separately in equilibrium (at rest in this case) therefore the simplest method of finding the numerical values of the tensions and compressions is to consider the forces acting at each point in turn. Since we already know one of the forces acting at Z>, let us consider that point first. Three forces act on point (see figure 7-13), 1,000 pounds straight down, the tension in horizontally to the left, and the compression in in a direction slanting upward 30 degrees to the right of the vertical. This slant force must be resolved into a vertical and a horizontal component, which from now on are to be thought is in equilibrium, the upward force of as replacing the slant force. Since must equal the downward force which is 1,000 pounds. Reference to figure 7-5 shows that the longer leg of a 30-degree right triangle is 0.866 of the hypotenuse; therefore the hypotenuse of our triangle is 1,000/0.866 or 1,155 pounds, which is the compression in the member BD. On account of the Is equal to the horiy the tension in the member equilibrium at point
;

CD

BD
D

CD

7-9]

VECTORS
component
of the slant force of 1,155 pounds.

61

zontal

Further reference to

figure 7-5 shows that the shorter leg is equal to half the hypotenuse, or in this case, 577 pounds, which is the tension in member CD. exerts a The tension in member

CD

and pull to the left of 577 pounds on a pull to the right of the same amount
Similarly, since we are ignoring the weight of the truss members, the exerts a compression in member

on C.

BD

push upward to the right on D of 1,155 pounds and a push downward to the left on B of the same amount. We are
therefore in a position to solve for all the forces at point C just as we did at

point D. The result cover the tension in

is

that

we

dis-

pounds and

to be 1,155 to the compression in

AC

BC

be 1,000 pounds.

When we solve for the forces acting at point B we discover that in order to get equilibrium, we must have an
y

upward force of 2,000 pounds exerted by whatever the truss is resting on at

point B. In solving for the forces at point B, we also discover that the compression in

member When we solve

y

AB
for

1000

is

577 pounds.
Figure 7- 13.

the forces at

point A we find that in order to obtain equilibrium, there must be a downward force of 1,000 pounds in addition to the tension in AC and the compression in AB. It will be left to the student to carry out the actual work of solving for the forces at points C, B, and A.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7
Technical Terms Defined
Scalar.

physical quantity which

may

be read off of a single scale,

e.g.,

time, length, speed.

Vector.

A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction, e.g., displacement, force, velocity. Vectors are conveniently represented by arrows.

Resultant or Vector Sum. more vectors combined.

single vector

which

is

equivalent to two or

Triangle or Polygon Addition of Vectors. If several arrows representing vectors are placed together head to tail without altering any of their lengths or directions, an arrow drawn straight from the tail of the first to the head of the last is the resultant of the group.

Parallelogram Method of Adding Vectors. If two arrows representing vectors are both 'drawn from the same point, the resultant will be a third

62

VECTORS

arrow also drawn from the same point to the opposite vertex of a parallelogram formed with the two given vectors as two of its sides.
Rectangular Components.
will

Any two mutually perpendicular vectors which

vectorially to a given vector are said to be rectangular comof that vector. The process of finding the two components is ponents called "resolving a vector into rectangular components."

add

PROBLEMS
7-1.

Find the vector sum of a three-pound force due north and a four-

force due west. arithmetic sum of these

pound

7-2. force of

Would there ever be any practical use for the two quantities? Find the vector sum of an eastward force of 50 pounds, a westward 90 pounds, and a southward force of 30 pounds.

Given a force of 50 pounds acting in a direction 30 degrees south of it into (1) two components, one due east, and the other due resolve east, south; (2) resolve it into two components, one 15 degrees north of east, and the other 15 degrees east of south.
7-3.
7-4. Velocities are vector quantities and are to be added in the same stream flows southward at a speed of five miles per hour. way as forces. motor boat driven westward relative to the water at a speed of twelve

miles per hour actually travels in a direction about 22.5 degrees south of west. Find its actual speed.
7-5. A ten-pound weight is held in position by two strings, one horizontal and the other making an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical. Compute the tension in each string.

7-6. A motor boat can travel at the rate of 12 feet per second in still water. Disregarding the time lost in starting and stopping, how long will it take to cross a river, 1,200 feet wide, the drift speed of which is 5 feet per second, if the boat heads directly across? How far down on the opposite bank will the boat land?

Find the resultant (direction and magnitude) of the following seven pounds due north, 100 pounds due northeast, 100 pounds east, 80 pounds 30 degrees south of east, 60 pounds due south, 50 pounds 30 degrees south of west, and 40 pounds due west. The method of section 7-8 is best for a problem of this type. 7-8. A triangular frame in a vertical plane has its ten-foot member horizontal and its six-foot and eight-foot members above the ten-foot member. Neglect the weight of the members. A 100-pound weight hangs from the junction of the six-foot and eight-foot members. Compute (1) the compression in the six-foot member, (2) the compression in the eight-foot member, and (3) the tension in the ten-foot member.
7-7.
forces, all horizontal: 100

7-9.

Draw

the diagrams similar to figure 7-13 for the points C, B,

and

in the truss- work of figure 7-12.

7-10. Figure 7-14 represents a bridge truss with a span of 48 feet. the support at A exerts a force vertically upward on the truss of 500 pounds and compute the various compressions and tensions in the members, assumed weightless, which are hinged at the joints. The load at G is 2,000 pounds and all the triangles are of the type' shown in figure 7-6.

Assume that

VECTORS

63

7-11. swimmer's speed is 50 yards per minute in still water. If a river flows at the rate of 30 yards per minute, find (1) the time required to swim to a point 100 yards upstream and back, also (2) the time needed to swim
indirectly to Einstein's

100 yards across-stream and back. The considerations of this problem led famous theory of relativity.

16*

16'

Figure 7-14.

7-12. How great a force (and in what direction) does the atmosphere exert on one square foot of a vertical surface? Why is the total force exerted by the atmosphere on the whole earth equal to zero? What is the total force on any stationary object? 7-13. How much work will be done in pulling a sled and load, which together weigh 100 pounds, horizontally for a distance of 50 feet, if the coefficient of friction is 0.1 and the rope makes an angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal?

7-14. How great a force must be exerted on a 45-degree wedge to enable the wedge to exert two normal forces of 130 pounds each. What is the

mechanical advantage of this wedge?

7-15.

How much

force parallel to the plane

is

200-pound weight on a smooth inclined plane 10 feet long and 6 Also find the normal force exerted by the plane on the weight.

required to support a feet high?

much more

7-16. If the coefficient of friction in the preceding problem is 0.2, how force must be exerted in drawing the weight up the plane rather
it?

than in lowering

CHAPTER

Moment
8-1. Translatory

of Force; Center of Gravity

Versus Rotatory Motion.

;

All

motions,

no

complicated, can be thought of as being combinations of two simple kinds of motion one of these is called translatory motion and the other rotatory. We seldom have either of these in its pure state, though they are both readily visualized. Pure translatory motion is motion of such a sort that any line drawn on the body under consideration remains parallel to its original position during the motion. An example of pure translatory motion is the behavior of a

matter

how

compass needle as the compass is moved about. Even though the compass itself is carried round and round on a merry-go-round, the needle will continue to point in the same direction and thus remain
parallel to its original position.

That is, the needle is moving with motion. pure translatory But the merry-go-round itself is a good example of pure rotatory motion. This may be defined as that type of motion where the center of gravity remains at rest, but a line drawn at random in the body moves so that it makes continually changing angles with its original position. The phrase "at random" was used in the preceding sentence, because one line (of the infinitude of lines that could be drawn) is in the axis of rotation this line does not rotate nor does any line
;

in the

body

parallel to

it.

Another example of pure rotation

64

is

the

8-2]

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER OF GRAVITY

65

motion of a flywheel on a stationary engine. On the other hand, in the case of a closing door, the motion is a combination of translation and rotation, because the center of gravity of the door moves, likewise lines drawn at random on the door are making continuously changing angles with their previous positions. 8-2. Causes of Motion. If a single force is applied to a body in line with its center of gravity, this force will produce pure translation if on the other hand, the force is not in line with the center of gravity, the result will be a combination of translation and rotation. If the center of gravity is held at rest by one force and an equal and opposite force is made to act somewhere else on the body, the result will be pure rotation. As an example of the last case, consider a small emery wheel at rest. It can be rotated by exerting a force tangent to the circumference. Suppose this force to be two ounces and suppose the radius of the wheel to be three inches, it is then customary to multiply the two ounces by the three inches and announce that a torque of six inch-ounces acts on the wheel. The product of a force by a distance from the axis perpendicular to the force is called a torque.
;

Forces produce translation and torques produce rotation. But forces and torques may be balanced, in which case we have equilibrium. 8-3. Moment of Force. If a boy weighing 50 pounds were to balance another boy, who weighs 100 pounds, on a seesaw, it is com-

mon knowledge

that the lighter boy would have to sit farther from the than the pivot heavier; in this case just twice as far. If in our illustration we take these distances to be six feet and three feet respectively, then we could form a proportion as follows: 50 pounds is to 100 pounds as three feet is to six feet. The simplest way of writing a proportion is to put it in the form of an equation of two
fractions.

For instance,
This
is,

is

to

as

is

to

is

A/B =

usually written

C/D. (5) (C). That

also equivalent algebraically to (A) (Z?) the product of the extremes equals the product of
is

the means. So in our numerical illustration

50 Ib./lOO
Ib.
ft.)

we can say

or

(50 Ib.) (6

= =

3 ft./6

ft.

(100

Ib.) (3 ft.)

Carrying out the multiplication, we find that 300 pound-feet equals 300 pound-feet. We have again come upon a torque. This physical

But

quantity expressed here in pound-feet is also called moment of force. since the expression is a bit lengthy it has become customary for engineers to shorten it to torque; we shall use both expressions. A

moment offorce

is

the product of a force and a distance measured per-

66

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER OF GRAVITY

[8-4

axis. It must be empendicularly from some given pivot called an is perpendicular to the force. A torque is the distance that phasized either clockwise or counterclockwise. In the illustration given in figure
8-1, (50 Ib.) (6 ft.) is counterclockwise

because

if it

were the only

torque in the diagram,

it

would cause a counterclockwise rotation

about the point Q. 8-4. Equilibrium. A body is in equilibrium when it is at rest or when it is moving with uniform speed in a constant direction. In this book most of our cases of equilibrium will also be cases of rest.
If

in equilibrium, (1) the sum of the components of the forces acting on the body in any given direction will just balance the sum of the components in the opposite direction, and (2) the clock-

a body

is

wise torques will just balance the counterclockwise torques. For instance, in figure 8-1, we shall not have equilibrium unless the down100 Ux

IjDIb.

6'

A
Figure 8-1.

ward
this

forces at

upward

force

and R are balanced by an upward must be 150 pounds. (See figure

force at
8-2).
all

(),

and
im-

It is

the forces portant in an equilibrium problem to make act on the body under consideration. A mixture of forces exerted by the body and forces exerted on the body will lead to incorrect results.
sure that
100
Ib

hoib.

y
150
ib.

Figure 8-2.

If the

axis;

body is in equilibrium, we are not limited in our choice of an any point may be selected. Q is simply the most natural point
Let us see
if

to consider as the axis.

if

figure 8-2 will

still

represent

equilibrium the 100-pound force produces no torque because the perpendicular

we

select

R as the axis: it should. When R is the axis,

8-5]

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER

OF GRAVITY

67

100-pound force is zero; in other words, if the on the axis, it will tend to produce no rotation about that point. We do, however, have two other torques: (50 Ib.) (9 ft.) counterclockwise and (150 Ib.) (3 ft.) clockwise, each of which is numerically 450 pound-feet. Hence, we still have equilibrium.
force acts directly

distance from

R to the

8-5. Rules for Solving an Equilibrium Problem. The engineer is often faced with the problem of the magnitude, direction, and point of application of the force that must be added to those
already present to produce equilibrium. And he has found that in the solution of this type of problem it is convenient to follow a set
of rules, as follows: (1) Draw a diagram of the situation, putting in all of the forces in their proper directions, labeling the known forces with numbers

and the unknown forces with letters. All the forces miist be applied to the same object. (2) Choose a convenient direction and a convenient axis.
(3)

Resolve

all

parallel or perpendicular to the direction chosen, these components instead of the original forces.
(4)

the forces into components that shall be either and henceforth use
first

Write three equations. The

equates the components of

forces in the given direction to the components in the opposite direction. The second deals similarly with the components perpendicular

moments
(5)

to the given direction. The third equation equates the clockwise of force to the counterclockwise moments about the

selected axis.

no more than three unknowns, they may be found by solving simultaneously these three equations. If there are more than three unknowns, then other relations between the forces must be supplied, furnishing more equations. 8-6. Center of Gravity. We have made several references to
If there are

the existence of a center of gravity in a given body;

it is

now time

to

show how

to locate

it

and

we can suspend a body by single wire, the center of will lie somewhere along the line gravity which contains the wire. If we try the experito demonstrate its use. If

the entire

ment again with the wire in a different place, we shall have two intersecting straight lines,
and
pended by the
single wire,
their

intersection

center of gravity.
it is

will be the desired While the body is sus-

in equilibrium.

The diagram

repre-

senting this equilibrium contains just two equal and opposite forces:

68

MOMENT OF
is

FORCE; CENTER

OF GRAVITY

[8-7

upward force exerted by the wire on the body, and downward pull of gravity on the body. In order to produce no torques, the forces must lie in the same line.
one of these
the other
is

the

the

We draw the conclusion then that the effect of gravity, which can
be considered to be a large number of small
forces, one for each infinitesimal portion of the object, may also just as well be represented by a single arrow called the weight and drawn downward

from a

single point called the center of gravity. The position of the center of gravity then is defined by the fact that the sum of the clockwise torques due to the weights of each infinitesimal portion of

the

body about

this center is equal to the

counterclockwise torques.

The

corresponding sum of the center of gravity of a uniform sym-

metrical
center.

body is at its geometrical The intersection of the methe center of gravity of a If the body is made of

dians

is

triangle.

parts, the center of gravity of each of which is known, the center of

gravity of the whole

may be found an by solving equilibrium problem,

making use of the fact that when the body is supported at its center of gravity, it is in equilibrium. The
center of gravity of a body like a in the material of the body at all, but in the hole. not doughnut The use to be made of the center of gravity concept is that the
is

moment we know
gravity
weight.

the weight of a body,

it

on our diagram to represent

we need draw but one arrow vertically down from the center of

the length of the arrow being proportional to the given

A 50-foot 100-pound ladder, 8-7. Problem Illustrating Equilibrium. the center of gravity of which is at a point one third of its length from the bottom, stands with its base 30 feet from the foot of a perfectly smooth wall. A 200-pound man is two thirds of the way up the ladder. Find the forces exerted on the wall and the ground by the ladder, assuming equilibrium.
Following the rules given in section 8-5 (1) we draw a diagram (ngure which the two known forces are drawn at the proper places and in the proper directions, and labeled respectively 100 pounds and 200 pounds. The unknown force exerted by the wall on the ladder must be exactly horizontal and toward the right, since a perfectly smooth wall is incapable of exerting any forces parallel to itself. This force is labeled with a letter, say JP, and by Newton's third law, is equal and opposite to the desired force exerted by the ladder on the wall. Let us emphasize again that every force
8-3) in

8-7]
in the

MOMENT OF
F by

FORCE; CENTER

OF GRAVITY

69

force

diagram must act on the ladder, so that it would be incorrect to replace the force acting in the other direction, exerted by the ladder on the wall. The force exerted by the ground on the ladder slants up and to

2000V.

Figure 8-3.

by Newton's third law, equal and opposite to the desired by the ladder on the ground. It has one component that prevents the ladder from sliding along the ground and one component that prevents the ladder from sinking into the ground. The slant force we shall call S. In accordance with rule (2), we choose the vertical direction as convenient because our two known forces are already in that direction, and the bottom of the ladder as a convenient axis because an unknown force acts there. Any forces that act at the axis wUl produce no torque, and it is advanthe
left,

and

is also,

force exerted

tageous to prevent the appearance of unknown forces in the torque equation. For this reason it is also common practice to choose as axis a point where at least two forces act, and if one or more of them are unknown, so much the better. (3) The only force that is not already either parallel or perpendicular to the direction chosen is the slant force S. So we resolve this into a verIt will be noticed that tical component F, and a horizontal component //. are unknown. (4) We now write our all three of these forces 5, F, and three equations. The slant force 5 will not appear in these three equations;

it is

replaced by

its

two components

V and H

40

V =100 + F =H F = (200)

200
(20)

(a)

(b)

(100) (10)

(c)

Forty feet is the vertical distance of the upper end of the ladder above the 2 2 302 It ground, corresponding to side DE of figure 7-6, that is 40 = SO
.

70
is

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER OF GRAVITY

[8-8

necessary to use the vertical distance here because the force F is horiand by the definition of a moment of force (section 8-3), the distance and the force must be perpendicular to each other. (40) (F) is the only clockwise torque in the figure, the other two torques being counterclockwise. It will be noticed that in the case of all three of these torques, the procedure is first to draw a line containing the force, then to drop a perpendicular from the point selected as axis to the line containing the force. From equation (c) Fis 125 pounds; from (a), V is 300 pounds; and from (b) His 125 pounds. and F, we can find from the Pythagorean theorem that S is Knowing 325 pounds (see figure 7-8). The answers to our problem are therefore 125 pounds and 325 pounds.
zontal,
y

8-8.

measuring

Problem Illustrating Center of Gravity. A certain bolt has a head 1 by 1 by Y^ inch that weighs a quarter ounce, and a shaft, nine

inches long that weighs ten ounces. Compute the location of the center of gravity by finding just where a knife edge must be placed under the bolt so that the bolt will be in equilibrium.

Since the shaft is taken as having a uniform cross section, its center of gravity is 4.5 inches from the head of the bolt. Similarly the center of gravity of the head is at its geometrical center. We therefore draw arrows representing

downward

and

// in figure 8-4. force, equal to their

and 2.25 ounces respectively at S To balance these two forces, there must be an upward sum and applied at the center of gravity of the bolt as
forces of 10.0 ounces
is is

a whole.
possible to find

In choosing a suitable axis about which to compute our torques, it arguments in favor of several positions. The natural axis

Figure 8-4.

the center of gravity, but since this is unknown, an unknown quantity will enter into each of the torques and make the equation unnecessarily complicated. If we take the right-hand end of the shaft as our axis, there will be
solve for the

three torques in the equation but there will be the advantage that when we unknown distance between the center of gravity and the end of

the shaft, the result will need no further interpretation. If we take either point S or point // as an axis, there will be only two torques in the equation, but the result will have to be interpreted. We shall solve the problem with as axis and leave it to the student to try some other point.

moment of

Let the distance from 2.25 ounces about

H is zero.

to the center of gravity be called x. The The moment of 12.25 ounces about

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER

OF GRAVITY
of 10.0 ounces about

71

H is
is

12.25#,

(10.0)

and is counterclockwise. The moment (4.75) and is clockwise. The equation is

12.25*

(10.0) (4.75)

3.88 inches. But instead of announcing that Solving for x, we obtain x the center of gravity is 3.88 inches from the center of the head, it will be much more convenient to say that it is 3.88 0.25 or 3.63 inches from the or 9.00 3.63 or from 5.37 inches the end of the shaft. head,

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Pure Translatory Motion.

Technical Terms Defined

Motion such that any line drawn on the body remains parallel to its original position during the motion. Pure Rotatory Motion. Only one line in the body, the axis of rotation, remains fixed. This line must contain the center of gravity. During the motion any line not parallel to this axis moves so as to make continually changing angles with its original position.

Moment

Product of a force and a distance measured perpenfrom axis to the force. In our two-dimensional problems, the dicularly
of Force.

torques will be either clockwise or counterclockwise. A situation such that the body is either at rest or moving Equilibrium. with uniform speed in a constant direction.

Conditions for Equilibrium.

(1)

The sum

of the

upward

forces equals the

of the forces to

sum
(2)

downward forces. The sum of the forces to

of the

the right equals the

sum

the

left.

(3) The sum of the clockwise torques equals the sum of the counterclockwise torques about a given axis. Center of Gravity. A point in the body about which the gravitational torques are in equilibrium. In solving an equilibrium problem, the entire weight of the body may be considered as concentrated at this point.

PROBLEMS
8-1. Compute the three torques in figure 8-2 about a point two feet to the right of R. Are they in equilibrium? 8-2. In figure 8-1, consider the seesaw to consist of a uniform nine-foot plank weighing 60 pounds. Where should the 50-pound boy be placed if the pivot is to remain in the same place?
8-3. Compute the center of gravity of the bolt in figure 8-4 by using the right-hand end of the bolt as axis. 8-4. Find the center of gravity of a croquet mallet, considering it as consisting of two cylinders of the same material, the head 2.25 inches in diameter and 7.00 inches long, and the handle 0.875 inch in diameter and 26.0 inches long.

8-5. A 50-foot 200-pound ladder leans against a vertical wall making an angle of 30 degrees with the wall. The wall exerts an upward force of eight

72

MOMENT OF

FORCE; CENTER

OF GRAVITY
force.

pounds on the ladder together with an unknown horizontal

The

cen-

ter of gravity of the ladder is half-way up; also at the half-way point, a 100-pound boy stands. If the force of friction between the ladder and the

ground

is

30 pounds, find the additional horizontal force at the base neces-

sary to prevent the ladder from slipping. 8-6. The load on a wheel 26 inches in diameter is

500 pounds. What

horizontal force, applied at the axle, will be necessary to pull the wheel over a stone one inch high?

pounds, has its center of gravity at its geometrical four feet center, square. Its hinges are three feet apart. If a 50-pound boy is swinging on the outer corner of the gate, find the horizontal component of the force on the upper hinge.
8-7.

A gate weighs 25
is

and

8-8. A 30-foot ladder leans against a smooth vertical wall making an angle of 30 degrees with the wall. A 200-pound man stands two thirds of the way up the ladder. The ladder weighs 100 pounds and has its center of gravity at the geometrical center. Compute (1) the horizontal force of the ladder on the wall, (2) the vertical component of the force which the ladder exerts on the ground, and (3) the necessary force of friction at the ground

to prevent slipping.

Figure 8-5.
8-9. A uniform 25-foot beam F II (see figure 8-5) is fastened to the wall EF at F. EG is a wire. EFG is an equilateral triangle 15 feet on a side. FH

weighs 200 pounds. Find the tension in the wire EG, and the force exerted by the wall on FH.
8-10. How far may a 200-pound man climb a 100-pound, 26-foot ladder (center of gravity at the geometrical center) if the ladder stands with its base 10 feet from a vertical wall, the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor being 0.21?

CHAPTER

Acceleration

9-1.

More General
Under

Conditions.

Up

to this time

we have

con-

fined our attention either to cases of rest or of uniform motion in a

straight line.

have equilibrium.

Now

either of these circumstances, we say that we we must enlarge our discussion to include

the numerous cases where translatory equilibrium is lacking; later we must see what happens when there is no rotatory equilibrium

and then discuss the general case when we have neither. 9-2. Acceleration. Speed, it will be remembered, is the
of
;

rate

change of position its unit is feet per second, miles per hour, and so on. Velocity adds to speed the concept of direction, and therefore is a vector quantity. When there is a change in velocity, either because the direction or the speed changes, we have "accelerated motion." In order to visualize the physical situation, imagine yourself to be sitting in the front seat of an automobile, holding a watch, and looking at the speedometer. When the second hand of the watch points to 60, the speedometer reads, let us say, 30 miles per hour.

Five seconds later the speedometer reads 45 miles per hour. The acceleration can be computed in this case by dividing the gain in speed of 15 miles per hour by the five seconds, and is therefore numerically three miles per hour per second. Acceleration is defined as the velocity gained per unit of time. In order to find the

73

74
acceleration, the rule
is

ACCELERATION
to subtract the original speed

[9-3

from the

final

by the time required to change the speed. The speed gained in one second (three miles per hour) may be expressed in other units. Three miles is the same as 15,840 feet;
difference

speed, and divide the

there are 3,600 seconds in an hour. (15,840 feet)/(3,600 seconds) is 4.40 feet per second. Therefore the above acceleration of three miles per hour per second may also be expressed as 4.40 feet per second

per second.
also quite

Since

we have seconds
it

customary to express
.

4.40 feet/second 2 The pressions is that units of time occur as factors in the

in the denominator twice, it is as 4.40 feet per second squared, or important thing to notice in all of these ex-

denominator twice. This is the important difference between an acceleration and a velocity, where the unit of time occurs in the denominator but once. 9-3. Uniform Acceleration. With two exwe shall in our attention text this confine ceptions, to cases of acceleration where the gain in speed is uniform; otherwise the mathematics becomes complicated, and we need the calculus. The motion of a freely falling body and the motion of a body sliding down an inclined plane may be taken as illustrations of practically uniform acceleration. On the

X
other hand

60

65

70

Figure 9-1.

we must admit that in reality there is no such thing as acceleration. Air resistance complicates the mouniform absolutely tion of a freely falling body so that it is really not uniformly acceler-

9-3]

ACCELERATION

75

and even if we went to the vacuum (which we cannot do) the

ated,

trouble of constructing a perfect fact that gravity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the center of the earth would make the acceleration increase slightly as the object fell. But we

not worry about such refinements. Throughout a course in physics, the student will notice that many simplifying assumptions are made when a new idea is being introduced, such as weightless levers, frictionless planes, and so on. As the student advances into the subject, these simplifying assumptions are one by one removed. We can now deal with real levers which have weight, and when the coefficient of friction is given, the planes no longer need be perfectly smooth. After a study of calculus, it becomes possible to deal with variable accelerations. Figures 9-1 and 9-2 exemplify the distinction between uniform and variable acceleration; both figures may be considered as portraying graphically the illustration given in the preceding section. In figure 9-1 at point A, the speed is 30
shall

miles per hour (or 44 feet per second) and the second hand the speed is still 44 feet per second ing to 55. At point

is

point-

and the

second hand now points to 60. Five seconds later the speed is 66 feet per second (45 miles per hour) and remains at that value for the rest of the time. Exactly the same remarks may be made about
88}

66

lime in seconds

60

65

70

15

Figure 9-2.

points A', B', C', and so on of figure 9-2. The difference is that in to C as is shown by figure 9-1 the speed increases uniformly from

the straight line, while in figure 9-2 the increase

is

smoother but no

76

ACCELERATION

[9-4

longer uniform, and the line between B' and C" is no longer straight. However, even in figure 9-2 we may still say that the average rate
of increase of speed is three miles per hour per second, or 4.40 2 feet/second Accordingly, in our problems, when it is obvious that the acceleration is in fact far from uniform, we shall talk about the average acceleration and proceed as if the acceleration were quite
.

uniform.
9-4. The Two Fundamental Equations. Limiting ourselves then to uniform acceleration, we shall never find more than five quantities involved in a single case of accelerated motion, namely: initial velocity, u\ final velocity, v, the time necessary to change

from one speed to the other, /; the space (one-dimensional) covered during the motion, s] and the acceleration itself, a. We have already
discovered that in order to compute a, it is necessary only to subtract u from v and divide by /, assuming that v and u are expressed
in the

same

units.

Thus

"
or
v

~T
u

(a)

at

The average of two gether and dividing by

to

quantities may be found by adding them totwo. Thus, in the case of the motion from

66 feet per second and u is 44 feet per second. is (66 44)/2 or 55 feet per second. with must not be confused average acceleration. If we Average speed know the average speed of a body and the time the body is in motion, we can compute the distance covered by the body by multiplying the

C in

The average

figure 9-1, v of 66

is

and 44

two.

For instance,

if

for five seconds

rate of 55 feet per second, it will or 275 feet. Expressed in terms of letters, this relationship

a body moves at the average during that time cover (5) (55) feet
is

or

(b)

9-5. Graphical Representation. The shaded area BCQP in represents figure 9-1 represents the distance covered, because U] QC represents v\ since BCQP is a trapezoid, its area is the product

PB

of PQ (which is f) and the average of and QC (represented on the diagram by NM). Therefore s = (PQ)(NM) or (BR}(NM). In a similar fashion the acceleration, a, is (CR)/(BR), because CR is v is the time, /. It is possible to draw the diagram for u, and

PB

BR

9-6]

ACCELERATION

77

any problem in either uniformly or nonuniformly accelerated motion, and therefore to solve the problem graphically. 9-6. Derived Equations. The theory of algebraic equations tells us that if out of five quantities (a, s, /, w, and v) three of them are known, that is, two of them are unknown, then two equations such as (a) and (6) are sufficient to determine the unknowns. This is easy if the knowns happen to be u, v, and /, and the unknowns a and s; in this case the first form of each equation gives the quantity sought. But in the cases where the unknowns include any two of the three quantities u, v, and /, it will be necessary to solve the equations (a) and (6) simultaneously for the two unknowns. As an aid to the student, we shall now do this once for all, and in this way derive from equations (a) and (6) three more equations enabling
,

us in the problems to avoid the solution of simultaneous equations. In the first place, if we multiply the second forms of equations (a) and (ft) by each other, we shall obtain
(9

_)(, +
02

or
If,

2 _:
2

2as

+
or

now, in (c) we substitute <PP from (a) we obtain

2

for v

the value (u
2as

+ at)

or

u2

luat

2uat
5

+ aW - w2 = = ut + $ aft
a
2 2 /

...
(Ci)

Finally, in a similar 2 2 alent (v a/) or v

i>

manner we could
2vat
2

replace
(a)

+
s

from
a2 /2 )
i aft

u 2 in (c) by and obtain

its

equiv-

2
(

2vat

+
-

2as

or

vt

9-7. Summary of Equations. It will be noticed that each one of our five equations contains only four of the five variables and therefore omits one variable. It will therefore be more convenient to describe the equations in terms of the variable omitted than in terms of the variables contained. Let us now summarize the

equations thus far derived in this chapter.

Variable omitted
s v

Equation
==

No.
(a)

at

-'^
t

W2

s
s

=
=

ut
vt

+ 2as + i aft
J afl

(c)

(d)
(e)

78
It will
it

ACCELERATION

[9-8

be found that there is never any need of using equation (e) may therefore be discarded at this point. The first four equations should, however, be memorized, unless it be preferred to solve acceleration problems directly from a consideration of figure 9-1 as indicated, and handle the simultaneous equations that arise thereby. The use of the first four equations will be illustrated presently. In the solution of acceleration problems, it is important to settle on a
;

positive direction at the outset and remember that the opposite direction is negative. Negative time, however, denotes time measured backward from the beginning of the problem, and is usually

unimportant.
9-8.

The Acceleration

of Gravity.

When a body falls freely

vertically as a result of gravity, its speed increases nearly uniformly each second, and we refer to this acceleration as the acceleration of

acceleration of gravity is represented by g and is equal to 9.80 m./sec. 2 or 32.2 ft./sec. 2 This means, for numerically example, that if at a certain instant during the fall a speedometer
gravity.

The

attached to the falling body read 100 feet per second, then just one second later the speedometer would read 132.2 feet per second. It is a fact discovered by Galileo about the year 1600 that all bodies,

whether heavy or light, accelerate at about the same rate when dropped. His celebrated demonstration of this fact took place at the leaning tower of Pisa, and disproved notions which had been
held

by

physicists for over nineteen centuries.

Concerning the Solution of Problems InUniform Acceleration. The five equations of section volving 9-7 are arranged in the order of their difficulty. The first con9-9. Hints
tains

two one-degree terms and one second-degree term, but none

of the variables occur to the second power; the second equation is only slightly more complicated; the third equation contains the

second powers, but no variable occurs more than once; the fourth and fifth equations are affected quadratics in /. In a simple prob-

lem involving only one object, there will be five variables, but no more than two of them will be unknown. Pick the two equations that omit the two unknown variables. Start with the equation
nearest the top of the list. When this equation is solved, we shall then have four known variables and only one unknown; this can

always be obtained either from equation (a) or (b). There are ten possible combinations of five things taken two at a time, therefore there are ten possible types of acceleration problems. These combinations of unknowns are as follows: a, s;

9-10]
5, /; Sj

ACCELERATION
u\
5, v; a,
;

79

fl. In the case of the 2, w; /, v; and w, to solve for be used one variable and equation (a) may then equation (b) for the other. In the case of the next three, equation (b) may be used to solve for one variable and then equation (a) for the other. In the eighth and ninth cases, equation (c) may be used to solve for one variable and then equation (a) for the other. In the tenth case, equation (d) may be used to solve for u and then equation (a) for v. It will not be necessary to solve (d) as an affected quadratic, and it will not be necessary to use equation (e)

a,

w; a, 0;

first four,

at

all.

9-10. Illustrative Problems.

Several acceleration problems will

now

be worked as illustrations.
(A) If a stone is dropped from the top of a precipice 500 feet high, how long a time will elapse before it strikes the bottom and what will be its speed just before it lands?
It usually helps,

to

make

a table of the

when a problem is to be solved by algebraic methods, knowns and, the unknowns, assigning letters to each.
a
s
t

In this case

= = = = =

32.2 feet/second 2

500 feet
?

fore be

is that of gravity and may therenumerically; the only question is whether it shall be considered positive or negative. It is immaterial which choice shall be made, but once the choice is made, it settles the question of sign for the other variables. For example, in this problem, the moment that we assume that the acceleration of gravity is positive, everything else in the problem that is downward also becomes positive, and if there happened to be any upward distances or velocities in the problem, they would automatically

When

a body

falls freely,

the acceleration

assumed

to be

known

become negative. Since the unknowns are t and v, the problem belongs to the ninth case of section 9-9. We have our choice of using equation (c) which does not contain / and solving for v, or using equation (d) which does not contain and
i)

solving for

/.

portance;

if

zero in this problem, the choice is of little imu were not zero, it would be much easier to solve (c) for v than

Since u
/.

is

to solve (d) for

We

shall choose the

former method.
v*

Substituting in

equation

(c)

we obtain
2 (32.2) (500)

02

Therefore
tains
/

v2

32,200,

may now be

and v = 179.4 feet/second. Any equation that conused; equation (a) is the simplest.
179.4

32.2*

Solving for

gives us

5.57 seconds.

80

ACCELERATION

[9-10

(B) If a stone is projected vertically upward from the top of a 500-foot precipice with a velocity of 50 feet per second, (a) how long will it take to reach the highest point in its path and how far above the top of the precipice will that be; (b) how long will it take to reach the foot of the precipice and

what

will its velocity

(a)

then be? Tabulating the data, this time letting the upward direction be

positive,

we have
a
s
t

= =
= = =

32.2 feet/second 2
?
?

u
v

50 feet/second

This time the unknowns are s and /, so that the problem belongs to the second case of section 9-9. Therefore we first substitute into equation (a) obtaining

0= 50+
Solving this equation for
into equation (b)
t

(-32.2)

gives

1.553 seconds.

Next we substitute

or, s

38.8 feet.

(b)

We

are

now

the precipice

and solve

going to let the stone drop 538.8 feet to the bottom of for the time and final velocity. In accordance with

our practice of retaining only three significant figures, we shall round off the distance to 539 feet. The data, letting the downward direction be
positive, are

= = s t = u = v =
a

32.2 feet/second2

539 feet
?

we have the same set of unknowns here as in problem (A) of this we shall merely record the results of substituting in equations (c) and (a), v = 186.3 feet/second; t = 5.79 seconds. Adding the time necesSince
section,

sary to rise from the top of the precipice to the highest point, to that 5.79 = 7.34 seconds. necessary to drop to the bottom gives us 1.55

the data concerning the trip of the stone (C) from the top of the precipice upward and then downward to the bottom, let us tabulate them, then, as a check, assume the initial and final velocities unknown, thus obtaining a problem belonging to the tenth case of section

Now

that

we have

all

9-9. Our problem will be stated as follows: A stone leaves a point 500 feet from the base of a precipice vertically and 7.34 seconds later lands at the bottom. Was the stone projected upward or downward, what was its initial speed, and what was the final speed just before landing?

ACCELERATION

81

The quantity $ is not the total number of feet covered by the stone, but the distance between initial and final positions, and is therefore 500 feet in this case, assuming that we take the downward direction as positive. Tabulating the data gives us
is

a
5
/

= = =

32.2 feet/second2

500 feet
7.34 seconds
?

*=
v

The

result of substituting into equation (d) is

500

500
Solving for
sign as
stituting

(u) (7.34)

J (32.2) (7.34)*

7.34*

867

upward

gives us since

50 feet/second. We must interpret the minus u = we chose the downward direction as positive. Sub-

now

in equation (a) gives us

v

= -

50

(32.2) (7.34)

orv

And

186.3 feet/second. This velocity is positive and therefore the results check those of problem (B) of this section.

downward.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
Technical Terms Defined
Acceleration.

Rate

of

change of velocity, that

is,

the velocity gained per

unit time.

Uniform Acceleration. The type of acceleration that would appear as a straight line on a velocity-time graph.
Average Acceleration. A fictitious uniform acceleration which could replace an actual acceleration and involve the same initial and final velocities in the same time interval.
Equilibrium In

Terms

of Acceleration.

Translatory equilibrium
is

may

be

defined as a case in which the linear acceleration

zero.

Acceleration Equations.
(a) v

= u

at

(d) 5

= =
=

w2
ut

+ 2as + | afl
velocity,
5

where u
initial

initial

velocity,
/

final

distance between
final positions,

and

and a

final positions,

time between

initial

and

acceleration.

82

ACCELERATION

PROBLEMS.
9-1. Galileo dropped a light object and a heavy object simultaneously from the top of the leaning tower of Pisa. Both fell with the same accelera2 How long did it take for the objects to reach the tion, 32.2 feet/ second ground, 180 feet below? 9-2. An automobile travels a distance of 100 feet while slowing down from a speed of 40 miles per hour to a speed of 25 miles per hour. Find the time it took to slow down, also the acceleration. 9-3. A block slides down an inclined plane with an acceleration of 16 feet/second. 2 How far does it go during the third second from rest? 9-4. A block is sliding down an inclined plane with an acceleration of 400 centimeters per second squared. Find the initial and final speeds if it covers a distance of 2.5 meters in one second. 9-5. A ball is thrown from a third-story window to the ground 24 feet below. If it takes two seconds to arrive at the ground, compute the initial velocity, giving both magnitude and direction. 9-6. If a stone is projected vertically downward from the top of a 500-foot precipice with a velocity of 50 feet per second, how long will it take to reach the foot of the precipice and what will its velocity then be? Compare the answers of this problem and problem (B) of section 9-10 and explain. 9-7. A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 64.4 feet/second from a point 80.5 feet above the ground. Find (1) the time that elapses before it reaches the ground; (2) the velocity it then has; (3) the maximum height reached above the ground; (4) the time required to reach this height. (5) Where will it be at the end of three seconds? 9-8. A ball drops 16.1 feet and keeps rebounding in such a way that on each rebound it rises one per cent of the distance that it has just fallen. Show that it will bounce an infinite number of times and come completely to rest in just one and 1 seconds.
.

9-9.

The engineer

of a passenger train

feet per second, sees a freight train 1,000 feet direction at the constant rate of 10 feet per

which is going at the rate of 80 ahead traveling in the same second on the same track.

He

2 applies the brakes which produce a deceleration of 2.4 feet/second. Will there be a collision, and if so, when?

hour2

9-10. Express 32.2 feet/second 2 in (1) centimeters/second 2 (2) miles/ (3) miles per hour per second, and (4) miles per second per hour.
,

CHAPTER

10

Projectiles;

Centripetal Acceleration

10-1. Velocities

and Accelerations Are Vector Quantities.

Technically it is permissible to speak of a speed, not a velocity, cf twenty miles per hour. A velocity of twenty miles per hour must be

spoken of as proceeding in some definite direction, such as due north. We could speak of two opposite velocities, but it would be meaningless to speak of two opposite speeds. We can find the resultant of two velocities just as we can with any vectors, and we can resolve a given velocity into two components. An acceleration is also a vector quantity and has the same direction as the cJtange in
velocity

which gives

of gravity,

we

rise to it. When we speak of the acceleration should at the same time describe its direction as

being vertically downward. 10-2. Projectiles. The problems of the previous chapter involved accelerations in the same line with the velocities; for example, vertical velocities and vertical accelerations. In practice, however, these cases are comparatively rare. The path of a baseball or projectile from a gun is almost never confined to a vertical direction.
Nevertheless, any velocity

may

be resolved into two components,

one of which

is

exactly vertical

and the other

methods of the previous chapter may and horizontal components separately.

type "projectile problems."
83

horizontal, and the then be applied to the vertical

We

call

problems of

this

84

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

[10-3

10-3. A Simple Projectile Problem. Let us now consider a type of motion such as would be experienced by a bag of sand dropped from a dirigible which is flying eastward at the rate of 80 feet per second.

We shall as usual neglect the effect of air resistance. Since the effect of gravity is vertically downward, there will be nothing either to increase or decrease the horizontal component of the subsequent velocity of the bag of sand. As just indicated, all problems of this type may be separated into

Figure 10-1. parts, one dealing with the vertical motion and the other dealing with the horizontal motion. Let the dirigible and the bag of sand be considered of a set of coordinates (see figure 10-1) at the instant as being at the origin that the bag is dropped, where the X-axis is horizontally eastward and the

two

F-axis is vertically upward. Let the problem be to find the value of x and y after three seconds, also to find the speed of the bag of sand at that time. The bag may be considered as doing two things at once. It is a freely falling

body as far as the vertical part of its motion is concerned, and as far as the horizontal part of its motion is concerned, it is drifting eastward at the rate of 80 feet per second, and in fact remains directly under the dirigible. Let us discuss the vertical part of the problem first. Since the bag is merely
dropped and not thrown down, the
feet/second
2
,

3 seconds.
v,

problem.

To

find

section 9-7). v
feet.

found from equation

Now

Therefore y = 144.9 solve the horizontal part of the problem, u and v are both 80
(b).

shall call y) in this use the equation that does not contain 5 (equation (a), 96.6 ft./sec. s may be ( 32.2) (3). Therefore v

We

initial velocity, want v and s (which

is

zero,

32.2

we

(-

96.6

+ 0)/2.

10-4]
ft./sec.>

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

85

/ = 3. s will be called x. Either equation (b) or (d) 240 feet. The resultant of a velocity vertically downward of 96.6 ft./sec. and a velocity horizontally eastward of 80 ft./sec. is found by the Pythagorean theorem to be 125.4 feet per second. A projectile is shot at an 10-4. A More General Projectile Problem. muzzle with a of 30 the horizontal above velocity of 2,000 angle degrees feet per second. When and where will it again return to the same hori-

0,

and

will give us

zontal level?

Again draw a set of coordinate axes (figure 10-2) and let the projectile from the origin 0. It is again necessary to split the problem into a vertical and a horizontal part (since there is a vertical but no horizontal acceleration); therefore we begin by resolving the initial velocity into two
start
is 1,732 ft./sec. and the vertical component is 1,000 ft./sec. (see figure 7-5). Solve first the vertical problem. u = + l,000ft./sec.;z; = - 1,000 ft./sec.; a = - 32.2 ft./sec. 2 s = y = 0. = 1,000 + / is unknown. Using equation (d) of section Q-7, we have - 32.2)/2 This may be written = t (1,000 - 16.1*). There are two i(

components. The horizontal component

1732. ft/sec.

X*107,&00ft

y-o

Figure 10-2.
/ = 0, and / = 1,000/16.1 or / = 62.1 seconds. The first solution = when means that t the origin where the starts from 0, simply projectile = = (). t But it returns to when 62.1 y again y seconds, which is one of the answers we seek.

solutions,

This result could also be obtained by finding the time necessary to make half of the trip and then doubling it. The details would be as follows. For the vertical motion during the first half of the trip, u = 1,000 ft./sec., v = 0, and a = 32.2 ft./sec. 2 From equation (a), section 9-7, we can find /. Substituting,
t

we have

31.1 seconds.

= 1,000 ( 32.2) t and Since this is the time for half the

trip,

the whole trip requires 62.2 seconds, which

checks the previous work to the degree of precision to which we are working. In the horizontal problem, u = v = 1,732 ft./sec.; a = 0; / = 62.2 sec.; and 5 ( = x) is our unknown. Equation (d) gives = 107,600 feet. The value of h in figure 10-2 us x = (1,732) (62.2) may be found as follows. Again we are solving a vertical problem, u =

86

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

[10-5

= 0; a = 32.2 ft./sec. 2 By this time we know that / is 1,000 ft./sec.; v 31.1 seconds, but let us not make use of this information. This means that we shall use the equation that does not contain /, namely equation (c), = 02 1,0002. Therefore section 9-7. This gives us (2) ( 32.2) (s) = the maximum is This feet. s height, h, attained 15,530 1,000,000/64.4 in figure 10-2 is the followed curve The the by projectile by projectile.

called a parabola.

10-5. Centripetal Acceleration. Thus far our accelerations have either been in the same direction as the velocity itself, or at least in the direction of some component of the velocity. But now

we wish

to discuss the case

when
in

the acceleration
is

is

always at right
of the

angles to the velocity

and

which there

no component

velocity in the direction of the acceleration. This is the case when

is in a circle; the accelthen called radial, or eration central, or centripetal. The centripetal acceleration does not change is

the motion

the component of the velocity in the direction of the motion, but

a component at right so that the resultant velocangles, ity steadily changes in direction
creates

Figure 10-3.

but not in magnitude. Consider a body at A in figure 10-3 with a velocity in the direction of the vector AB. In time /,
the
the arrow

distance

vl

represented by

body would travel a straight AB, and leave the circum-

But if at each instant it were subject to an acceleration a toward the center of the circle, then in time / it would 2 travel a distance ^ at toward the center, according to equation (d)
ference of the circle.
of section 9-7, since u in this direction is zero; this distance is represented in the figure by the arrow AC. The resultant of the disand is AD. The problem is to find the correct placements

AB

AC

value of the acceleration a so that the point shall lie on the circumference. Furthermore, the instant that A has moved to a different point on the circumference, such as D, a new diagram must be drawn with a new acceleration pointing from toward the center.

That

is,

the point

therefore

must be

infinitely close to infinitely small, so that the

circle.

must be

A, and the time

body

shall always

remain on the circumference of the

10-5]

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

87

is a parallelogram, and ACD is a right and therefore DC, is perpendicular to the diaAB, ameter, AE. (A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the diameter

In figure 10-3,

A BCD

triangle, since

through the point of tangency). Since the angle

in a semicircle, it is also a right angle.

ADE

is

inscribed

Since the angles of triangle and triangle and are are equal, triangles similar and their sides are therefore prooortional. It is therefore

ADC

DCE

ADC

DCE

true that

AC = CD CD CE

AC=\

a/

2
;

CD = AB =

vt;

and

CE =

2r

2 J a/

Substituting

these values into the proportion,

we have
2r
\ aft

vt

Equating the product of the extremes to the product of the means

gives us
raft
2

<z

2 /4

= =

fl

2 ft

Dividing through by

simplifies the equation to

ra

a2

ft

v2

Remembering now that these relations hold only when / is infinitely small, we set / equal to zero and divide both sides of the equation by r and obtain

That

the centripetal acceleration is always directed toward the center of the circle and has
is,

a magnitude found by dividing the square of the speed of the object in its circular path by
the radius of the
10-6.
circle.

tion.

Illustrating Centripetal Acceleralocomotive is rounding a curve the radius of which is 500 feet, at a speed of 30 miles per hour.

Problems

(A)

What is the acceleration? centripetal We have seen that 30 miles per hour is the same as 44 feet per second. We therefore substitute v = 44 feet/second and r 500 feet into the

equation a

v2

/r

and obtain
442

Therefore the centripetal acceleration is 1,936/500 or 3.87 feet/second 2 If there is any doubt about the proper units in which to express the result
.

88

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL

ACC&ERATION

of a series of algebraic operations, the best procedure is to put the units into the equation along with the numbers. In this case the numerator is 2 2 2 or Since we are dividing this 1,936 feet /second (44 feet/second) numerator by the denominator consisting of 500 feet, the feet in the
.

feet 2 of the numerator, and the final thus feet/second 2 as we should expect for a unit of acceleration in the English system. It is important for the stability of the locomotive that the centripetal acceleration be small compared with the acceleration of gravity, otherwise the track must be banked. (B) An automobile goes over a slight convexity in the road at the rate of 60 miles per hour. What must be the radius of curvature of the hummock at its highest point so that gravity will just hold the car to the road? According to the conditions of the problem the car is just about to leave the road for an instant and become a projectile. As a projectile it is subject to the acceleration of gravity, 32.2 feet/second 2 vertically downward; on the other hand, if it is barely to follow the curvature of the hummock in the road, the centripetal acceleration must be iP/r. Therefore these two accelerations may be equated, and we may at the same time fill in the numerical value of the speed, which is 60 miles/hour or 88 feet/second. This gives us

denominator partially cancel the

is
,

unit

32.2

Solving for r, the radius of curvature of the hummock, we obtain r = 88 2 /32.2 = 7,740/32.2 = 240 feet. It is doubtful if this would be called a hummock at all.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

10.

Since velocities are vector quantities, the velocity of a projectile may be resolved into vertical and horizontal components, thus splitting such a problem into two parts with nothing in common but the time element. Since acclerations are likewise vector quantities, acceleration to be at right angles to the velocity.
Centripetal Acceleration.
it is

possible for the

An

acceleration toward the center of a circle

to the circumference.
2,2

accompanying a velocity tangent

Its value is

PROBLEMS.
10-1.
hilltop,
jectile

A projectile is discharged horizontally from a gun located on a with a speed of 2,000 feet per second. Find the position of the pro10 seconds later.

10-2. In the preceding problem, find the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity of the projectile 10 seconds after discharge; also find

the resultant velocity. 10-3. Find the position and velocity of a projectile 10 seconds after being discharged at an angle of 45 degrees above the horizontal with a muzzle velocity of 2,000 feet per second.

PROJECTILES; CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

89

10-4. A certain long-range gun has a muzzle speed of 4,000 feet per second. Find the maximum height reached by the projectile, also the horizontal range, assuming the angle of elevation to be 45 degrees. 10-5. A body slides from rest 20 feet down a roof inclined 30 degrees to the horizontal with an acceleration of 16 feet per second 2 and then falls to the ground, 30 feet below. Just where will the body land?
,

10-6. With what horizontal velocity must a boy throw a paper bag full of water to hit a cat 20 feet below his window and 10 feet from the base of the

wind resistance. a centripetal acceleration of 25 feet per second 2 find the maximum speed with which an automobile can make a 90-degree turn with a radius of curvature of 20 feet. 10-8. Find the radial acceleration of an apple which is being whirled on the end of a string in a horizontal circle of 60 centimeters radius, if it takes 1.6 seconds to make a round trip. 10-9. A body moving in a circle of radius r feet, makes n round trips per second. Show that its speed, v, is 2irrn feet per second. Also show
building?
usual, neglect
10-7. If friction will allow
,

As

that

its centripetal

acceleration is 4

CHAPTER

Newton's Second Law

11-1. The Cause of Acceleration. Accelerations are caused by unbalanced forces. Up to this point we have been rather fussy about having our forces balanced since we have usually desired equilibrium; but in the absence of equilibrium there is always accelerated motion. We shall find a similar situation when we come to discuss rotatory motion; when the torques are unbalanced there will be a loss of
rotatory equilibrium and a consequent angular acceleration. 11-2. Newton's Second Law. Newton's first law (see section 2-2) tells us that when the forces acting on an object in a given direction add to zero, that the acceleration in that direction is also

the body is at rest it will remain at rest, and if it is in remain in motion with uniform velocity. Newton's second law states that if the forces acting on a body do not add vectorially to zero, then the body will change velocity in such a way that the acceleration will be proportional to the vector sum of the
zero; that
it
is, if

motion

will

forces,

and

in that direction.

The

proportionality factor

is

the

"mass." A word of caution is necessary in this connection; we are so accustomed in everyday life to find the forces that we exert balanced by friction (in which case the algebraic sum of the forces is zero)
get into the habit of thinking of a force as producing a rather than an acceleration. But when the sura of the forces velocity

that

we

90

11-3]
is

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

91

We

not equal to zero, then at least one of the forces is "unbalanced." shall take the expressions "unbalanced force" and "vector sum

of the forces" to
thing.

mean
there

Thus,

if

force, the velocity is there is always an acceleration in the direc-

same an unbalanced never uniform, but

exactly the
is

10

Ib.

Mass

tion of the unbalanced force.

11-3. Illustrations. Consider in figure 11-1 a 10-pound force acting on a 10-pound mass. In reality this represents nothing more than a 10-pound body in mid-air with no force acting other than the 10-pound pull of gravity, ordi-

10

Ib.

Force

narily called the weight. tions we know that the

Under these condibody will be falling

Figure 11-1.

with the acceleration of gravity, g (32.2 ft./scc. 2 ). We can make the general remark that when the sum of the forces acting on the body is numerically equal to the weight of the body, the acceleration will always be g (32.2 ft. /sec. 2 ), not bib. Force
necessarily downward, but in the direction of the resultant force. The acceleration would still be g

we added a 5-pound force downward and a 5pound force upward. The sum of the forces would still be 10 pounds downward and would be equal to the weight. If, on the other hand, we add to 11-1 a 5-pound upward force (figure 11-2), figure
if

the vector
10
Ib

sum

of the forces (which in this case is

force

also the algebraic sum) now becomes 5 pounds downward, or half of the weight. Under these

Figure 11-2.

conditions the acceleration

is

reduced to half the

,

acceleration of gravity, 16.1 ft. /sec. 2 still in the In figure 11-3, the direction of the resultant of the forces (downward). quantity of matter in the body is 10 pounds; the weight or force of gravity
is

also 10 pounds.

The body

is

resting
=

upon a horizontal surface which

1

3*.*

ft/sec

10

Ib.

tnass

15 Ib.

pull

Ikxlfnction)

10

Ib.

weight

I,

Figure

1 1

-3.

92
supports

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

[11-4

it with an upward force of 10 pounds, called the normal force. 15-pound force acts toward the right and is opposed by a 5-pound

The algebraic sum of the vertical forces is zero, and the algebraic sum of the horizontal forces is 10 pounds toward the right. The vector sum of all the forces is therefore 10 pounds toward the right, or numerically the same as the weight. The acceleration will therefore be
force of friction.

body will behave as if it were downward. For instance, if its velocity at a certain moment is 100 ft./sec. toward the right, then one second later the velocity will be 132.2 ft./sec. in the same direction.
11-4.

32.2 ft./sec. 2 toward the right; that is, the "freely falling" toward the right instead of

Formulation of Newton's Second Law.

The

acceler-

ations that a
forces that

body

will experience are proportional to the resultant

may

act; this fact

may
a

be expressed algebraically as

follows

p =
F*

This equation states that if a force, F, produces an acceleration, a, body, then a force, F', will produce an acceleration, F' are proportional to a and a'. Fortunately we F and a', where the weight of the body, already know that one particular force,
in a certain

W
g,

will

produce the particular acceleration,

is

so that a special

form of

the equation

a
(a)

~W~7
The F in
the numerator
forces that actually act
11-5. Illustrative

is understood to be the vector sum of all the on the body. Problems. (1) Assume that the automobile referred

to in section 9-2 weighs 3,000

extent of 400 pounds. ward on the road?

pounds and experiences resisting forces to the With what force are the drive wheels pushing back-

By Newton's third law, the road pushes forward on the drive wheels with a force equal and opposite to that asked for in this problem, and since all the forces involved in Newton's second law must act on the same body, we shall have to use this forward force. Call the force X. Since there is no vertical acceleration, the sum of the vertical forces must be zero and we
need give them no further consideration. The sum of the horizontal forces acting on the car are then the unknown forward force, X, and the back400 pounds. Thus F in equation (a) ward frictional forces which total 400. Applying the equation which expresses Newton's second law, is X we obtain 810 we have (X - 400)/3,000 = 4.40/32.2. Solving for pounds. In this type of problem, it is usually simplest to adopt as positive

the direction of the acceleration.

Anyone who has tried stepping about in an elevator that is speeding down has experienced peculiar sensations of unusual lightness up or heaviness of body according to the direction of the acceleration. Find the force with which a 200-pound man pushes down on the floor of an elevator
(2)

or slowing

11-5]
(1) as it starts

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

2
;

93

ft./sec.

(2) as it nears the

upward from the ground floor with an acceleration of top floor and experiences a deceleration

of 4 ft./sec. 2 As in the preceding problem, instead of the force exerted by the man on the elevator floor, since we wish all our forces to act on the man, we shall

consider the

X in part

(1)

upward force exerted by the floor on the man, and call this force and X' in part (2) of our present problem. In part (1) the

acceleration

is upward, therefore this will be taken as the positive direction. There are two forces acting upon the man during the acceleration, the upward (positive) force X, and the downward force of gravity, 200 pounds.

Therefore F of equation (a) of section 11-4 is 200. Our equation is = 225 pounds. In part (2) of our then (X - 200)/200 = 4/32.2, and problem, the acceleration is downZT6WL ward, so we shall consider the

downward direction as positive. The equation is therefore (200

4/32.2 and X' = 175 pounds. Instead of merely substituting values into equation (a) of section 11-4, as we have

- Ar '/200 =

been doing,

it is possible to set up the proportion directly by arguing somewhat as follows: if the

in part (2) of our problem were up in midair with no force acting upon him but gravity, his acceleration would be 32. 2 ft./sec. 2 but with a total force of 200 - X', he will experience an acceleration force of 4 ft./sec. 2 which has the same relation to 32.2 as 200 - X' has Figure 11-4. to his weight of 200 pounds. This shows immediately just why the quantity 32.2 always appears in these

man

by George Atwood of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1784 is shown in figure 11-4, and is called At wood's machine. It is essentially a device for "diluting" gravity. Over a pulley, so light that its weight may be neglected, is passed a light cord, one end of which is attached to a 100-gram weight, and the other end to a 110-gram weight. Find the acceleration of the moving system and the tension in the cord.
England
in

equations. (3) A device invented

Our common sense tells us that the 100 grams will go up, the 110 grams down, and that therefore the tension in the cord is more than 100 grams and 2 less than 110 grams. Since we are now using metric units, g is 980 cm./sec.
Since the tension in the cord, T, is the force that the cord exerts on each 100 grams; weight, the forces acting on the 100-gram weight are T and T and +110 grams. Therefore and the forces on the other weight are the equation for the 100-gram weight is (T 100)/100 = a/980, and for = the 110-gram weight, (110 a/980. Equating the two left-hand T)/100

94
sides,

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

we obtain an equation that can be solved
for

[11-6

T and

find that

T=

104.8 grams. The first equation then reduces to 4.8/100 46.9 cm./sec. 2 gives a

a/980, which

The "light pulley" has zero translatory motion since its center of gravity remains at rest. It may therefore be assumed that the upward forces on the pulley balance the downward forces. Since the only forces acting down on
the pulley are those exerted by the cord, namely, two forces of 104.8 grams each, it follows that the upward force on the center of the pulley is 209.6 grams, that is, less than the sum of the two weights. If the two weights were not subject to an acceleration, that is, if we clamped the system so that everything were in equilibrium, this upward force on the center of the
pulley would

become 210 grams.

11-6.

Mass.

ton's second law follows directly

Another way of writing the equation for Newfrom the proportion above:

= (W\ la [

\/

in the numerator and g in the denominator This combination of has occurred before in the expression of kinetic energy (see section 3-6). It is customary to call it mass] that is, the mass of a body is technically its weight divided by the acceleration of gravity. The equation is a convenient description of the quantity of matter present in the body because in places where the weight is small, such as near

the poles or at high altitudes, g is also small in the same proportion, so that although the weight of a body varies from place to place,

constant; therefore the mass is, under ordinary circumstances, practically constant for a given body. Newton's second law may thus be written
the ratio

W/g

is

resultant of the forces

or

= (mass) = F ma

(acceleration)

In the case of a freely falling body, where the only force acting the weight of the body, this equation becomes
weight

is

(mass) (acceleration of gravity)

or

W=
11-7. Inertia.

mg

have seen that at any one point on the surface of the earth, mass is proportional to weight; is there any other property of matter to which mass may be related? Yes! There is the property of matter known as inertia, which is that property of matter which makes it necessary to apply a force when

We

we wish
force

the

body

to

become

accelerated.
is

negative
if

way

of de-

scribing the property of inertia

to say that

we have no

acceleration,

and the body

not apply a remains at rest if it is at

we do

11-8]
rest, or if it is in

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

95

The next

motion, remains in motion with uniform velocity. question is naturally, "How can inertia be measured?"

Since inertia is the property of matter that makes it necessary to apply a force to produce a given acceleration, inertia is to be measured as the ratio of the force acting to the acceleration produced;

F/a. But we have seen that this is exactly what mass is. We have not merely related mass to inertia, we have actually identified the two, so that from here on, if we wish, we may use the terms
inertia

mass and
of inertia.

inertia interchangeably; all units of

mass are

also units

11-8. Engineering Units and Absolute Units. From the point of view of the engineer, mass is a more or less artificial concept;

he prefers to base all his mechanical units on three fundamental concepts, namely, length, time, and force. For example, velocity and acceleration units are derived from the ideas of length and time alone; a weight is a force; energy is the product of force and length;

power involves

all

three, force, length,

and time; mass

likewise,

being the ratio of weight to the acceleration of gravity, involves force, length, and time. On the other hand, theoretical physicists

For this prefer to work with what are called "absolute units. purpose, the three fundamental concepts are mass, length, and time; that is, the idea of mass is to the theoretical physicist fundamental,

1 '

and

a derived concept. Since this book is written from the engineering standpoint, not much will be said about mass, nevertheless it will be understood
force
is

replaced

that wherever the ratio (W/g) occurs in an equation, it may be by the single letter m, and after this is done, absolute units

be used in the equation instead of engineering or gravitational units, as they are often called. The next section may therefore be omitted by the student who is interested only in engineering physics.

may

11-9. Systems of Units. In engineering work it is not necessary to worry about units. If there is any doubt about whether the units used are correct or not, it is merely necessary to insert the units into the equations along with the numerical values, and if the units are correct, they may be cancelled in pairs from the entire equation. On the other hand, when an absolute system of units is being used, forces and masses both appear in the

necessary that they be given different units. this works out, it will be convenient to discuss four different systems of units: two engineering systems and two absolute systems. These will be called respectively, (1) the English engineering system, (2) the metric engineering system, (3) the English absolute system, and (4) the
equations,
it is

and

To show how

M.K.S. system. There was formerly a

fifth

system called the

c.g.s.

system.

96

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

[1

-9

In 1935 the International Committee on Weights and Measures decreed that in January, 1940, this system should be replaced by the M.K.S. system, but scientists, like other people, are conservative, and it may be many years before the c.g.s. system falls into disuse. Therefore in the remainder of this
section

we

shall include all five systems.

is

The

kilogram mass

called the standard kilogram, preserved at

defined as the mass of a certain block of platinum the International Bureau of

Weights and Measures, near Paris, France. A kilogram force is the weight of a kilogram mass, and since this varies from place to place on the surface of the earth, the kilogram force is not a definite force. In the United States, by act of Congress, the pound mass is defined in terms of the mass of the standard kilogram, but in England the pound mass is the mass of a certain block of platinum preserved at the Standards Office in Westminster, London. Thus it is that the United States pound and the British pound, though intended to be alike, are actually slightly different. The standard pound force is the weight of the standard pound mass at sea level and at 45 degrees north latitude, and therefore, unlike the kilogram force, the pound force is a definite force. The acceleration of gravity, g, has been determined at sea level at 45 degrees north latitude to be 32.1740 feet per second 2 In system (1), in the United States, the foot, the unit of length, is defined as 1,200/3,937 of the standard meter; the second, the unit of time, is
.

1/86,400 of a mean solar day; and the pound force is the weight of the United States pound mass at sea level and at 45 degrees north latitude. Although there is no fundamental unit of mass in this system, one may be = mg. derived from the other units in accordance with the relation Thus, if we take the unit of mass in this system to be 32.1740 times the mass of the United States pound and call it "one slug," then we can sub= mg the values: = 32.1740 pounds of stitute into the equation 2 = = and 32.1740 1.00000 m feet/second and the numerical g slug, force,

values check. But in order to make the units check, it is necessary to think of the pound force and the slug as related by the equation: pound force

equals slug-feet per second squared. In system (2) the kilogram is taken as the unit of force, the meter as the unit of length, and the second as the unit of time. A derived unit of mass may be created and called the metric slug. Using the arguments of the previous paragraph, the mass of the metric slug would have to be 9.80 times
the mass of a kilogram.

System (3) is used considerably in textbooks. It has the same units of length and time as the English engineering system, but differs in that it has a fundamental unit of mass, the pound mass, and a derived unit of force, the poundal. The poundal is the force that is necessary to give an acceleration of one foot per second per second to a mass of one pound. In this system, weight, being a force, must be measured in poundals. To find the weight of = mg as follows: a pound mass in poundals, substitute in the equation
32.2 feet/second 2 therefore in poundals find the of to a If we mass in 32.2. weight try pound poundals at a equals the is result will be where different, different, slightly slightly g place namely, the new value of g.

m=

1.000 pound,

and g

11-10]

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

97

System (4), the M.K.S. system, uses the meter as the unit of length; the second, or 1/86,400 of the mean solar day, as the unit of time; and the mass of the standard kilogram as the unit of mass. The standard meter is defined as the distance between two fine lines engraved on a platinum-iridium bar
kept at the above mentioned International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France. The derived unit of force is the newton, defined as the force which will produce an acceleration of one meter per second per second in a mass of one kilogram. By the arguments of the previous paragraph, we discover that the weight of a kilogram mass is 9.80 newtons at a place where the acceleration of gravity is 9.80 meters per second per second. This system will be found to fit nicely into the practical electrical system of units. The newton-meter is a joule; the newton-meter per second is a watt. Other electrical units belonging to this system such as the volt, ampere, ohm, and so on will be discussed later.

system the centimeter, the unit of length, is one hundredth gram, the unit of mass, is one thousandth of a kilogram; and the dyne, the unit of force, is one hundred-thousandth of a newton. It is like a toy system, useful chiefly in dealing with small quantities. Yet, ironically enough, its units are too large when we deal with atomic entities. The approximate relative magnitudes of these units of mass and force, jumbling them together rather indiscriminately, may be seen from the
In the
c.g.s.

of a meter; the

following table:

980 dynes 454 grams

1,000 grams

9.80 newtons
0.80 kilograms
32.2 poundals

= = = =
= = =

1
1
\

gram pound
kilogram

kilogram metric slug

1
1

pound
slug

32.2 pounds

The various
System
(1) (2)

units discussed in this section

may

be arranged as in the

following table, where the derived units appear in parentheses.

Time
second
Length
foot

Mass
(slug)

Force

Weight

English engineering Metric engineering

pound
kilogram
(poundal)

pound
kilogram
(poundal)

second second

meter
foot

(metric slug)

(3) English absolute

(4)

pound
kilogram

Kilogram-metersecond
C.g.s.

second
second

(5)

meter cm.

(newton)
(dyne)

(newton)
(dyne)

gram

11-10. Kinetic Energy. (See section 3-6.) By equation (c) in section 9-7, if a body drops a vertical distance, h, from rest, with the acceleration of gravity, g, the square of its velocity will be 2gh down2 ward. In this case h v /2g. Utilizing the law of conservation of

energy,

height h, will

that the potential energy (Wh, or mgti) at the be converted into an equal amount of kinetic energy, Wv 2/2g or mv 2/2, after dropping the distance h. The kinetic energy

we can say

98

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

[11-11

depends only on the numerical values of the mass and the velocity, and will have the same value whatever the 'direction of the velocity. It is therefore not a vector quantity. As an illustration of the equation, 11-11. Illustrative Problems (4).

F=

ma,

let

tion 11-5.

us do again problem (1) which has already been solved in secSince the weight of the automobile is 3,000 pounds, its mass is
.

3,000/32.2 or 93.2 slugs. The sum of the forces still is correctly expressed 400 pounds. And the acceleration is 4.4 feet/second 2 Therefore as when we substitute in the equation, we have 400 = (93.2) (4.4), and

the solution
(5)

is still

810 pounds.

a smooth roof inclined 30 degrees to the horizontal, an object is placed 32 feet from the eaves arid released. The eaves are 80 feet above the ground. How long does it take the object (a) to slide to the eaves, and (b)
to reach the

On

velocity will

it

ground? (c) Where will it strike the ground, and (d) what have just before it strikes?

(a) When the roof is described as "smooth" the interpretation is that the coefficient of friction is zero. Referring to figure 11-5, the weight is resolved into two components, one perpendicular to the roof and the other Since we are dealing with a 30-degree right triangle, the comparallel. ponent, F, parallel to the roof is just half of the weight, and this is the only force parallel to the motion; that is, it is the sum of the forces in this case. When we substitute values into the

equation

W
we
see that since
is

on the

left

the nu-

just half of the denomiminator; the same will have to be true

merator

on

the

right;
2.

therefore,

16.1

feet/second During down to the eaves we have the lowing data

the

motion
fol-

Figure

-5.

a
s
t

= = = = =

16.1 feet/second2

32 feet
?

Equation
solve for

(c) of
v.

section 9-7 does not contain t; Substituting in the data, we obtain

(2) (16.1) (32)

we can
O2

therefore use

it

to

v2

Solving gives us v 1,030, section 9-7 now gives us t

and
32.1

32.1 feet per second.

Equation

(a) of

16.1

Solving,

we

find that

1.994 seconds.

11

1 1 ]

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

99

(b) From this point on, we have a projectile problem on our hands; it is therefore necessary to consider separately the vertical and the horizontal part of the motion. First resolve the velocity at the eaves, 32.1 feet per

components.

second, 30 degrees below the horizontal, into vertical and horizontal By figure 7-5, the vertical component is (0.5) (32.1) or 16.0 feet/second downward, and the horizontal component is (0.866) (32.1)

or 27.8 feet/second. up as follows.

The data

for the vertical part of the

problem

line

= s = t = u = v =
a

32.2 feet/second 2

80 feet
?

16.0 feet/second
?

Since we have the same set of unknowns as in part (a), the procedure will be the same. Equation (c), section 9-7, gives us
(2) (32.2) (80)
v2

it

(16.0)2

5,150

256

5,410,

and
73.6

73.6 feet/second.

Then equation

(a),

section 9-7,

becomes

16.0

32.2

From

this,

(73.6

16.0)/32.2

57.6/32.2

1.789 seconds.

(c) In order to find where the object will strike the ground, it is only necessary to multiply the horizontal component of the velocity as the object leaves the roof, 27.8 feet/second, by the time it is in the air, 1.789 seconds.

The product is 49.7 feet, the horizontal distance from the building. (d) The velocity of the body just as it reaches the ground is

the resultant of the horizontal component, 27.8 feet per second, and the vertical component, 73.6 feet/second. Squaring these and adding, we have 773 6,180. Extracting the square root, we find the resultant to be 78.6 5,410

feet/second. The result could also have been obtained graphically by drawing the figure to scale and measuring the diagonal; the result may in this way be obtained to the same degree of accuracy as by the use of the slide-rule. If the figure has been drawn, we can measure the angle between

the resultant and the vertical with a protractor and find it to be 20 42'. also be found trigonometrically either from the fact that its is 27.8/73.6 (or 0.378) or from the fact that its sine is 27.8/78.6 tangent

The angle may

or (0.354).

(6) What centripetal force is necessary to make a 16.1-pound body revolve in a horizontal circle of one foot radius at the rate of 0.5 revolutions per second? If the body is supported against gravity and caused to revolve in this way by means of a cord attached to it, find the tension and length of the cord.

In order to find the centripetal force we need first the centripetal 2 acceleration, the expression for which is v /r. In one second the body will make just half a revolution. Since the circumference of the circle which constitutes its path is (2?r) (1) or 6.28 feet, half of this divided by one

100
second, the time

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

it takes for a half revolution, is 3.14 feet per second, its Therefore v*/r is (3.14) 2 /(1) or 9.86 feet/second3 We could have obtained the same result by utilizing a formula developed in problem 10-9, that is, that the centripetal acceleration is 4 ir2n?r. In this case the expression becomes (4) (3.14) 2 (0.5) 2 (1), which also gives us 9.86 feet/second 2 is 16.1 pounds, a is 9.86 Utilizing equation (a) of section 11-4 in which

speed.

feet/second

2
,

and

2 g is 32.2 feet/second ,

we have

F
16.1

9.86
32.2

= 4.93 pounds, and since Solving for the resultant of the forces gives us F in this case, there is only one force in the direction of the center of the circle, 4.93 pounds is the desired centripetal force. The negative of this force, called centrifugal force, is a fictitious force which would have to be applied to hold the body in any of its instantaneous positions if the whirling motion stopped.
In this problem, the body is caused to remain in its horizontal circle by of a cord, one end of which is held at a point directly above the center of the circle and the other end of which is attached to the revolving body. The tension in this cord, which is always in a slanting position, represents a slant force exerted on the revolving body. One component of this slant force supports the weight of the body, 16.1 pounds, and the other component supplies the centripetal force of 4.93 pounds towards the center of the circle.

means

two components is the tension we seek. (16. 1) 2 Therefore the tension in the cord is 16.84 pounds. If the (16.84) (4.93) student draws the diagram, he will see that it contains two similar triangles in which the length of the supporting cord is to the radius of the circle as the tension in the cord is to the centripetal force. If x is the length of the cord, wehave*/! = 16.84/4.93. Therefore the length of the cord must be 3. 42 feet.

The

resultant of these
2

2.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Mass.

1 1

Technical Terms Defined

of matter in a body. Represented in engineering exthe ratio of the weight to the acceleration of gravity. pressions by A property that matter possesses which makes it necessary to Inertia. apply an unbalanced force to a body in order to produce an acceleration

Quantity

of that body. units.

It is indistinguishable

from mass and

is

measured

in

mass

Translatory Kinetic Energy. The energy that a body possesses by virtue of its translatory motion. It is found by multiplying half the mass of the body by its velocity squared.

Newton's Second Law.

Unbalanced forces produce accelerations in a body; the accelerations are proportional to the resultant force.

The equation:

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

101

PROBLEMS
11-1. 20-pound body rests on a smooth horizontal surface. If a certain unbalanced horizontal force moves it 8 feet from rest in one second, find both the acceleration and the force. 11-2.

A 40-pound body rests on a rough horizontal surface such that the

What
acceleration will a horizontal force of 20

coefficient of friction is 0.2.

pounds produce on the body, and how far will it move the body from rest in two seconds? 11-3. A 20-pound body rests on a smooth plane inclined at such an angle that a force of 10 pounds, acting up the plane, is necessary to produce equilibrium. What force must replace the 10-pound force to cause the 20pound body to move up the plane 8 feet from rest in one second with accelerated motion? 11-4. On a roof inclined 30 degrees to the horizontal, an object is placed 32 feet from the eaves and released. The eaves are 80 feet above the ground. If the coefficient of friction between the object and the roof is 0.1, how long does it take the object (1) to slide to the eaves and (2) to reach the ground? (3) Where will it strike the ground and (4) what velocity will it have on
161 -pound man stands in an elevator while the elevator has a acceleration of 12 feet/second. 2 With what force do his feet push on the floor of the elevator? Is it necessary for the elevator to be moving downward for the above situation to occur? If the elevator has an upward acceleration of 16.1 feet/second 2 how hard will his feet push on the elevator floor?
striking? 11-5.

downward

11-6. A 16-pound body and a 48-pound body are placed side by side on a smooth horizontal surface and a horizontal force of 32 pounds is applied to the 16-pound body so as to set both in motion. (1) What acceleration will be produced? (2) What force will the 16-pound body exert on the 48-pound body? (3) What force will the 48-pound body exert on the 16-pound body? 11-7. If the coefficient of friction in problem 11-6 is changed from zero to 0.1, what do the answers become? 11-8. A and B are two objects that each weigh 10 pounds. Show, if A rests on a smooth horizontal bench 8 feet high, 24 feet from the edge, and is connected by a 24-foot cord to J3, which is just falling off the edge of the bench, that B will reach the floor in one second from rest, and A will reach the edge of the bench in two seconds, striking the floor in 2.71 seconds,
2 assuming the acceleration of gravity to be 32.0 feet/second 11-9. A 48-pound weight rests on a horizontal bench which is 4 feet high with the weight 12 feet from the edge. A 12-foot cord connects this weight with a 16-pound weight which is just ready to fall from the edge of the bench. Assuming no friction, how long after the bodies start from rest will it be when (1) the 16-pound weight strikes the floor, (2) the 48-pound weight reaches the edge of the bench, and (3) the 48-pound weight reaches the floor? (4) What are the velocities of the 48-pound weight at these three times?
.

11-10. Solve the preceding problem, assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.25 between the 48-pound weight and the bench.

A 16-pound weight and a 48-pound weight hang on opposite ends which passes over a light frictionless pulley. Compute (1) the acceleration of the bodies, (2) the speed they will acquire in one second from
11*11. of a cord

102
rest,

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

move during
that second.
(4)

and (3) the distance each will tension in the cord.

Find the

11-12. If, instead of moving vertically, the 48-pound weight of the preceding problem moves down a smooth plane inclined at 30 degrees to the horizontal, with the cord now pulling parallel to the plane, what acceleration will the 16-pound weight (still hanging vertically) now have?

11-13. If in the preceding problem the coefficient of friction between the 48-pound weight and the plane is assumed to be 0.175, what will the resulting acceleration of the 16-pound weight become? 11-14. Prove (1) that 1 newton = 1 kilogram-meter/second 2 and (2) that 1 slug = 1 pound-second 2 /foot. 11-15. If a 3,220-pound automobile is rounding a curve of 100 yards horizontal radius while traveling at a speed of 30 miles per hour, compute (1) the necessary centripetal force, (2) the vertical components of the force which the road exerts upon the automobile, and (3) the resultant force which the road exerts upon the automobile. For maximum stability (that is, no tendency for the automobile to slip either to the inside or to the outside

edge of the curve) the surface of the road should be perpendicular to this resultant. This makes the angle of banking (the angle between the surface of the road and the horizontal) equal to the angle between the resultant force found in (3) and the vertical. Find (4) the angle of banking.
11-16. A pail of water is rotating about a vertical axis through its center at such a rate that four inches from the axis the surface of the water slants at an angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal. many rotations per second is the pail making?

How

CHAPTER

12

Angular Acceleration; Gyroscope

We
now about

12-1. Units of Angle.

are

to apply the laws of

accelerated motion to rotatory motion. In this connection it is rather startling to discover that there are seven distinct units of

angle all in common use. The system of degrees, minutes, and seconds is well known. The quadrant (90 degrees) and the revolution (360 degrees) likewise need no introduction. Many modern military

instruments are now graduated in mils, where the mil is 1/1600 of a quadrant. This is particularly convenient for range finders; for example, if an automobile known to be 15 feet long subtends at the eye an angle of 5 mils, it is about 3,000 feet away. If the angle sub-

tended

known

2.5 mils, it is 6,000 feet away. The rule is to divide the length of the object by the number of mils subtended and
is

multiply by 1,000. The mathematician's favorite unit of angle is the radian, which is about 57.3 degrees. This peculiar number is obtained by dividing 180 degrees by TT (TT = 3.14159 ). The reason for this procedure and CD, Let two lines, is due to the following argument. intersect at O. With center at O, describe an arc intersecting the two lines at P and Q (see figure 12-1). If the magnitude of the angle

AB

QOP

(angle 0)
r),

(radius

is such that the length of QP (arc s) is equal to OQ then the angle is said to be one radian. Therefore 3.14

103

104

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

[12-2

radians (TT radians) equal 180 degrees. various units of angle are as follows:
60 seconds (") 60 minutes
57.3 degrees 1,600 mils

The

relations

between the

90 degrees 360 degrees

2
TT

radians

= = = = = = =

1
1

minute

(')

degree () radian

1
1 1
1

quadrant quadrant
revolution revolution

The mil is slightly less than one thousandth mary to use the revolution as an angular
large; for example,

of a radian. It

is

custo-

unit
is

when

an angle of 3,600 degrees radians (62.8 radians). If a wheel is turning at the rate of 60
20
TT

the angle is 10 revolutions or

revolutions per second, then in one minute a revolution counter would indicate an angle of 3,600 revolutions.

A 12-2. Angular Speed. in is a position space merely point without dimensions, and hence canA line, however, is not rotate. of about any one rotating capable

Figure 12-1.

of its points, and in so doing, creates an angle between its original and final positions. The rate at which a line describes an angle is called its angular speed: It is

expressed in terms of a unit formed by dividing a unit of angle by a unit of time; for example, 10 radians per second, 3,600 revolutions per minute, 15 degrees per hour, the last being the angular speed of the earth's rotation.

12-3. Rotatory Motion.

In section 8-1 rotatory motion was

described. In pure rotatory motion, the center of gravity lies on the axis of rotation every point in this line is at rest. Consider now any
;

plane in the body at right angles to the axis. If a line be drawn in this plane in such a way as to intersect the axis, then during the
rotation, this line

moves with an angular speed which we can iden-

tify with the angular speed of the rotating body. A spinning top usually has a very complicated motion, but at times the axis of spin remains stationary. The schoolboy describes

the top in this condition as "sleeping," and a sleeping top constitutes a good illustration of pure rotatory motion. On the other hand

12-4]

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

105

a projectile shot from a rifled gun barrel moves with a combination of rotatory motion about its center of gravity and translation of the center of gravity. The projectile problems which we have solved were concerned only with the motion of the center of gravity.
12-4. Angular Velocity.
tinction exists

In rotatory motion, the same dis-

between angular speed, a scalar quantity, and angular velocity, a vector, that we have discovered between linear speed and linear velocity. We have just seen that a point not on the axis of a
rotating body moves in a plane, following a circular path. If the center of this path, the orientation of the plane in space, the sense
of the rotation, and the rate of rotation be specified, we know all there is to be known about the rotation. All these things may be represented by means of a single arrow, so that angular velocity may
therefore be considered as an ordinary vector quantity. Just how a single arrow is capable of representing completely the angular
velocity is rather interesting. This could not be done if the arrow were to lie in the plane of the rotation, because a single line, lying in a plane, cannot completely determine the position of the plane.
point, only one plane can be passed perpendicularly to a given line, so that if it be understood that the arrow shall be drawn from the center of the circular orbit along the axis

But through a given

of rotation, the orientation of the plane will be completely determined by the arrow. But the arrow must also show the sense of the
rotation, that
is,

whether

it is

clockwise or

counterclockwise as viewed from the head

of the arrow.

We therefore make the con-

vention that the arrow shall be so drawn

that the rotation shall appear counter-

clockwise as viewed from the head of the

arrow (see figure 12-2). And as usual, the length of the arrow is proportional to the speed of rotation. As an aid to memory,

we may

the fingers of the right hand " igure represent the rotation, in which case the thumb will indicate the proper direction for the vector representing
let
'

the angular velocity. 12-5. Equations of

shall confine

Angular Acceleration.

In this book we

our discussion of angular acceleration to cases in which is uniform. Therefore an angular acceleration may be defined as the gain in angular velocity in unit time, or in other words angular acceleration is the ratio of the change in angular
the acceleration

106

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

[12-6

velocity to the length of time required for the change. As in our discussion of linear acceleration, we shall require a set of letters

representing the five quantities involved; for this purpose it is customary to use two more Greek letters. We have already used the

Greek
initial

letter thela (0) to designate

an angle. Alpha

for angular acceleration,

and omega
shall use
co

angular speed,

we

(a) will stand final for (co) angular speed. For / will stand for time. Since the ;

equations are similar to the ones we have already derived, we shall merely list them the list should be compared with the one in section 9-7.
;

co

coo

+
-

at

(a)

2
6

= =

cu

coo

(c)

coo/

\OL

P
0,

(d)

As

before, one variable

12-6. Illustrative

is

omitted from each equation,

a,

/,

and

co

respectively.

Problem.

certain flywheel slows

down from 4,800

and the

r.p.m. to 3,600 r.p.m. in ten seconds. Find the angular acceleration number of revolutions made in slowing down.

Use equation (a) to find the acceleration^ because it does not contain 6. Before substituting in this equation, the time units must be made to agree; at present we have a mixture of minutes and seconds. Since the problem specifies that the angle be expressed in revolutions, it is not necessary in this case to change to radians. But merely to illustrate the process, we shall solve the problem both in revolutions and in radians. In terms of revolu= 80 revolutions per second, o> = 60 revolutions per sections, we have wo = 10 / seconds. Therefore equation (a) becomes 60 = 80 and a 10. ond, find for a. we that the 2 acceleration is revolutions angular Solving per second squared. From equation (b) we can find the number of revolutions; 6 = 10 (60 80)/2 = 700 revolutions. The negative acceleration means

a retardation, or deceleration as it is sometimes called. If the angular acceleration is to be used in some subsequent equation, it is necessary that it be expressed in radians/second 2 Therefore we shall solve the problem again, using the radian as the unit of angle. Since each revolution is 2 TT radians, then WQ is (80) (2ir) radians per second =
.

co = (60) (2?r) = 377 radians per second. Equatakes the form, 377 = 502 a 10, and a is now 12.50 2 We could also have changed 2 revolutions/second 2 radians/second

520 radians/second, and

tion (a)

now

12.56 by multiplying by 2ir, obtaining 2 radians/second which checks with the other value within the limits of accuracy to which we are working.
,

2 directly into radians/second

12-7. Relations Between Linear Magnitudes on the Circumference and the Corresponding Angular Magnitudes at the Center. From the definition of the radian (see section 12-1

12-8]

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

12-1)
r.

107

and figure

we have seen

to the radius

When

r,

Therefore, since 6

that the angle 6 is the ratio of the arc 5 the ratio is unity and 6 is one radian.
s

s/r

rd

Similarly, the linear velocity of a point moving along an arc is related to the angular velocity of the line connecting the moving point with the center by the equation
v

ro)

the linear acceleration of a point on the circumference in a direction tangent to the circumference is related to the angular
acceleration of the line connecting the

And

moving point with the center

by

the equation
a

=
is

ra

Very frequently angular velocity

the unit
is

represented by the letter n when revolutions per second; if it is also understood that co is in radians per second, then, since there are 2?r radians in a revolution,
it is

true that
co

=
=

2 irn

And

since v

rco,

then
v

2 irrn

Furthermore, since centripetal, or radial, acceleration, that is, the linear acceleration of a point on the circumference toward the center
(see section 10-5)
is
2 equal to v /r,

it is

also equal to

?r

W/r, or

12-8. Illustration Involving Three Types of Acceleration. A flywheel, 10 feet in diameter, starts from rest and in 10 seconds acquires an angular speed of 1,200 r.p.m. Find the tangential acceleration of a point on the circumference, the centripetal acceleration of the same point at the end of 10 seconds, and the angular acceleration.

Both the tangential and centripetal accelerations are linear and are 2 the angular acceleration will come out in expressed in feet/ second 2 the end of the 10 seconds, n = 1,200 r.p.m. or 20 radians/second By = co 2wn and is therefore 40?r radians per second, revolutions/second, or 125.6 radians/second, and v = rco or (5) (125.6) which is 628 feet/second. v could also be found from v = 2irrn = (2) (3.14) (5) (20) = 628 feet/second. Since it took 10 seconds to acquire this speed of 628 feet/second from rest, then the acceleration in the direction of the tangent is 62.8
;
.

feet/second

2
,

from equation

(a),

section 9-7.

centripetal acceleration is the component of linear acceleration at right angles to the tangent, along the radius toward the center. If it were not for this acceleration, the point under discussion would move in a straight line and not follow the circumference of the wheel at all. In order to find the

The

108

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

[12-9

radial acceleration, it is necessary to substitute in either the formula, iP/r, section 10-5, or 4?r2 tt2 r of the previous section. The first gives 628 2 /S or 2 2 2 2 78,800 feet/second the second gives 4 (3.14 ) (20 ) 5 or 78,800 feet/second ,
;

enormously greater than the tangential component. A point may have linear acceleration, but only a

line

may have

angular

acceleration; therefore, to solve the third part of the problem, connect the point in question with the center of rotation. This line describes an angle as

the wheel turns. In this case the angular velocity of the radius is not uniform but increases from o?o = zero to w = 125.6 radians/second in 10

seconds time, therefore the gain in angular velocity per second, or angular is 125.6/10 or 12.56 radians/second 2 from equation (a), section 12-5. As a check we can apply the equation a = rot connecting
acceleration,

the tangential and angular accelerations.

This gives 62.8

(5) (12.56),

which

is

obviously correct.

12-9.
of

The Gyroscope.

Some

rather interesting applications

angular velocity gyroscope is simply a flywheel mounted in such a way that it is free
to turn about three different axes, at right angles to each other. The front

vectors occur in

dealing with gyroscopes.

wheel of a bicycle may be taken as an Let us consider what illustration.

ought to happen if the bicycle rider turns the handle bars to the right while the wheel is turning. In accordance with section 12-4, the angular velocity of the wheel, due to its rotation on its own axis, is represented by a relatively
long horizontal arrow, pointing to the left. The other angular velocity of the wheel, due to the rotation of the handle bars to the right, is represented by a relatively short arrow pointing nearly
vertically down. Draw the parallelogram of these two vectors and find the resultant. It will be found that this resultant will be repre-

sented

by a long arrow pointing downward

to the

left.

In order

may represent the resultant angular velocity of the spinning the wheel, bicycle must tip to the left. This would be more clearly recognized if one should remove the front wheel from the frame,
that this
set
it

spinning,
if

would
itself

and attempt to give it a twist such as the handle bars turned to the right. As a result, the wheel will almost tear out of one's hands in setting itself to correspond to a bicycle

leaning to the left! As a matter of fact, gyrostatic action constitutes the usual reason for a bicycle rider steering to the right; he is starting to fall to the right and wishes to create a torque which
will neutralize the

tendency by rotating the bicycle to the

left.

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

109

bicycle wheel still held in his hands, if the whirls himself experimenter upon his heel completely around to the the will continue turning to the left till the wheel right, bicycle

With the spinning

vector representing the rotation of the wheel coincides in direcThis tion with the vector representing the rotation on the heel.

experiment

illustrates in part the principle of the

gyrocompass.

properly mounted rotating flywheel on the rotating earth behaves just as the spinning bicycle wheel does in the hands of a

spinning person; that is, it tends to set its axes parallel to the axis of the rotating earth, north and south. Following the same principle, the student can see how a gyrostatic stabilizer properly

placed in a ship is able to convert some of the rolling motion into a pitching motion at right angles to the roll. Since the ship is so

much

longer than

it is

wide, the pitch

is less

objectionable,

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

12

Technical Terms Defined

Mil.
angle equal to one sixteen-hundredth of a quadrant. angle subtended by an arc which is equal in length to radius; 180 degrees divided by TT.

An

Radian.

An

its

Angular Speed.

The magnitude

of the time rate of

change of an angle.

scalar quantity.

A complete description of the angular motion of a body including not only the magnitude of the angular speed but the position of the axis, also the sense of the rotation. A vector quantity. Angular Acceleration. Rate of change of angular velocity. This is also a
Angular Velocity.
vector quantity.

Gyroscope.

flywheel

mounted

so that

it is

free to rotate

about three

different axes at right angles to each other.

Its angular velocities

may

be combined vectorially.

PROBLEMS
12-1. An automobile, fifteen feet long, is five thousand feet distant from an observer. What angle does it subtend at the observer in radians? In mils? 12-2. Find the percentage difference between a mil and one thousandth of a radian. 12-3. A cylinder rotating about its axis with constant angular acceleration makes two complete revolutions from rest in two seconds. Compute (1) the magnitude of the angular acceleration, (2) the angular speed at the end of two seconds, and (3) the average angular speed. (4) What other information is necessary in order to compute the linear speed of a point on the

cylindrical surface?

110

ANGULAR ACCELERATION; GYROSCOPE

12-4. If a uniformly accelerated rotating body increases its speed from one revolution per second to two revolutions per second in making three revolutions, compute (1) the average speed, (2) the time required for this increase in speed, and (3) the magnitude of the constant acceleration. Express these answers in terms of both revolutions and radians.
12-5. A rotating body has a constant angular deceleration of 6.28 radians per second squared and makes eight revolutions in two seconds. Compute, in terms of both revolutions and radians, (1) the initial angular

speed and

(2)

the final angular speed.

is two moves

12-6, If in the preceding problem a point in the rotating body feet from the axis of rotation, compute (1) the linear distance it

during the eight revolutions,

initial linear speed,

(4)

its initial

(2) its linear tangential acceleration, (3) its radial acceleration, and (5) its initial

resultant linear acceleration.

12-7. 12-8.

Show that centripetal force may be equated to The flywheel of an automobile is turning clock-

wise as viewed from the front of the car (if one could see it). What will the gyrostatic tendency of the flywheel on its bearings be while the car is turning a corner to the right?
12-9. What is the gyrostatic effect when a boy pushes the top of a rolling hoop to the right? 12-10. Show how a gyrostatic stabilizer in a ship should

be mounted.
12-11.

The slow wabbling

spinning to the right as right or to the left?

tire

viewed from above,

of a top is called "precession." If a top is will the precession be to the

12-12. Imagine the motion of the point farthest forward on the bicycle used in the illustration in section 12-9. Due to the rotation of the

wheel, this point has a large linear velocity vertically downward. Due to the rotation of the handle bars to the right, this point also has a small horizontal velocity to the right. Find the resultant of the two linear
velocities.

What

position of the wheel will account for this

new

(resultant)

velocity?
12-13. If a cylinder three feet in diameter rolls four feet down an inclined plane in one second from rest, compute (1) the linear acceleration of the axis of the cylinder relative to the plane, (2) its final linear velocity
relative to the plane, (3) the final linear velocity of the plane relative to the axis of the cylinder, and (4) the angular acceleration of the cylinder;
(5) find also the final

angular speed of the cylinder.

12-14. In part (3) of the preceding problem, the magnitude of the final linear velocity of the plane relative to the cylinder is equal to the final
linear tangential speed of every point on the cylindrical surface with reference to its axis. Find (1) the speed of a point on the cylindrical surface

directly opposite to a point of contact, relative to the plane at this same instant and (2) the corresponding angular speed of a diameter connecting these two points. How does the* answer to 12-13 (5) compare with 12-14 (2) ?

CHAPTER

13

Dynamics of Rotation
of Inertia. Newton 's second law applied to linear motion states that the sum of the forces applied to a body is proportional to the linear acceleration produced, where the proportionality constant is called the mass or the inertia (see section 11-6). We can also apply Newton's second law to angular motion; it then
13-1.

Moment

becomes: the sum of the torques, or moments of force, applied to a body is proportional to the angular acceleration produced, and

ment

the proportionality constant is called the moment of inertia. A moof force is the product of a force and a distance, but a moment
is

proportional to the product of an inertia and the square Moment of inertia will be represented by the letter 7, and the resultant torque by the letter L, so that the equation for Newton's second law when applied to rotation becomes
of inertia

of a distance.

The

fact just mentioned, that

kmr*

can be proved from a consideration of units, or quite directly by

the argument in the following section. 13-2. Derivation of Formula of Moment of Inertia. If we consider the simplest possible case, it will involve a somewhat hypo-

This object will consist of a stiff, weightless rod of length r, connecting a mass, W/g, which occupies no space, to an axis. See figure 13-L Throughout the discussion, for brevity, we
thetical object.

111

112
shall use

DYNAMICS OP ROTATION

[13-2
this simplified object,

instead of

W/g. In the case of

F=

the proportionality constant, k, turns out to be unity, as will be shown. If the force F were applied directly to the mass m, an acceleration would be produced in accordance with the formula,

ma, so that the acceleration would be F/m. If the force were applied at the axis, no acceleration at all would be produced. But if the force is applied at a point P, which is s/r of the distance from the axis to the mass, then the acceleration will be s/r of the value F/m, that is, Fs/mr. The angular acceleration of the whole rod is related to the linear acceleration of the lower end of the rod by the
formula,
the
tion will be

sum

a/r (see section 12-7), therefore the angular accelera2 Fs/mr From the previous section, a also equals L/I or of the torques divided by the moment of inertia. We recog.

a=

nize

Fs as the only torque acting about the axis chosen (product of the force by the perpendicular distance from the axis; see section 8-3), therefore mr 2 is the moment of inertia of the mass m, when it is r units from the axis, and the constant k of the preceding paragraph is unity. Another case when -most of the mass is at a distance r from the axis of rotation is the flywheel; here an effort is made to concentrate the mass in the rim as much as possible, so that for most purposes we may say

Figure 13-1.

or

Ijiywkeei

W
r*

A solid cylinder has matter all the way between the axis and the circumference; the moment of inertia of the matter at the axis 2 so that it is not suris zero while that at the circumference is mr
,

prising to find that, taking the cylinder as a whole, the expression be-

comes
/
cylinder

= $Wr2
,

the

Since the length of the cylinder does not enter into this formula, moment of inertia of a disk is likewise ^ mr 2

The moment of inertia of a sphere is still less because a still smaller proportion of the matter lies at the distance of the extreme radius. In this case the formula is
/
r
sphere

J^f

o 2

The formula
radius r i,

and the outer radius

/

for the hollow cylinder involves r 2 , and is

hollov cylinder

both the inner

Jw(ri

+ f22

13-3J
If

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

113

we imagine a

in value to
2 just r

r^ then (r*

case (like a stove pipe) where r \ becomes very close 2 2 ^2 )/2 becomes approximately 2 r /2 or

and we get back the mass is in the rim.

to the expression for the flywheel where all

If we make a long slim rod of length / (such as a meter bar) rotate about an axis perpendicular to the rod, we obtain
,

13-3. Units of

Moment

of Inertia.

ourselves that the length must be squared kmr* by a consideration of the units involved.

We could also convince in the expression / =

In the equation,

/a, we may express L second 2 But when an angle

.

L=

a ratio of an
the
first

in pound-feet and a in radians per is expressed in radians, it is actually arc to the radius, and therefore a pure number. (See

equation of section 12-7.)

,

must be pound-foot-second 2
',

since

it is

Therefore if I = L/a, its unit not necessary to.say pound-

2 foot-second /radian. Consider now the units involved in kmr 2 or 2 is in pounds, reciprocal g is in k(W/g)r k is a pure number,

seconds 2/foot, and r 2

is

in feet

2
.

Taking the product

of these, after
.

making one
If

cancellation,

we have again pound-foot-second 2

we

use one of the systems of units mentioned in section 11-9, could express moment of inertia in slug-feet 2 or kilogram-meters 2
.

we
is

It

often convenient to consider

moments

of inertia of areas in-

or W/g in the foregoing stead of masses. When this is done, the formulas become cross-sectional areas perpendicular to the axis of 4 4 rotation, and the unit of area moment of inertia is foot or meter

instead of slug-foot 2 or kilogram-meter 2

13-4. Illustrative

applied to rotation,
in

Problem. As an illustration of Newton's second law assume the following problem: a grindstone, two feet
is

radius.

diameter and weighing 100 pounds, If a steady force of 25 pounds

is

equipped with a crank of six inch maintained on this crank at right

angles to the radius, find the resulting angular acceleration. The sum of the torques about the axis of rotation in this problem is (25 pounds) (0.5 feet) or 12.5 pound-feet. The moment of inertia is given by the formula Wr*/2g, or, numerically, (100) (l) 2 /(2) (32.2) or 1.553

The angular acceleration, a, is L/I and is therefore pound-feet-second 2 We could have expressed the angular 12.5/1.553 or 8 radians per second 2 acceleration as simply 8/second That is, dividing 12.5 pound-feet by 1.553 pound-foot-seconds2 gives 8 seconds"2 , 8/second2 , all three being the same.
. .

2.

13-5.

Work and Energy

of Rotation.

torque and the angle expressed in radians

The product of the will give the work done

114

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

[13-6

by the torque on the rotating

rotating object

may

object, and the kinetic energy of the be found by using the formula
k.e.

This kinetic energy of rotation is to be added to whatever kinetic energy of translation may be present, to obtain the total kinetic
energy.
13-6. Illustrative

Problem.

sphere (figure 13-2), radius two

feet,

weight 500 pounds,

rolls

down a

100-foot plane inclined 30 degrees with the

Figure 13-2.
If it starts from rest at the top of the plane, what is its angular speed at the bottom of the plane? By comparison with figure 7-5, we see that the vertical height of one end of the plane compared with the other is 50 feet. Therefore the potential energy of the sphere at the top of the plane is Wh, or in this case, (500 pounds) (50 feet) or 25,000 foot-pounds. Since the sphere is at rest at the top of the plane, it has neither translatory kinetic energy, (1/2) (W/g)v%, nor

horizontal.

2 That is, at the top of the plane, the rotatory kinetic energy, (1/2) (/) co total energy is 25,000 foot-pounds. At the bottom of the inclined plane, if we rule out the production of heat
.

energy by friction, the total mechanical energy will also be 25,000 footpounds, and, since the potential energy at the bottom is zero, the 25,000 foot-pounds will be divided between the two kinds of kinetic energy, rotatory and translatory. In the expression for the latter, v is unknown, and in the case of the rotatory kinetic energy, both I and co are unknown. However, we can find 7; furthermore a and co are connected by the relation,
v

rco.

We may

(1/2)

(500)/(32.2)

(2/5) (W/g) r sphere, I 24.8 pound-foot-seconds2

.

(2co)

therefore say that the translatory kinetic energy is 2 or Since in the case of a 31.1co 2 foot-pounds.
2
,

in this problem,

Therefore

the

rotatory

2 (2/5) (500/32.2) 2 or kinetic energy is

(1/2) (24.8)

co

or 12.4

co

foot-pounds.

25,000
Solving
for co2 yields co2

31.1
co

co

We -

are

now
co

in

a position to say

12.4

575, or

24.0 radians per second.

3-7]

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

1 1

of

It is worth while to do this problem again by making use of both forms Newton's second law, getting first the angular acceleration, then the

final

angular speed at the foot of the incline. handle the translatory and rotatory aspects independently. First resolve the 500-pound vertical force (the weight) into component A parallel to the plane (250 pounds) and component B perpendicular to the will also be 433 pounds. Unless plane (433 pounds). The normal force there is a backward force of friction F, the sphere will slide down the plane without any rotation, therefore the resultant force parallel to the incline is F pounds. The linear acceleration will be related to the angular 250 acceleration by the equation a = rot in accordance with section 12-7. Therefore Newton's second law for translation gives us

We may

250

- F=

500
(2
)

This equation contains two unknowns so that it cannot be solved until we set up the corresponding equation for rotation. The only torque about the center of gravity of the rolling sphere is that
exerted by the friction, F. We have discovered that the moment of inertia of the sphere is 24.8 pound-foot-seconds 2 therefore the relation L = / a
,

becomes

F
250

24.8

a
a a

Simplifying both of these equations gives

-F=
F =

31.2
12.4

and

Adding them now

yielding

gives

250
a-

43.6

Since

and a

we now have (see section 12-7) 5.73 radians/second 2 , the use of equation (c) of section 12-5 gives
co

= 5.74 radians/second 2 = 100/2 = 50 radians coo = 0,

2

O2

2 (5.74) (50)

and again
13-7.

co

24.0 radians per second

Moment

of Inertia

About Axis Other Than Center

of Gravity. In pure rotation, the center of gravity is at rest and rotation takes place about an axis through the center of gravity.

have a combination of both types of motion, as for example, in the case of a rolling body. The point of contact between the sphere of the preceding section and the plane is sometimes called the instantaneous center and it is often convenient to take the torques and the moment of inertia about
It is

much more common, however,

to

this instantaneous center.

The moment
through
its

an object about an axis not passing center of gravity may be found by adding the moment
of inertia of

116

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

[13-8

of inertia through the center of gravity to an expression formed by multiplying the mass by the square of the perpendicular distance

between the two axes. For example, the moment of inertia of the sphere of section 13-6 about the instantaneous center is
2 5 g

W r2_L_ W H-- r ^
2

or

r2

5 g

As another example,

find the moment of inertia of a meter stick about an axis perpendicular to the stick and passing through the end of the stick rather than the center. This will be
1

W L? H-W(L\*
_
2
,

12 g
13-8. Illustrative
this

g\2j

or

1 -

W L?

T*

3 g

Problem. Consider again the problem of section time using an axis through the instantaneous center. Again resolve the weight, 500 pounds, as before. Of the four forces that we now have, three pass through the instantaneous center. Therefore the torque is now A2 or (250 pounds) (2 feet) or 500 pound-feet. The moment of inertia of the sphere about the instantaneous center is
13-6,
r

87 5 P
*

und " foot " seconds2

Therefore the equation

L =

a.

gives

500

=
2.

87.5

a
this point on, the

and
is

a. is again 5.73 radians/second the same as before.

From

computation

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Moment
is

13

Technical Terms Defined

The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of Inertia. the combination of the products of each elementary portion of mass in the body by the square of its distance from the axis.
Aywheei

=
=
I
disk

9 wr2

Wr
g

cylinder]

= =
$

HI*2

W o
r2 2

f2

hollow cylinder

wf fi 2

+
\

=
J

ffi

+ f2 J
2

,pkere

=\* =
= =
I

rod

*ny**is

center of gravity

+ & where X
new

is

the

lar distance

from the center

of gravity to the

axis.

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

117

Sum

of the Torques = I a. Both torques and moment of inertia must be about the axis through the center of gravity or both must be about the instantaneous center (if there is one). Contrast this limitation of axes to

either center of gravity or instantaneous center in the case of acceleration with the possibility of using any axis whatever in cases of equilibrium

(zero acceleration).

Kinetic Energy of Rotation.

7cA

PROBLEMS
13-1. boy turns a wheelbarrow upside down so that the wheel is free 0.4 poundto turn, ties a rope to a spoke of the wheel (moment of inertia foot-seconds 2), and winds up the rope on the axle (which has a diameter of 2 inches and turns with the wheel). If the boy exerts a pull of 25 pounds

and the rope

13-2.

is

4 feet long,

how

64-pound

cylinder,

and has a cord wrapped 16 pounds is applied. (1) Show that the moment of inertia of the cylinder is 0.25 pound-foot-seconds 2 Compute (2) the accelerating torque, (3) the
axis
.

he get the wheel to turning? foot in diameter, is free to rotate on its around its circumference on which a force of
fast does
1

angular acceleration, (4) the angle turned through in 2 seconds from rest, (5) the angular speed at the end of 2 seconds, and /6) the length of cord

unwrapped
13-3.

in the 2 seconds.

weight suspended by a cord in which the tension is 16 pounds has a downward acceleration of 16 feet/second 2 Find the weight. Would this weight, hanging on the cord mentioned in the preceding problem, give the cylinder an angular acceleration greater or smaller than that of
.

An unknown

the cord wrapped around the cylinder of descend 12.8 feet from rest in 2 seconds? What is the tension in the cord?

13-2 (3)? 13-4.

What weight hanging on

will

problem 13-2

13-5. (1) Find the moment of inertia of an 800-gram cylinder, 10 centimeters in diameter. If the cylinder is free to rotate on its own axis, find (2) the weight which, hanging on a cord wrapped around the cylinder, will descend 90 centimeters from rest in 3 seconds. Compute (3) the linear

acceleration of the weight, (4) the angular acceleration of the cylinder, (5) the necessary torque, and (6) the tension in the cord.
13-6. Show that the angular kinetic energy of a rolling cylinder is half as large as the linear kinetic energy. 13-7. Show that if a cylinder slides down a smooth inclined plane and then rolls down another plane just like it except that the second plane is sufficiently rough to cause rolling, the ratio of the sliding speed to the rolling speed is 3/2 at the foot of the plane. 13-8. Solve a problem like that of section 13-6 except that a cylinder is substituted for the sphere. 13-9. Using the data of section 13-6, compute the frictional force, F.

just

13-10. If the friction between the sphere and plane in section 13-6 is enough to cause rotation without slipping will any heat be generated?

Give reason for answer.

13-11. Collect all the equations dealing with rotation, and pair off each equation with another one similar to it dealing with translatory motion.

118

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION

pair off each physical quantity met in rotation with the corresponding quantity in translation, e.g., moment of inertia corresponds to inertia. 13-12. bridge table two and a half feet square and two feet high, with center of gravity in the center of the top and weighing 10 pounds, is dragged 2 up a smooth 30-degree incline with an acceleration of 3.2 feet per second If the force is exerted, parallel with the incline, on the table top, solve for this force, also for the normal forces on each leg.

Then

13-13.
of 0.2.

Repeat problem 13-12,

Is it permissible in these

this time assuming a coefficient of friction two problems to take the moments about

any point?

CHAPTER

14

Conservation Laws

General Survey of the Field of Mechanics- We have nearly completed manufacturing physical concepts by the process of multiplication and division. After this chapter the task becomes the application of principles we have developed to special situations such as oscillation and wave motion. Newton's laws have served as
14-1.

law of Newton gave

the guiding principle throughout; we have also seen how the third rise to the law of conservation of energy. In

the present chapter, we shall examine another conservation law that also grows out of Newton's third law and pay our last respects to a deceased conservation law. These generalizations serve to bind
together the seemingly heterogeneous parts of mechanics;
also find that the principle of energy pervades all the rest of

we
/

shall

physics as well. 14-2. Impulse

*"

and Mo-

mentum.

The two physical remain to be that quantities defined are impulse and momentum. Impulse is the product of the sum of the forces acting and the time during which
of a mass,
,

*****

it acts.

Momentum

is

the product

(W/g) and its velocity. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities, and both are expressed in the same units. Further119

120

CONSERVATION LAWS

[14-3

more we mentum

can show that when an impulse Ft acts, the change in moequal to the impulse. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that everything occurs along the same straight line; in such a case, vector addition and subtraction become identical with algebraic addition and subtraction. Newton's second law states that the sum of the forces is equal to the product of the mass acted upon and the
is

acceleration produced, that is the acceleration is uniform,

(v
14) /t.

F = (W/g)a. Assuming as usual that = (W/g) a = (v u)/t> so that F

/,

Multiplying both sides of this equation by

ri Ft

we

obtain

W ^. v
g

Wu
g

(W/g)v may be called final momentum and (W/g)u, initial momentum, so that the difference is the change in momentum, and we have proved it equal to the impulse. Let us examine the units. Ft is naturally expressed in pound-seconds. Mass is expressed in poundseconds 2/foot, and velocity is expressed in feet/second. Therefore the product of the mass by velocity will have the units (poundseconds 2/foot)
(feet/second) or, cancelling, pound-seconds. Problem. A 500-gram body slides down a smooth plane inclined 30 degrees to the horizontal. Compute (1) the time required to move 980 centimeters from rest, (2) the impulse acting on the body dur14-3. Illustrative

momentum gained, and (4) the final velocity. in 14-1 the weight, 500 grams, must be resolved into forces As (1) figure to the inclined plane. Since the angles are 30, and perpendicular parallel 60, and 90 degrees, the component parallel to the plane will be 250 grams
ing that time, (3) the

Figure 14-1.

and the component perpendicular to the plane will be 433 grams. The latter will just be balanced by the normal force, and therefore need not be further considered. Since there is no friction, the sum of the forces in the direction of the possible motion reduces to 250 grams. We can substitute enough numerical values into the equation F = (W/g) a to solve for the acceleration. Substituting, we have 250 = (500/980)a. Solving, we have a = 490 centi-

14-4]
2

CONSERVATION LAWS

121

meters/second. Using equation (d) of section 9-7, that is, s = ut 2 = 2 seconds. we have 980 = (0) (/) (1/2) (490) / Solving, we have t Since the is we have (2) Ft, impulse immediately impulse = (250) (2)

or 500 gram-seconds. (3) Since the momentum gained

is

is

again 500 gram-seconds. The initial gram-seconds, therefore the gain in

the same as the impulse, the answer momentum in this case was zero

momentum
.

represents

the

final

momentum. (4) The final momentum

(500/980)?;.

second.
v

We

section 9-7.

That is, v = u at, or in 980 centimeters per second.

is equal to (W/g)v We therefore have 500 = Solving this equation for v gives us v = 980 centimeters per may also obtain the final velocity by using equation (a) of

this case, v

(490) (2) or again,

14-4. Conservation of
ferred

Momentum. Momentum

is

trans-

from one object to another without any gain or loss, so that we have what is known as the law of conservation of momentum. So far, no exceptions have been found to this law. Let us illustrate it with an example. Assume two elastic balls, No, 1 and No. 2, a smooth horizontal table, both in the same straight rolling along line, with No. 2 behind and gaining on No. 1. When No. 2 reaches No. 1, there is a collision which results in speeding up No. 1 and slowing down No. 2. We are interested in eight physical quantities which we shall designate with letters as follows. The masses of No. 1 and No. 2 will be represented by MI and m 2 respectively. Their initial velocities will be HI and u 2 and their final velocities will be Vi and v 2 While the two elastic balls are in contact, No. 2 is exerting an average forward force on No. 1 equal to F for a short time, /. By Newton's third law, No. 1 is meanwhile exerting an F for the same equal and opposite force backward on No. 2 or length of time, t. The forward impulse on No. 1 is therefore Ft and the backward impulse on No. 2 is Ft. In accordance with the
'

equation derived in the previous paragraph Ft = m\vi m\u\

3,nd
If

Ft
all

W12V2

W2U2

we change
become

will

the signs of the second equation, the left-hand side the same as the left-hand side of the first equation,

therefore the right-hand sides can then be equated to each other,

giving

Now transpose the negative terms so as to make everything positive

wii>i

wi2V2

m\u\

m2U't

or in words, the total final

momentum is

the

same as the

total initial

122

CONSERVATION LAWS

[14-5

momentum, therefore during the collision or in general, on any occasion when no outside forces act on the system, momentum is neither lost nor gained. The equation is often expressed as
S
(mv)

= 2

(mu)

The

character S (sigma) is often used by mathematicians to mean "the sum of." Therefore the law of conservation of momentum

follows from

Newton's second and third laws.

14-5. Conservation of Angular Momentum. Since exactly the same arguments may be made for rotating bodies, we can define angular impulse as the sum of the torques multiplied by the time Lt,

and angular momentum as moment

velocity (/
co)
;

of inertia multiplied

by angular

furthermore

we can

write
7o>o

Lt

and derive from this the law of conservation of angular momentum which holds when no outside torques are acting
2
14-6. Illustrations.

(7

co)

= S

(7

coo)

Consider the linear

momenta involved

in the case

of the discharge of a gun. Before it goes off, the total momentum is obviously zero. The momentum of the projectile and the momentum of the powder

gases are both positive, whereas the momentum of the gun itself after the discharge is negative; these three must add to zero. We often hear the statement made that the momentum of the gun backward is numerically equal to the momentum of the projectile forward; this, of course, is
neglecting the momentum of the powder gases. As an illustration of conservation of angular momentum, imagine a boy standing on a piano stool and holding a heavy dumbbell in each hand. If the boy were given an

angular velocity with his arms outstretched, and then left to himself, he would maintain this velocity indefinitely if there were no friction. But if the boy were to bend his arms so as to place the dumbbells close to his body, his moment of inertia would be decreased, and as a consequence, his angular velocity would increase in accordance with the law that the total angular momentum remains constant.

it

14-7. Variation of Mass With Speed. Until recent years was supposed that mass was the one property of matter that was

not subject to change. Any other property that could be named, such as weight, temperature, volume, color, shape, and so on, is subject to change, but it was supposed that the inertia, or mass, of a given object was absolutely a fixed quantity. Then it was dis-

by theoretical considerations, and later by actual when an object, such as an electron or, to go to that measurement, the other extreme, the planet Mercury, moves with a high velocity,
covered,
first

14-8]
its

CONSERVATION LAWS

123

illustration, the planet Mermiles per second when nearest the sun, and cury has a speed of 36 when farthest from the sun, its speed is 23 miles per second. Its

mass increases somewhat. As an

mass

is 3,300,000,000,000 tons more at the larger speed than it is at smaller 10 20 tons. the speed; this is out of a total of about 3.3 In recent years the speed of electrons has been computed to be

184,000 miles per second at times, and in these cases, the masses are always more than they are when the electrons are at rest. Light travels with a speed of 186,000 miles per second; material particles

have never been observed to travel with a speed greater than this. Since it seems likely that the speed of light is actually the maxi-

mum

possible speed for objects in this universe, we may argue somewhat as follows: as an object acquires speed in the neighborhood of 186,000 miles per second, it becomes more and more difficult
exactly, using Newton's second law, the force necessary to produce unit acceleration increases, until, when the speed of light is reached, no force in the universe can accelerate

to accelerate

it.

More

the necessary force becomes infinite. Since the ratio of the force to the acceleration is the mass, or inertia, then we have to say that the mass increases to an infinite value when the speed init;

that

is,

creases to 186,000 miles per second. engineering projects, this increase of

But for any of our ordinary mass is absolutely negligible.

14-8.
graph,

"Law

of

Held To Be True.
we
see that

Conservation of Mass" No Longer From the facts given in the preceding para-

be increased and decreased. This statement already contradicts the so-called "law of conservation of mass" which used to be found in textbooks a few years ago. In 1933, matter was first observed actually to be created out of "radiant energy," and converted back again into radiant energy, and this was theoretically predicted as a possibility several years previous

mass

may

But in spite of these exceptions, we may still say that the of water in the universe seems to be nearly constant. Furthermore it is to be noted that matter itself must now be added
to that.

amount

to the list of forms of energy. An atom bomb represents a direct conversion of matter into energy. 14-9. Conservation of Energy. Another conservation law (which apparently has no exception) has already been discussed

now includes
to

namely the law of conservation of energy, which the defunct "law of conservation of mass." No further treatment of it is necessary at this point; it is mentioned here merely
(see section 3-3),

make

the

list

of conservation laws complete.

124

CONSERVATION LAWS

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

14

Technical Terms Defined

Impulse. Product of the unbalanced force acting on a body by the brief time during which it acts. Momentum. Product of mass of a body by its velocity.

Laws
The momentum of a system remains constant when no outside forces act. The angular momentum of a system remains constant when no outside
torques act.

Mass

is

now known

to be merely another form of energy.

PROBLEMS
14-1.
it

15-pound unbalanced force acts on a 48-pound body and moves

rest.

20 feet from
(3) the

Compute

(1) the final speed, (2)

the final

momentum,

and

impulse which caused this

momentum.

14-2.
initial

A 64-pound body is moving along a horizontal surface with an speed of 20 feet/second. It slows down under the action of friction
The
coefficient of friction is 0.25. Compute (1) its initial momentum, after it has moved 24 feet, and (3) the change in momen-

alone.
(2) its

momentum
(4)

tum.

(4)

Compute
with

the impulse directly from the force

and the time and

compare
14-3.

(3).

How

far will a

body

fall in

one second from rest?

What

will its

velocity be at the end of that second? Compute the loss in potential energy of a 32-pound body falling one second from rest, and the kinetic energy gained during that second. This is assuming that there is no air resistance. When air resistance is actually considered, the body does not fall so far in the second nor gain as much speed. Under the new conditions, is the gain in kinetic energy equal to the loss in potential energy? Why?
14-4. A watch spring is wound, thus storing potential energy. The spring is then dissolved in acid. What becomes of the potential energy? 14-5. A 32-pound body has an initial velocity of 24 feet per second up a smooth plane inclined 30 degrees to the horizontal. Compute (1) the initial kinetic energy, (2) the amount of potential energy into which this kinetic energy could be converted, (3) the vertical height to which the body would rise in acquiring this potential energy, and (4) the distance along the inclined plane which corresponds to this height. Does this agree with the distance along the plane computed from the initial velocity and deceleration?

comes

14-6. In problem 14-2, calculate the initial kinetic energy. of this energy? Calculate the work done in stopping the body. Is this work positive or negative?

What

be-

64-pound

14-7. A 2-gram bullet is fired from a 4-kilogram gun; the powder gases weigh 0.6 grams. What was the total momentum before the bullet was

What is the total momentum as the bullet and powder gases leave the gun? If the bullet has a muzzle speed of 30,000 centimeters per second and the gun kicks with a speed of 27 centimeters per second, find the velocity of the powder gases.
fired?

CONSERVATION LAWS
14-8. If

125

an 8-ounce ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 64 and potential energy is measured with reference to the where the ball leaves the thrower's hand, compute the kinetic and height potential energies at (1) the point where the ball leaves the thrower's hand, (2) the point where it is one second later, and (3) the maximum height
feet per second,

reached.

CHAPTER

15

Simple Harmonic Motion; Simple Pendulum; Compound Pendulum

15-1. Radial Acceleration.

In section 10-5

we obtained an

ex-

pression for the radial acceleration which exists when a body moves uniformly in a circle, and in section 12-7, we expressed this radial
acceleration in terms of the
will

number

be remembered, the two expressions were a = v*/r and a = 2 47r wV. This is one of the two cases in this book in which the acceleration is not constant; to be sure, the magnitude is constant, but the direction varies, being always directed toward the center. We are now about to meet the other variable acceleration, and this time both the magnitude and direction vary. 15-2. Simple Harmonic Motion. If we watch a body that is moving uniformly in a circle in such a way that our eyes are in
the plane of rotation,

of revolutions per second.

As

we

no longer appears to be in uniform merely to move back and forth. An

found in the
satellites of

see the rotation edgewise, and the particle circular motion; it appears
illustration of this

may

be

the planet Jupiter. Four of these satellites are large enough so that persons are occasionally found who can see them with the naked eye. Most of us, however, have to resort

to opera glasses to make them visible. These satellites (or moons) run around the planet practically in circles, but since we see these

126

15-3]

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

127

circular orbits edgewise it appears to us that the moons simply go back and forth across the face of the planet to one end of the apparent route, and back behind the planet to the other end of the route. The inner one takes about two days for a round trip and the outer one about sixteen days. "Back and forth" motion of this type is called "simple harmonic motion;" that is, simple harmonic motion is uniform circular motion seen edgewise. The mathematician would say that it is the projection of uniform circular motion

on the diameter

of the circle.

Figure 15-1.

Simple Harmonic Motion. In figQ moving around the circle counterclockwise with a velocity v which is equal to 27rra, and the point P is moving in simple harmonic motion back and forth along the diameter. If this motion is viewed from a point in the plane of the circle and at
15-3.

The Velocity
is

in

ure 15-1, the point

the component of the velocity y right angles to the diameter, that will be seen is v, and from the similar triangles QRS and
it is

AB

seen that

QS/QR = QP/QO.

QOP
=

Replacing these

letters

with the

values from the figure, we have V/VQ 2 TT rn, the relation becomes

= (Vr

2 a; )

A-

Since V Q

sign is necessary because the velocity v may be either to the right or to the left; whereas 2, TT, n, and the radical are essentially positive. From this equation it is clear that when the

The plus and minus

128

SIMPLE
is

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

which
is

[15-4

value of x

zero, the point P,

always directly under Q,

coincides with the point O, and the velocity v becomes 2irrn. On the other hand, when the three points Q, P, and coincide, x becomes r, the radical becomes zero, and therefore the velocity v is zero. From

a common-sense standpoint, the point P will have to have a zero velocity at the points A and B, for it is there that it stops and reverses its motion also the point P should have its maximum velocity at the exact center, and this is consistent with the fact that in the equation, v has its largest value (2irrri) when x is zero.
;

15-4. The Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion. In figure 15-2, the acceleration a which is 4?rW, is shown directed toward the center of the circle from the point Q. But when the motion is viewed edgewise, it is the component of a parallel to BA that
,

becomes important. From the similar triangle relationship we have 2 a/ao = x/r, and since a = 4?r nV the equation reduces to

We

see therefore that at the center,

when x
have a
r.

acceleration; on the other hand we acceleration at A and at B, when x

maximum

O, that there is no value of the

like the

This acceleration,

Figure 15-2.

centripetal acceleration, is always directed toward the center; therefore when x is on the right of 0, the acceleration is toward the
left,

and when x

is

on the

left,

the acceleration

in other words, a always has the opposite sign the minus sign in the equation.

is toward the right; from that of x, hence

15-5]

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

129

monic Motion.
and P,

15-5. Technical Terms Associated With Simple HarIn figures 15-1 and 15-2, almost every quantity in the diagrams has a technical name, x, the distance between
is called the displacement. It is positive when measured to the right and negative when measured to the left. The maximum value of x is r, the radius of the circle; but r is called the amplitude,

in simple

always considered positive. The and varies from zero to 360 angle POQ P we If have two and P', which correspond to two points, degrees. angles such that there is a constant difference between the angles of, say, 90 degrees, then we say that P and P are 90 degrees out
is
is

harmonic motion, and

called the phase angle,

IS

Is

Si

efi

Figure 15-3.

of phase with each other, n is called the frequency] it is the number of round trips made in unit time. The reciprocal of the frequency is the period or the time necessary for one round trip; we shall call
it

r.

We

could therefore rewrite our two equations in terms of

v

instead of n, thus

=
= -

(2

TT

Vr 2 2

x*)/T

and
which when solved

a
for

(47r

.r)/r2

T is T = 2

TT

*/a

15-6. Force in

Simple Harmonic Motion.

We

can apply

Newton's second law harmonic motion.

to find the force necessary to produce simple

p = F
therefore

wa
g

F = -

W
g

Put into words: whenever the force is proportional to the displacement but opposite in sign, it will produce simple harmonic motion.

130

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

[15-7
is

We remember

that in the case of an elastic body, since the stress

proportional to the strain (Hooke's law, section 6-5), in any particular case the stretching force, F, is numerically proportional to
the stretch, #, and of the same sign. By Newton's third law, however, the elastic body will exert a restoring force which is numeri-

but the negative of, the stretching force; therefore the elastic body will cause whichever body is doing the stretching to tend to execute simple harmonic motion. We are therefore prepared to find that a weight suspended by a helical spring oscillates vertically nearly in simple harmonic motion. In the case of a given spring or other elastic body where W, g, 4, TT, and n are all constant,
cally equal to,

the equation relating the force written

and the
kx

stretch

may

therefore be

F= -

15-7. Illustrative Problem (1). Imagine a light, stiff, horizontal rod, with one end clamped in a vise, and a weight of 64.4 pounds, securely fastened to the other end of the rod. The stiffness of the rod is such that when the weight is pushed to one side a distance of 2.4 inches and released,
it

makes just two vibratory round trips per second. Find the speed of the weight as it passes through the central part of its path, the acceleration as it passes through the end of its path, the force necessary to displace the end of the rod 2.4 inches, and the force necessary to displace the end of the rod
4.8 inches.

By Hooke's

we immediately draw two

law, the force will be proportional to the displacement, so conclusions: one is that the weight will execute

simple harmonic motion, so that our velocity and acceleration equations will hold good; the other is that the fourth answer to the problem will be twice the third answer. It is one of our simplifying assumptions that none of the energy of the vibrating rod will be converted into heat. A
real

rod

will

execute approximately simple harmonic motion, but not

exactly. The rod will gradually come to rest and become slightly warmer. The correct name for the phenomenon, as it actually takes place, is

damped harmonic motion. In simple harmonic motion the amplitude remains the same and the oscillations continue indefinitely. Assigning letters to our data, we have r = 2.4 inches or 0.2 feet, n = 2 per second, and x = zero for the central part of the path and 0.2 feet for the end of the path. The velocity is therefore
(2) (3.14) (2)

Vo.2 2

O2 or

2.51 feet per second

It

was however the speed but not the velocity asked for, so that we may discard the plus and minus sign, being indifferent as to the direction of the 2 2 motion. The acceleration is 31. 6 feet/second2 (4) (3.14 ) (2 ) (0.2) or We have here taken the value of x on the right-hand end of the path so that

the acceleration

is

toward the

left

equal to (W/g)a.

is

64.4 pounds, g

and therefore negative. The force = 32.2 feet/second2 and a

,

is

15-8]

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

131

31.6 feet/second2 ; the force therefore comes out 63.2 pounds, exerted left on the weight. As the question is worded, however, we wish to know the force necessary to displace the rod; this is equal numerically to the one just found, but opposite in direction or toward the right. If we

toward the

wish twice the displacement we shall need twice as

much

force, or 126.4

pounds.
15-8. Illustrative

Problem

(2).

It

is

found that a force of 126.4

clamped and dis0.2 from the of feet will what be the rest, placed position frequency and the period of vibration? We now start by saying that since the forces must be proportional to the displacement in order to produce vibrations of the simple harmonic type, the force that corresponds to 0.2 feet is found by = 0.2/0.4, which gives us F = 63.2 pounds. solving the proportion F/126A The force that the rod exerts on the weight will be the negative of this. If
in a

pounds

will displace one end of a rod 0.4 feet when the other end is If a weight of 64.4 pounds is attached to the free end vise.

now we

substitute in the equation

F= -

W 4 vWx
g

63.2 = the equation will become (64.4/32.2) 4 (3.14)2 ( w )2 (Q.2). Solvwe find that n is 2 round trips per second. The period of vibration is the reciprocal of the frequency and is in this case \ or 0.5 second per round trip. It is now clear that we did some unnecessary work when we
ing,

stopped to find the force that went with the 0.2 feet because the use of the original displacement (0.4 feet) and the original force (126.4 pounds) in the equation would have given us the same value of n. That is, so long as Hooke's law holds, the period of vibration of a given system is the same whether the amplitude
is large or small.

15-9.

The Simple Pendulum.

will
if

lum bob

A pendualmost obey the laws of simple harthe vibrations are small.

monic motion
figure 15-4.

sider the so-called simple

sible string of

Conin shown pendulum

1

It consists of a weightless inexten-

Figure 5-4. length /, and a bob which has no volume but has a weight W. This will remind the reader of the fictitious object of which we determined the moment of inertia in section 13-2. Drop a perpendicular from the bob to the line of the vertical and call the perpendicular distance x, the

always a force vertically downward; we therefore resolve it into two components, one which merely tends to stretch the string and which will not further concern us since this string of ours will not stretch, and the other component F, tangent to the arc which the bob swings through. Due to the similar triangle
displacement.
is

The weight

132

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

[15-10

relationship, we can say x/l the force is proportional to x.

= F/W.
But

Therefore

F=

Wx/l, that

is,

posite senses, the equation to Wx/l. If the vibrations are small, then sign, F

and x always have opbe complete must contain a minus

since

is

nearly in

with x, and the pendulum will approximately execute simple har2 2 monic motion. This means that F is nearly equal to (W/g)4ir n x as well as being exactly equal to Wx/l. Equating these two exline

pressions for

(W/g)4ir n?x.

and cancelling the minus signs, we have Wx/l = and x and multiplying through by gl Cancelling

47T 2 W 2 /

This gives us a convenient method of determining the acceleration it being necessary merely to know the length of the pendulum, /, and the number of round trips, n, that the pendulum makes per second. We can replace n by 1/7", since n and T are reciprocals.
of gravity,

g
it

is

therefore also equal to 47r

//r

2
.

If this

equation

is

solved for T,

gives us

15-10. Illustrative Problem.

seconds pendulum keeps correct time

at a certain temperature. If, as a result of a rise in temperature, its length increases by 0.02 per cent, how many seconds will it now lose per day?

The length of a seconds pendulum may be found by substituting into the equation g = 47r 2 //r 2 the values g = 32.2 feet/second 2 and T = 2.00 seconds. The period of a seconds pendulum is the time necessary for the
,

to make a round trip, and since the pendulum ticks at one-second once on the way over and once on the way back, the total time intervals, for the round trip is two seconds. Thus the equation becomes

pendulum

4(3.14)3

= 3.26 feet. If the increase of length is to be 0.02 per Solving, we obtain / cent or two parts in ten thousand, then we must multiply 3.26 by 0.0002 to obtain the elongation. This gives us 0.000652 feet. An interesting point
in connection with the question of adding this elongation to the original length. Since we are working to slide-rule accuracy only, we are not at liberty to say that the unchanged length is known to be 3.260000

comes up

and therefore we cannot say that the changed length is 3.260652. But true that if the original length had been 3.260000 feet exactly, then the increased length would have been exactly 3.260652; at least the length has
feet
it is

been increased in that proportion. Therefore, at this point the student has his choice of recomputing the problem with seven significant figures or of using an algebraic method; we shall show how it works both ways.
First, let us go back to the beginning and use seven significant figures in our computations. Since g is not known experimentally to that degree of

15-10]
precision, let us
ic

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

133
2.000000, and

assume that g
is

32.20000.

is

now

3.141593.

The equation
20000 32 2000
-

--

now

(4.000000)

(3. 141593)' f

(2.000000)2
Solving,

we obtain I = 3.262542 feet. Three figures of the elongation are enough, therefore we already have the elongation, e = 0.000652, and adding, we find that the new length is 3.263194. We now need the new value of T to go with our new length. Calling this T the equation now becomes
f

(4.000000) (3.141593)2 (3.263194)

= 2.000200 seconds. In a day there are 86,400 secSolving, we obtain therefore our will normally have time for 86,400/2.000000 or clock onds, But under the conditions of the problem there will be 43,200.00 periods.
time for only 86,400/2.000200 or 43,195.68 periods, a difference of 4.32 periods. Since the clock registers each period as two seconds, it will lose 8.64 seconds per day.

Let us now solve the problem again by an algebraic method which makes unnecessary so many significant figures. This method depends upon the fact that a number like 1.002 squared becomes 1.004004 which rounds off to 1.004 when reduced to slide-rule accuracy. That is, if x is small compared 2 = 1 .v ) 2x with unity, then #2 will be negligible and we have (1

approximately, which we shall call case (1). Similarly, the square root of 05 is 1 2#, which is written algebraically (1 2,r) approximately equal - x) = 1 - x2 but x [case (2)]. It is also true that (1 to 1 x) (1 = I, since x2 is negligible, we may write approximately (1 #) (1 x) x gives us case (3), namely, 1 x = and dividing both sides by 1 l = 1 x. All three of these expressions may be x)~ 1/(1 #), or (1 included under one approximate equation, true only when x is small in

+
+

relation to unity,

namely
(1

xY =

nx

In the three cases just cited, the plus-or-minus sign is plus, and n has the 1 respectively. Starting then from the point where three values, 2, 3, and
the elongation was computed, we have the new length equal to 3.26 0.000652, which may be written 3.26(1 0.000200). The process of solving for (T') 2 gives us the equation

_
which

(4.00)

(3.14)

(3.26) (1

+ 0.000200)

= (4.00) (1 0.000200) and (2.00) (1 gives us (T) 0.000100) by case (2). Dividing 86,400 by 2.00 gives us 43,200, and divid0.000100) by case 0.000100) gives (43,200) (1 ing 86,400 by (2.00) (1 4.32. written We therefore which be 43,200 again have a dif(3), may ference of 4.32 periods or 8.64 seconds, the amount that the clock will
2

lose per day.

134

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

[15-11

15-11.

The Physical or Compound Pendulum.

is

simple

impossible in practice to have pendulum obviously a weightless string and a volumeless mass. But a real pendulum can
fictitious; it is

always be found that will have the same period as any given simple pendulum, and we call this real pendulum a physical pendulum or a compound pendulum. Such a pendulum is shown in
is the center figure 15-5. S is the point of suspension, of gravity, and is a point called the center of oscillation. The distance from S to is the same as the

length of a simple

same period;

in fact, the

pendulum which would have the method of locating O is to

measure down from S the computed distance /. It will be shown in the next section that the moment of inertia 7, of the compound pendulum about the axis 5 is mhlj where h is the distance from the point of
suspension to the center of gravity, so that
last
/

in the
Figure 15-5.

equation of section 15-9

This allows us to express We are able to determine variations in g by noting variations in the
9

may be replaced by I/mh. the period T as 2w\/I/mgh.

at different locations.
is

period of an actual

pendulum
shown

The
cussion.

center of oscillation
If the object

in figure 15-5

sometimes called the center of perwere a baseball bat and

were grasped at the point 5, the point O should be the best place for the baseball to meet the bat to obtain a satisfactory hit. If the ball strikes the bat between the points O and 5, the batter's hands will be driven backward, and if the ball strikes on the other side of 0, the batter's hands will be driven forward, but no jar at all will be
felt

when

the contact

is

made

at the point O.

Fundamental EquaIn order Pendulum. Compound = to show that 7 mhl, when / is the moment of inertia of the compound pendulum about the
15-12. Derivation of
tion of the
S s

make
of the

is the mass W/g. point of suspension 5, and of the pendulum with center of gravity at C, the following assumptions. Let the angle between the axis

compound pendulum

be the same as

pendulum

in figure 15-5 and the vertical direction in figure 15-4; let the pendulum bob of the simple of figure 15-4 have the same mass (and weight) as the

15-13]

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

135

compound pendulum of figure 15-5; furthermore the length /, pendulum has been adjusted so that it will have the same period T, as the compound pendulum. The two pendulums will therefore be moving in the same way at all times and in particular, at a given instant, they will have the same angular
of the simple

entire

acceleration about their respective points of suspension. shall therefore set up the equation L la for each pendulum. The

We

be different; in figure 15-4 it is Wx, while in figure since the perpendicular dropped from C to the vertical line through S is h/l of the distance x. Thus, if we call L the
will

two torques
15-5

it is less,

ment

torque of figure 15-4, we may express the other as hL/L The moof inertia of the simple pendulum is ml 2 since all the mass is

at the lower

end of /. Thus the values of

'

L=

la become respectively

and

L = hL =
-y-

mft
7S
a.

Dividing one equation by the other cancels the Z/s and the a's and
gives
l__

mP
/s

h~
Cancelling one 7B = mhl.
/

and

cross multiplying gives us the desired result,

15-13.

Use

of

Moments

of Inertia.

Compound Pendulum Equation to Measure We may make use of the relation given
7.

in section 13-7 to write

/c

Suppose then that it is desired to find the moment of inertia of a given object, of weight W, about its center of gravity. We already

know how
the body

to locate the center of gravity (see section 8-6). Hang up by some other point, the distance of which from the center

of gravity is h. Determine the time required to make a given number of complete vibrations, say fifty, from which T may be found.

Knowing

g at the locality of the experiment,

can be found by using

the equation

r=
7,

27TV/7J

may now
is

be found from the relation

/,

Whl/g
equation of this chapter.

Finally Ic

obtained from the

first

136

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

[15-14

15-14.

Energy of a Body Executing Simple Harmonic

The
kinetic energy of a

Motion.

body executing simple harmonic motion may be readily computed by inserting the expression for its 2 Thus we velocity derived in section 15-3 into the formula %mv
.

have
r

or

kinetic energy

2w7r 2 tt 2 (r 2

z2 )

Because of the law of conservation of energy, we can state that the total energy of an isolated vibrating body is a constant. When x = r, there is no kinetic energy because the velocity is zero. When x 0, we have the maximum velocity and at this point all the
energy
is

kinetic.

Therefore
total energy

2w7T 2 n 2 r2

The
is

difference

between the

total energy
first

and the

kinetic energy

potential energy.

Subtracting the

equation of this section

from the second, we have

potential energy

= 2mw2 n 2 x2

comparison of the two equations of section 15-6 gives

k

4W7T2 W 2

and using

express the potential energy as \kx*. another expression for the total energy of an oscillator is
this k,

we can

Thus

energy

mv 2

2 j kx

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Simple Harmonic Motion.
circular motion.

15

Technical Terms Defined

The

projection on the diameter of uniform

Displacement. Distance measured in a given direction from standard point taken as origin. In simple harmonic motion, the origin is the center
of the path.

Amplitude.

Maximum displacement from the center. Phase Angle. A description of the position of a particle executing simple harmonic motion in terms of the angular position of the corresponding point moving on the circumference of the circle.
Number
of
of

Frequency.
Period.

round

trips per unit time.

Time

one round

trip.

Simple Pendulum.

volumeless bob suspended from a fixed point by

means

of a weightless inextensible cord.

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

137

or Physical Pendulum. Any physical object suspended from its center of gravity and allowed to oscillate. Center of Oscillation or Percussion. A point in a physical pendulum situated below the point of suspension by a distance equal to the length of a simple pendulum of the same period.

Compound

some point other than

PROBLEMS
15-1. In the case of a body executing simple harmonic motion, what is meant by the terms (1) displacement, (2) amplitude, (3) period, (4) frequency, and (5) phase? (6) Which are variable and which are constant? 15-2, Describe simple harmonic motion in such a way as to indicate at what points the velocity and the acceleration have their minimum and maximum values. Is it possible for an object to have simultaneously a zero velocity and an acceleration that is not zero? Illustrate by means of a baseball moving freely under gravity. 15-3. A body oscillates in simple harmonic motion at the rate of three vibrations per second with an amplitude of two inches. Find its speed (1) at the center, (2) one inch from the center, and (3) two inches from the center. 15-4. Find the acceleration of the body in the preceding problem in the

three positions mentioned.

is hanging on a helical spring that requires a pounds to stretch it 3 inches, compute the period of the 16-pound body on the spring when pulled down 3 inches and released. Would the period be the same if the displacement were 2 inches instead of 3 inches? What requirement for simple harmonic motion proves

15-5. If a

16-pound body

downward

force of 2

this?

15-6. If the 16-pound body of the preceding problem is replaced by a 4-pound body, compute the period of the resulting simple harmonic motion. 15-7. A 50-gram weight is hanging on a helical spring. Another 50-gram

weight stretches the spring 4.9 centimeters more. Compute the period the two 50-gram weights are slightly displaced and allowed to vibrate. 15-8. What is the length of a seconds pendulum at a place where g

if

is

980 cm./sec. 2 ?
is 246 centimeters, has a period the value of g in that locality? 15-10. The reading room of the central library of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is immediately under the central dome. A long pendulum, consisting of a wire and heavy bob is suspended from the center of the dome to a table top in the center of the room to illustrate Foucault's famous experiment in which he demonstrated the rotation of the earth. It takes the pendulum just nine seconds to make a complete round trip. How long is the pendulum? (Look up Foucault's experiment in a reference book and write a 50-word description.)

15-9. If a

pendulum, the length

of

which
is

of 3.14 seconds in a certain place,

what

should the length of a pendulum be changed to halve its the effect on the period of a pendulum of carrying it up on a mountain where g is smaller than at the lower level? 15-12. If a pendulum clock keeps correct time at a place where the acceleration of gravity is 32.2 feet/second 2 will it gain or lose when taken
15-11.

How

period?

What

is

138
to a place

SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION; PENDULUM

where the acceleration of gravity is 32.1 feet/second 2 ? How much the gain or loss be per day? 15-13. A clock loses 5 minutes per week. What adjustment must be made to its pendulum to make it keep correct time?
will

iron ring has an outer diameter of 10 inches, an inner diameter and weighs 10 pounds. Find its moment of inertia (1) about its center and (2) about a point on the inner circumference. (3) If this ring is suspended from a peg at the inner circumference, what is the length of a simple pendulum that has the same period? (4) Find the period and frequency of this ring when thus used as a compound pendulum. 15-15. A physical pendulum consists of a lead sphere of specific gravity 11.34 and one inch in diameter, attached by a string, 12 inches long, to a point of support. Find (1) its moment of inertia about the center of the lead sphere, (2) its moment of inertia about the point of suspension, (3) length of the equivalent simple pendulum, (4) period, and (5) frequency. Would it be permissible to assume that (3) is 12.50 inches?
15-14.
of 6 inches,

An

CHAPTER

16

Properties of

Waves

16-1. Essential Characteristics of a Wave Transmitting Medium. Water waves represent a rather complicated type of wave, otherwise they would furnish an excellent starting point for this discussion. But all types of physical waves have one characteristic in common: that it is motion that is transferred and not matter. If we could watch one drop of water in a water wave, we should find that it goes round and round in a very limited region and does not follow the waves in the direction of propogation. Any medium which transmits a wave must possess at least two properties, elasticity and inertia. The individual particles in a wave execute simple harmonic motion, which implies elasticity in order to bring the particle back after it has been displaced, and also implies inertia sufficient to keep the particle going, after it reaches the equilibrium position, until the particle attains an equal displacement on the other side. If the medium possesses inertia, which is the same

thing as mass, then it is possible to talk about its density, and, as it turns out, the speed V, with which the wave will be transmitted, is equal to the square root of the ratio of the elasticity of the medium
to
its

density.

That

is

of

density of

medium medium

16-2. Transverse

Waves.

We shall find it convenient at the

outset, in order to form a mental picture of a wave, to imagine a long block of jelly as in figure 16-1 with oarticles of sawdust im-

139

140

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES

[16-2

bedded at equidistant intervals, and the whole at rest. Now let the experimenter imbed his finger in the jelly at the left-hand end and commence to execute a vertical simple harmonic motion with it. Figures 16-2 and 16-3 represent two successive illustrations of the sawdust particles showing something of their consequent motion. In figure 16-2, particle A is at the top of its motion and about to start downward. In figure 16-3 it is still going down and particle B has now reached the top. The same remarks could be made about particles 7 and / that were made about A and B. The student will find it worth-while to draw the figure which would logically follow figure 16-3 in which particles C and K have risen to the top.
It will

then be clear that the shape of the

wave

is

moving

progres-

sively toward the right although the individual particles are merely executing simple harmonic motion. A similar experiment could be carried out with a very long rope fastened at the right-hand end

ABCDEfGMlJK
Figure 16-1.

Figure 16-2.

Figure 16-3.

and moved up and down

at the left-hand end.

When

the direction

16-3]

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES

141

of propagation of the wave is at right angles to the direction of the motion of the individual particles, as in figures 16-2 and 16-3, we

say that the

1925, light

wave is transverse. From about the years 1800 to about was considered to be an example of a transverse wave.

think that light consists of streams of projectiles called photons, loosely controlled by sets of non-physical transverse waves called psi-functions. The "control" which psi-funclions exert over

We now

photons, electrons, and so on, reminds us of the mathematical probability function which controls the proportion of bullets which will lie within each circle of a target. This topic will be understood

when we study

the chapter on light.

16-3. Longitudinal

Waves.

If

the

experimenter

moves

his

finger in the jelly so as to execute a horizontal simple harmonic motion, a set of particles originally equidistant would soon appear, if a snapshot could be taken of them, as in figure 16-4. This figure
will be self-explanatory in view of what has already been said. Tlu> individual particles execute simple harmonic motion while the series

of compressions and rarefactions travel from left to right. When the motion of the wave is parallel with the motion of the individual particles, as in figure 16-4, we say that the wave is longitudinal or

Gompressional.

Sound is an example of a compressional wave. 16-4. Technical Terms. All the expressions which were

de-

fined in connection with simple

harmonic motion, namely, ampli-

tude, displacement, phase, frequency, period, are also used in connection with wave motion with the same meanings. It is possible

meanings to some of them. For instance, the not the time necessary for one of the particles to make period only a complete round trip, but it is also the time that it takes the wave to travel from a particle such as A, to the next particle that is going through the same motion at the same time, which is / in this illustration. The distance from A to / is called a wave length, and is represented by the Greek letter X (lambda). Therefore we could
to give additional
is

142

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES
for the

[16-5

have defined the period as the time necessary

wave

to travel

Figure 16-4.

one wave length. The intensity of a wave is proportional to the product of the square of the amplitude and the square of the frequency. The speed of the wave is the ratio of the wave length to the period, that is, V = \/T. Since n = 1/T, we have also

F = An
16-5. Reflection. In section 16-2 we specified a long rope and a long block of jelly to prevent reflection from the further end. Waves are always reflected when they reach a boundary between

two mediums.
finds
is it

This statement

is

true whether or not the

wave

possible to enter the new medium. If it can, then the energy divided between the reflected wave and the wave that passes on.
of a

The path

wave

is

called a ray.

If the

ray meets the boundary

at right angles, it is reflected straight back upon itself; if not, the situation is as shown in figure 16-5. The angle 0, between the in-

cident ray

and the normal, must be the same as the angle

0',

be-

Figure 16-5.

tween the reflected ray and the normal. If the boundary is a rough surface, rather than a smooth plane surface, then at each small portion of the surface the law of reflection will hold true, but the

16-6]

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES
all directions.

143

total effect will

be to produce rays going in

We

call

this a case of diffuse reflection.

16-6. Refraction.

The wave

that passes on into the

new

medium
tion.

said to be refracted. Although it follows the same general direction as the incident ray, it will not be in exactly the same direcis

The angle 0", will be different from 0. The speed of the reflected is the same as that of the incident wave because both waves are in the same medium. But the speed F", of the refracted wave, will in general be different from that of the incident wave V, because the medium is different. The following proportion holds true
wave
connecting the speeds and the angles

V"

V ~

sin
sin 6"

(The sine of an angle is defined in appendix 6.) This equation may be made evident as follows. In figure 16-6 the wave reflected is omitted for the sake of simplicity (although actually it is always present) and the incident and refracted waves are both given a The lines BD and FE are called "wave fronts" finite breadth.
technically (although they are not the fronts of waves); a wave travels at right angles to its wave fronts except under circumstances

so unusual that

we

shall

not discuss them here.

wave front

may

Figure 16-6.

be defined as a surface containing points all in the same phase at the same time. If anything happens to change the direction of the wave fronts, it will automatically change the direction of the ray. Assume the speed of the wave in medium 1 to be V and the speed in medium 2 to be V". One edge of the wave travels the distance in the same time the other edge takes to travel the distance BF. Vt and BF = V"t. If BE is If / represents this time, then

DE

DE

144
called k, then sin
If
is

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES

[16-7

Vt/k and sin

sin 6", the
's

is

we

divide sin

by

and

/'s

V"t/k. (See appendix 6.) will cancel and we shall

obtain

- M !i?JL_ " JL ~~ V" sin 0"

This ratio
ju,

is

known

as the index of refraction.

In shallow water the speed of a water If a
feet

16-7. Illustrative

Problem.

wave depends, among other things, upon the depth of the water. water wave suddenly passes from water eight feet deep to water two
its

deep, drop from 16 feet/second to 8 feet/second. If the wave of water makes an angle of 30 degrees with the normal to the path the boundary between the two depths while in the deeper water, find the corresponding angle in the shallow water. Find also the index of refraction. Substitute in the equation, sin 0/sin 6" = V/ V" letting = 30 degrees, V = 16 feet/second, and V" = 8 feet/second. From appendix 7 we see that sin 30 = 0.500, so that the equation becomes
velocity will
',

0.500
sin 0"

16

Solving,
will

we obtain
is

sin 0"

0.250.

From appendix

7,

we

see that 0"

is

slightly less

than 15 degrees.
14
29'.

A more

show that 0"

complete table of sines or a slide rule The index of refraction p, = V/V" = 16/8

2.00

Although water waves travel in nearly a given medium, the waves have some tendency to bend around corners. The longer the wave length, the greater is this
16-8. Diffraction,
straight lines in

tendency;

it

may

tendency of

waves

easily be observed in the case of water waves. This to bend around corners is called diffraction. In

practice, in a diffraction experiment, a wave is made to go through a narrow opening in which case there will be two corners for it to

bend around, and the amount of diffraction will, in addition to being proportional to the wave length X, also be inversely proportional to the width of the opening w.
sin

The equation

is

where the angle

original direction.

0,

represents the
will

maximum

deviation from the

all

angles between

Rays and zero.

be present with

possible deviation

16-9. Interference.

Waves have one property

is

that

is

not

shared by any other type of motion; this property

called tech-

16-10]

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES

145

nically interference. If two waves are traveling in nearly the same direction so that they are able to cross each other's paths, the

vibrations of one

the other wave.

wave will add algebraically to the vibrations of The two waves may be out of phase with each other

by any number

of degrees. If they happen to be 180 degrees out of with each other and have the same amplitude, they will comphase pletely neutralize each other at the point where they cross. On the other hand it is possible for the two waves to be in phase with each other (0 degrees phase difference) in which case they reinforce each other. There is no loss of energy during interference, but merely a redistribution. Examples of this phenomenon will be found when we discuss sound and light.

16-10. Polarization. The waves pictured in figures 16-2 and 16-3, also the wave motion in the rope, that is, transverse waves,
require two dimensions for their description; we may think of them as existing in planes. When a collection of transverse waves traveling
in the

direction exist in parallel planes, we say that the waves are polarized. group of transverse waves could travel in the same

same

and lie in such planes that no two planes arc parallel to each other. Such a group would be described as completely unpolarized. Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized.
direction

ABCDtf-GHlJ
Figure 16-7.

16-11. Stationary Waves. If we should continue our experiment with the vibrating rope (section 16-2) long enough to allow the reflected wave to combine with the incident wave, it

would be observed that certain points on the rope remain stationary. These points are called nodes, and are represented in figure 16-7 by the points -4, B, C, D, E and so on. The points between these nodes move up and down, and in figure 16-7 three different positions of the rope are shown, the straight line, the full curved line, and the dashed curved line. A point half way between two nodes is called an antinode. The distance from a node to the second node beyond, for example, from A to C, is a wave length. This combination of two wave motions going in opposite directions is called a stationary
y

wave.

146

PROPERTIES

OF WAVES

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Wave.
is

16

Technical Terms Defined

vibrational disturbance propagated through

an

elastic

medium.

Transverse Waves.

the motion of the individual particles perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Waves in which

Longitudinal or Compressional Waves. Waves in which the motion of the individual particles is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Wave

Length.

to the next one that

Period.

Distance along the axis of the wave from a given particle is in phase with it. Time required for a wave to travel one wave length.

Reflection.

The reversal of the general direction of a wave upon meeting a surface boundary separating two different mediums. Refraction. The slight change in the direction of a wave as it passes a surface through separating two different mediums.
Front.

continuous surface in a vibrating medium which contains the same phase at the same time. Index of Refraction. A constant characteristic of a medium. It represents the ratio between the velocity of a wave in a standard medium and
a set of points
all in

Wave

given medium. Diffraction. Bending experienced by waves while passing an edge or especially while passing through a slit.
the velocity of the
in the

wave

Polarization.

The removal from a

set of transverse

waves
its

of all except

those with the vibrations in a given direction. Stationary Waves. A combination of a wave with
effect is to

reflection.

The

produce regions of no vibration called nodes, half a wave

length apart.

PROBLEMS
16-1.

frequency
its

velocity of a certain wave is 1,150 feet per second and its 440 vibrations per second. What is its wave length? 16-2. The wave length of a certain wave is 0.0000589 centimeter, and
is
is

The

velocity

30,000,000,000 centimeters per second.

What is its frequency?

16-3. Figure 16-6 is called a Huyghens construction, after the Dutch physicist of that name who lived from 1629 to 1695. Make a similar construction for the case of reflection, and show that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
reflections will

two mirrors are held at right angles to each other, how many be formed of an object held near the intersection of the two mirrors? Draw lines to illustrate the various possible paths of the waves emanating from the object to the mirrors and back. 16-5. Solve a problem similar to that in section 16-7, except that the water wave passes from the shallow water to the deep water with an angle
16-4. If
of incidence of (1) 25 degrees; (2) 35 degrees.

The second

case

is

described

technically as total reflection.

PROPERTIES
16-6.

OF WAVES

147

On the basis of the data in the problem of section 16-7, would you the surf on a shelving beach to come in parallel to the shore, or at expect an angle? 16-7. Give a reason for the wave length in figure 16-7 extending from A to C rather than from A to5.
feet/second in

assume that the wave travels at the rate of 28 and 20 feet/second in medium 2. Determine whether it would take a longer or a shorter time for the wave to go from A to D by way of B or by a straight path
16-8. In figure 16-5,

medium

CHAPTER

17

Sound
A

psychologist and a physicist define sound differently. According to the psychologist, sound is a sensation perceived through the ear. The psychologist would go so far as to say

17-1. Definitions.

that in a desert where there

was no one

to hear, there

would be

the other hand, the physicist defines sound as a longitudinal wave motion in the medium (usually air) which is in contact with the car. Needless to say, we shall use the latter definition

no sound!

On

and study these waves. 17-2. No Sound In A Vacuum. Since sound waves exist in a material medium, it follows that we must not expect sound to pass through a vacuum. If a bell could be supported under the receiver
an
air

pump in such a way that it did not touch anything, we be should unable to hear it even while it was ringing. In fact, in an actual experiment where an alarm clock is supported by a felt pad under the receiver of an air pump, there is a very noticeable difof

ference in intensity after the air

is

pumped

out.

Speed of Sound. Everyone has had the experience of a watching distant person swinging an ax or a hammer. Since light travels much faster than sound, it is sometimes possible for this
17-3.

person to get in one whole swing before the sound reaches the observer. In this case an extra blow will be heard at the end after

hammer stops moving. Whereas light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles per second, sound goes only 1,088 feet per second at 32F. and 1,129 feet/second at normal room temperature (68F.). For many purposes the approximate value of 1,100 feet/second is a
the

convenient one to use. During a thunder storm it is often interesting to use a still greater approximation for the speed of sound and allow
148

17-4]
five

SOUND
One can
tell in this

149

seconds to the mile.

way with

the aid of a

watch how near the disturbance is. The speed of sound has been measured by several methods. The method of Kundl's tube will be discussed in section 17-15; another procedure is a bit more obvious. The distance between two hilltops is carefully determined by the surveyor's methods. A cannon is placed on one hilltop. When the cannon is fired, the interval between the flash and the report is measured from the other hilltop. The required speed is the ratio between the distance and the time interval. We have seen that the speed of any wave motion depends on two properties of the medium, the elasticity and the density the speed is equal to the square root of the ratio between the elasticity (bulk modulus) and the density. It will therefore be true that every substance will transmit sound at a rate peculiar to itself. Thus the speed of sound in water is about four times as fast, and in iron about fifteen times as fast as in air. If two
;

experimenters placed themselves at opposite ends of a long steel rail, one of them would hear twice a single tap made by the other, once through the steel and again through the air.
17-4. Dependence of Speed of Sound On Temperature. The reason is now apparent for the fact that sound has a speed at 32F. different from the value at 68F. Any agency that is capable
of affecting either the density or the elasticity of air can be expected to affect also the speed of sound in air. To the two values given in

the previous section may be added: speed of sound is 1,266 feet per second at 212F., 1,814 feet per second at W2F., and 2,2 >7 feet per second at 1,832F. At ordinary temperatures, the speed increases
(

second for each Fahrenheit degree rise in temother the hand, a change in pressure does not perperature. ceptibly change the speed of sound because an increase of pressure

about 1.14

feet per

On

increases both the elasticity

and the density

in practically the

same

proportion. Let us suppose, for example, that the barometer goes up enough to add one per cent to the value of the bulk modulus; then it will be found that the density also increases by one per cent,

and there

is

therefore

no change jn the

ratio of the elasticity to

the density.

17-5. Pitch, Loudness,

of

sound can be related to

and Quality. Three characteristics wave properties discussed in the previous

directly connected with the frequency of

chapter.

The

pitch of

a sound

is

the wave.

The

greater the frequency the higher the pitch.

The

150

SOUND

[17-5

human

ear is capable of distinguishing pitches varying from 16 to vibrations 30,000 per second; some ears have a wider range than others. If one musical note has twice the frequency of another, the
first is

said to be an octave higher than the second. Occasionally a pipe organ is built with one or two notes below the sixteen-per-second limit just mentioned; these notes have to be felt rather than heard,

and yet they seem to improve the general effect. The londness of a sound depends upon physiological factors, also upon the amount of energy per unit of area which reaches the ear
per unit of time; the lattei in turn is proportional to the product of the amplitude squared by the frequency squared. Thus from purely physical considerations, it is easier to hear a high pitched note than

one of low pitch, assuming that both sounds are well within the audible range. For instance, an orchestra needs but one piccolo whereas several contra-basscs are necessary. The amplitude of a sound wave is inversely proportional to the distance from the source; therefore the intensity of a sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This statement may also be shown to be true by the following argument: Imagine two concentric spherical geometric surfaces, the radius of one being half that of the other. The areas will then be in the ratio of one to four. If a sound starts at the center and is transmitted in all directions, the same quantity of sound that passes through one surface must also pass through the other surface, but the quantity of sound that passes through unit area of the inner spherical surface must be just

much as that passing through unit area of the outer because the ratio of the areas is just one to four. Therefore surface, will sound the have four times the intensity at the inner surface. By this argument, the inverse square intensity law would apply to
four times as

energy of projectiles as much as it would to waves; we shall therefore expect to see that the inverse square law also applies to light. The ear is sensitive to such an enormous range of lourlness values that it has become customary to adopt a unit of loudness which is
logarithmic, the
bcl.

If

intensity I which we wish to measure

/

the standard intensity is called /o, and the is such that

(10) 7

then 7

is

said to have a loudness of x bels with reference to

is

the same as a loudness of IQx decibels, the latter the more unit. Like potential energy, the reference point usual being may be taken anywhere, but the custom is becoming more common

loudness of x bels

17-6]

SOUND

151

as the intensity which at a frequency of 1,000 vibrations second per represents an amount of energy per second per square centimeter at the eardrum of 10" ergs. (See section 3-12). If we solve the equation just given for x, we obtain
to take 7

logio (///o)

three-place logarithm table will be found in appendix 8. The third characteristic of a sound is its qualify. The quality of

the sound depends upon the shape of the wave. Another way of saying the same thing is the following: the quality of a sound depends upon the number and

harmonics present. 17-6. Harmonics. If we have a given pitch, which means a sound of a certain frerelative amplitudes of the
or, since wave length is equal to divided velocity by frequency, a sound of a certain wave length, then a harmonic is another

quency,

sound the wave length of which is one half, or one third, or some aliquot part of the original wave length. The sound with the original wave length is called the fundamental tone or first harmonic. In figure 17-1, waves A and C represent sounds of the same wave length and therefore of the same pitch. B represents the second harmonic of A a musician would say that it was one octave higher than the fundamental. Although A and C have the same pitch, they are different in quality because the
;

waves have different shapes. A represents the type of tone emitted by a tuning fork or an open organ pipe when sounded gently, while C

152

SOUND

[17-7

like an open organ pipe blown a trifle more vigorously. C is the result of adding the ordinatcs of A and ZJ; therefore we can describe C as being the combination of A and its second harmonic

sounds

in such a way as to make the amplitudes take the ratio of two to one. The French mathematician Fourier (1772-1837) discovered that any wave, no matter how complicated its shape, is simply the com-

bination of

its

fundamental and some of

its

harmonics, each with

the proper amplitude and phase relation. A certain physicist once amused himself by drawing a wave the shape of which was the same
as the profile of his wife's face, and then determining the amplitudes of the harmonics necessary to give that shape!

17-7. The Doppler Effect. An interesting relation between either the velocity of the source of the sound or the velocity of the listener and the pitch of the sound is known as the Doppler effect.

Everyone has noticed how the pitch of a factory whistle suddenly seems to drop as one rides by it in an express train, or how the pitch of an automobile horn suddenly appears to a stationary observer to drop as it passes him. In the first case the observer is moving toward or away from the stationary source. In moving toward the source, he encounters the waves a little faster than he would if he were stationary, the apparent frequency is increased, and he therefore hears a slightly higher pilch than the whistle is actually emitting. In the case of the approaching automobile horn, each wave is emitted from a point slightly nearer than the point from which the preceding wave was emitted, thus shortening the waves and raising the pitch. It is, of course, possible for both source and observer to move at once. The mathematical relations involved are expressed by the following
equation

n,

V- u = -p n \ - v

where

'

is

the frequency observed, n the frequency emitted,

V the

velocity of sound, u the velocity of the observer, and v the velocity of the source, the positive direction for all three velocities being the

same, say for example toward the right. 17-8. Illustrations of the Use of Doppler's Equation. (1) Let the source be stationary (r = zero) and let the observer be moving toward the
source with one fourth the velocity of sound, u is therefore equal to F/4, and the equation becomes n' - ( V 7/4) n/ K, or, n' = 15/4) n. A musician would interpret this result by saying that the pitch observed was a major third above that emitted. (2) Let the observer be stationary and let the source move away from the observer with the velocity of sound. In

17-9]
this case,

SOUND
M

153

or

= so that the equation becomes w' = Vn/2 7, T 0, the This time musician would say that the observed pitch w/2. was just one octave below the emitted pitch. (3) If the velocity of the
7
,

source and the velocity of the observer are in the same direction and equal f in magnitude, it will be found that n = n\ no change in pitch. (4) The of arc most greater than that of sound. During World speeds projectiles War II, the boys used to refer to certain shells as "whiz-bangs" because

they heard them whizzing by before they heard the bang of the original detonation. If we try to compute the observed frequency with a stationary observer and a velocity of the source toward the observer equal to twice the = and v = 2V. Our equation now velocity of sound, we shall have u becomes ;/' = Vn/( V 2 T), and when we solve it, we get a negative value

which has no physical meaning. Problem. Two automobiles arc traveling in opposite directions, on the same road, one at 20 miles per hour and the other at 40 miles per hour. The horn of the former is sounding (frequency - 440 per second). What frequency does the man in the second car hear before and
for n'

17-9. Illustrative

after meeting?

Since nothing

is

said about the temperature,

we
it

shall
=~

round

off

the

velocity of sound to 1,100 feet per second and change correspond to the other two velocities, obtaining

to miles per

hour to

750 miles/hour;

considering
also

it

40 miles/hour before meeting, the minus sign representing the fact that the observer is moving in a direction opposite to the motion of the sound wave. And v = 20 miles/hour, plus because both the source and the *>ound wave are traveling in the same diiection, toward the observer, n = 440/ second. If we substitute the units into the equation, the velocity units will all cancel, therefore the frequency unit on the left will be determined by the frequency unit on the right- The equation therefore becomes
it

have

positive settles the question of the signs of the velocities.

We

--

40)

n' is therefore (79/73) (410) or

476 vibrations per second. the 750 miles/hour as positive, since the sound is now overtaking the observer, we must consider u +40 20 miles/hour. The new equation is miles/hour and similarly, v =
After meeting,
if

we again regard

therefore

= (71/77) (440) = 406 vibrations per second. That is, while the true frequency is 440 per second, the apparent fiequency changes from 476 per second to 406 per second at the instant of passing, or nearly three
This time n'
semitones.

17-10. Reflection of Sound.

it is

Since sound

is

a wave motion,

subject to reflection at a boundary of mediums. Several applications of this will immediately occur to the reader. An echo is

154

SOUND

[17-11

a case of simple reflection of sound. When the enclosure is so arranged that the sound is subject to more than one reflection, we say that we have a case of reverberation. Reverberation is observed in large auditoriums, under large bridge arches, especially over a water surface, and above all during a thunderstorm within the region occupied

by the
fair

falling rain.

In this case there

is

a distinct difference

between the part of the atmosphere above the clouds weather prevails with very little water vapor mixed with the rest of the air, and below the clouds, where not only is the relative humidity* one hundred per cent, but where there is a considerable quantity of liquid water as well; therefore the sound of the thunder is reflected back and forth between earth and cloud a great many times before being completely absorbed. The speaking tube is another application of the principle of reflection; the sound is forced to follow the course of the tube because every time it reaches the boundary of the tube it is reflected back in again. In bodies of water, "sounding" is often accomplished by noting the time required by sound to be reflected from the bottom.
in density

where

17-11.

Sound Represents Energy.

Sound should be con-

sidered as a form of energy, along with light, heat, electrical, mechanical, and chemical energy. Three things can happen to a sound

gradually converted into heat energy as it passes a given medium, (2) upon reaching the boundary of along through the given medium, some of the sound, as we have seen, is reflected, and (3) some passes through the boundary and obeys the laws of
(1) it is

wave:

any case, the total energy remains constant. 17-12. Time of Reverberation. In designing large auditoriums, an important consideration is the so-called time of reverberation. This is directly proportional to the volume of the hall and
refraction.

But

in

inversely proportional to the total absorption of the walls. measurements are in feet, the equation is
t

If the

0.05 -7

V A

where

is

the time in seconds of reverberation,

the volumef (in

cubic feet) and A the absorption of the walls of the hall. An open window in the room is equivalent to almost perfect absorption because practically no sound returns from the window into the room.
That is, the proportion of water vapor in the air is just as great as is possible at the given temperature. t Notice that V is volume in this section while in section 17-7, V represents the velocity of the wave. It is unfortunate that there are not more letters in the alphabet.
*

17-13] It is therefore

SOUND

155

customary to express the absorption as equivalent to many square feet of open window area. For example, if the absorption coefficient of a certain carpet is 0.2, which means that it absorbs one fifth as well as an open window of the same area,
that of so area in square feet times 0.2. The reverberation time should not be too long, thereby causing confusion between successive syllables of a speech, nor should it be too short, thereby rendering the room "dead" for musical performis its

then

for that carpet

a reasonable value for a large hall used chiefly for music, while about 1.25 seconds is better for an ordinary-sized theater. Formerly the reverberation time of a radio broadcasting studio used to be reduced somewhat below normal, so
ances.

About

2.25 seconds

is

that

when

the additional reverberation at the receiving end was

added, the total would come out right. But radios arc used mostly in small rooms, automobiles, and even outdoors, that is, in places where the reverberation time is practically zero, therefore it is the

modern custom

to supply the necessary reverberation at the studio. 17-13. Diffraction of Sound. The wave lengths of ordinary

sounds are sufficiently great to produce a large amount of diffraction. Occasionally it is desirable to reduce the diffraction. It will be re-

membered

(see section

16-8)

that the

amount

of diffraction

or

"bending around corners" is proportional to the wave length, and what is more important in this case, inversely proportional to a linear dimension of the opening out of which the sound proceeds. This means that it is nearly as easy to understand a speaker when he has his back turned as when he faces you. On the other hand, if the speaker can do something to increase effectively the size of his mouth, such as using a megaphone, a smaller percentage of the sound energy will be diffracted and a greater percentage will be directed straight ahead. The writer noticed an illustration of diffraction of sound a number of years ago in a railroad station. A steam radiator was hissing; hissing means high frequency and therefore a short wave length. Suddenly the hissing stopped a moment and then continued. On looking up from the newspaper, it was seen that a very large woman had walked by the radiator and had momentarily cast a "sound shadow." If the sound had been of greater wave length (lower pitch), it would have bent around the obstruction. 17-14. Interference of Sound. At a given instant the two
prongs of a tuning fork are vibrating in opposite directions. A tuning fork designed to vibrate at the rate of 440 per second (the musician's A) produces a wave length of 2.50 feet. If the fork be set vibrating

156

SOUND

[17-15

and held so that one prong completely screens the other, or be turned at right angles to this position so that each prong vibrates at right angles to the line connecting the fork to the ear, the sound is loud. If, on the other hand, the fork be held obliquely, so that one prong just does not screen the other, two sets of waves will reach the air, one practically 180 degrees out of phase with the other
waves will be comparative This furnishes us with a good example of interference of waves. We get another type of interference when two sound waves of the same wave length travel in opposite directions through the
silence.

(since the distance between the prongs feet); the result of these two sets of

is

small compared with 2.50

same medium. At
in the case of

certain points called nodes (see section 16-11), the vibrations cancel each other. Examples of this effect will be found

Kundt's tube, described in the next section, in organ in violin and strings; stationary waves or standing waves is the pipes, technical term used to describe the resulting condition of vibration. A third type of interference obtained with sound waves is encountered when two waves of slightly different frequencies are produced simultaneously. There will now be times when the waves annul each other, alternating with times when the waves reinforce each
This succession of variations in intensity is called beats the number of beats per second is equal to the difference in frequency of the two waves.
other.
;

17-15. Kundt's Tube.

The

fact has

been noted

in section 16-

11 that in the case of standing waves the distance from a given node to the second node beyond is one wave length. If, in addition, we also know the frequency, we can use the equation V n\ (section

16-4) to

compute the speed of the wave.

This

is

the so-called

Kundf's tube method. A glass tube, containing a sprinkling of powdered cork along its entire length, is placed in a horizontal
position with one end closed. end, is clamped at its center
fits

brass rod, carrying a disk at one

loosely into the glass

by means of a vise, so that the disk tube. Thus the center of the brass rod is a

node and each end is an antinode. The disk should be near the open end of the glass tube, and when its exact position has been located experimentally, the disk, although it represents an antinode of the motion of the brass rod, will be nearly an antinode of the vibrating air column. See figures 16-7. The two ends of the brass rod are set
vibrating longitudinally in opposite directions by grasping the rod with a piece of chamois dusted with powdered rosin, and pulling

17-16]

SOUND

157

so that the chamois slides along the rod. The result is a shriek of high frequency and consequently short wave length, the pitch de-

pending on the length of the brass rod, a known quantity in the case of our experiment. The experimental procedure is to make the brass rod vibrate repeatedly; the motion of the disk sets up stationary waves in the glass tube when the proper position of the disk is found; the stationary waves leave the cork powder at rest at the nodes and set it into vibration at the antinodes, so that the configuration of the cork dust clearly reveals the position of the nodes, and consequently the wave length of the sound waves, by means
of

which the speed can be computed.

17-16. Illustrative Problem.

certain

Kundt's tube apparatus uses a

brass rod with a frequency of 1,680 vibrations per second. If, after adjusting the position of the disk, the little piles of cork dust are just four inches apart,
find the speed of

= 1,120 feet per second. 1,120 - 1,087 = 32 feet per second more (1,680) than the value of the speed of sound at S2F., and corresponds to a temperature of 60F. since the speed increases 1.14 feet per second for each Fahrenheit degree the temperature rises.
17-17.
is

temperature. length corresponding to this particular frequency is twice the distance between two successive nodes, or right inches, or 0.667 foot. We therefore have, X = 0.667 foot, and n = 1,680 per second. Since the (0.667) speed of the wave is the product of these two, it follows that V

sound

in air, also the

The wave

Organ Pipes.

The motion

of the air in a closed organ

exactly the same as in Kundt's tube, the closed end being a pipe node, and the end containing the reed being an antinode. This means that the closed organ pipe is one quarter of a wave length
long, or three quarters, or five quarters, and so on. Another way of saying the same thing is as follows: The fundamental tone of a

closed organ pipe has a wave length four times the length of the pipe; the second harmonic (which is often called the first overtone)

has a wave length four thirds the length of the pipe, and so on. In the case of the open organ pipe, both ends are antinodes. Thus
the length of the pipe is one half a wave length, a whole wave length, three halves wave lengths, and so on; and the fundamental and

other harmonics have

the length
itself,

two

of twice the length of the pipe, thirds of the length, and so on.

wave lengths

Find the wave length of the fundamental and of the first two overtones emitted by an eight-foot closed organ pipe; by an eight-foot open organ pipe. Since one end of a closed organ pipe is a node and the other end is an antinode, the shortest length of a pipe relative to a wave length is one
17-18. Illustrative Problem.

158

SOUND
Thus we have
fundamental
8 8

[17-19

quarter of a wave length; the next shortest, three quarters; and the next,
five quarters.

for the

for the first overtone for the second overtone

8=3
=

X/4 and X X/4 and X 5 X/4 and X

= = =

32 feet
10.67 feet

6.40 feet

of a pipe relative to a

Since both ends of an open organ pipe are antinodes, the shortest length wave length is one half a wave length, the next wave one shortest, length, and the next, three halves of a wave length.
Therefore,
for the

fundamental

overtone for the second overtone

for Ihc first

8 8
8

= = =

X/2 and X or
3 X/2

X X

= =
=

16 feet 8 feet
5.33 feet

and X

17-19. Violin Strings. There are three ways of varying the pitch of a violin string. The frequency is inversely proportional to
the length of the string, directly proportional to the square root of the tension, and inversely proportional to the square root of the linear density (mass per unit length). In accordance with the last
fact, the

string,

from which are obtained

the notes of the lowest frequency, is loaded to increase the linear density. The loading
consists of winding the string with copper, silver, or some other metal wire. Tuning is

accomplished by changing the tensions, and tones of different pilch arc obtained in playing by changing the effective length of the

accomplished by pressing the siring against the finger board at various points with the lingers.
string,

which

is

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 17
Technical Terms Defined

Sound.

contact with the ear.

Congressional waves in the medium (usually Sound is a form of energy.

air)

which

is

in

Fitch. A physiological effect which depends on the frequency of the sound. Loudness. A physiological effect which depends on both the amplitude of the sound wave and its frequency.

Quality.

physiological effect which depends on the shape of the sound

wave.

Harmonic and Overtone.

integral multiple of
first

A sound wave the frequency of which is an a given fundamental wave. The fundamental is the harmonic. Sometimes the second harmonic is called the first over-

tone, etc.

SOUND

159

Doppler Effect. The effect whereby the apparent pitch of a sound depends on the relative velocity of source and observer.
Reverberation Time. The length of time that a sound of given intensity persists in a given auditorium.

PROBLEMS
17-1.
17-2.

At what temperature

will the

speed of sound be just 1,100 feet

per second?

Find the speed of sound at 50F; at 100F.

17-3. If the man described in section 17-3 is swinging his hammer at the rate of three swings every two seconds, how far away is lie?
17-4. In the cannon method of determining the speed of sound, what percentage correction should be made for the speed of light? How will this correction compare with the error introduced by the experimenter's "reaction time?" 17-5. If the steel rail in section 17-3 is 30 feet long, what is the time interval at one end between the sounds of a single tap at the other end?

17-6.
17-7.

How many octaves can the average man hear? A certain sound is just loud enough to be heard
could one be and
still

hear a sound one million times as loud? 17-8. A whistle with a frequency of 600 vibrations per second is blowing close beside a railroad track. What frequency will a passenger in a train going 60 miles per hour hear as he approaches the whistle? As he recedes from the whistle? Assume the velocity of sound to be 1,100 feet per
second.
17-9. The problem of section 17-9 resulted in a sudden drop in pitch; what condition would have to be realized to result in an apparent increase
of frequency?

How far away

one inch away.

17-10.

certain auditorium has a

volume
fills

total absorption equivalent to 1,800 square feet of

reverberation time.

compact audience

and a open window. Find the the hall, adding 4,200 square
of 150,000 cubic feet

feet to the absorption.

What

is

now

the time of reverberation?

17-11. There are three tuning forks lying on a table. The frequencies of of them are stamped upon them as 256 and 267 vibrations per second. The third fork makes four beats per second when sounded with the 256 fork and seven beats per second when sounded with the 267 fork. What is the frequency of the third fork?

two

17-12. Remembering that the two ends of the metal rod in the Kundt's tube apparatus are antinodes, we may use the experiment to determine the speed of sound in the metal. Jf the speed of sound in the air is 330 meters/second, if the average distance between adjacent cork dust piles is 8.56 centimeters, and if the metal rod is 80 centimeters long, find the speed of sound in the metal.

on a piano, that

17-13. If the ratio between the frequencies of any two adjacent notes is, notes a semitone apart, is 1.0595, show that the ratio between the frequencies of notes a whole tone apart is 1.1225. 17-14. A closed organ pipe is one foot long and emits a musical tone the frequency of which is 270 per second. What is the speed of sound in air?

160
17-15. An open organ pipe third overtone of this pipe.
17-16.
is

SOUND
2.25 feet long.

Find the frequency of the

is the effect on the pitch of keeping the length and tension a violin string and increasing the linear density four times? What is the effect on the pitch of keeping the length and linear density constant and increasing the tension four times? What is the effect on the pitch of keeping the tension and linear density constant and decreasing the length to one fourth of the original value? What is the effect on the pitch of increasing both the tension and the linear density four times and at the same time reducing the length to one fourth of its original value?

What

constant

in

CHAPTER

18

Heat and Temperature

The Two Laws of Thermodynamics

of Energy. Heat is another form of This is energy. equivalent to saying that, given a quantity of heat, we should be able to obtain work from it. As an illustration of this statement, we may cite the fact that with heat obtained from the burning of coal we are able to drive a steam engine. But it is impossible to convert a given quantity of heat entirely into work, or, in fact, into any other form of energy. The general statement may be made that whenever an attempt is made to convert any form of energy into some other form of energy, heat is one of the byproducts. The only exception to this statement is the case when we attempt to change some other form of energy into heat, its in an electric stove. In this case there is no by-product; the process is 100 per cent efficient; nothing but heat is produced! From these statements the deduction may be made that gradually all other forms of energy are being reduced to heat and that eventually there will be no other form of energy in existence.

18-1.

Heat as a Form

18-2. Theoretical Basis of Temperature. If a given substance such as paper, water, salt, sugar, or mercury could be sufficiently divided, a point would be reached when further subdivision

would

result in a

change

in

the nature of the substance.

is

The

smallest particle of a given nature that can exist

called a molecule.

To be

sure, a molecule is a group of atoms, through, we shall also have something to say

and before we get

about the internal

structure of atoms, but for the purposes of this chapter, it will be sufficient to regard the molecule as the smallest particle of a given
161

162
nature.
If the

HEAT

AND TEMPERATURE

[18-3

molecules of a body were all at rest relative to one another, the body would be completely cold and we should say that its temperature was at the bottom of the thertnometric scale. On a

Fahrenheit thermometer this would be 459 degrees below zero. On another type of thermomctric scale used in scientific work, the corresponding reading would be minus 273 degrees centigrade. Heat energy represents a random chaotic motion of the molecules of the body involved, relative to each other,

and the higher the temperature, the

greater
liquid
this
is

this irregular

motion.

In a

it is

kind

possible to detect motion of in particles considerably

larger than molecules

by means

of a

compound microscope.
pension

Any

emulsion

consisting of very fine particles in sus-

smoke
served

will also do;

be used for this purpose; and it will be obthat the motion (called the

may

Brownian movement)
tained.
If

is

incessant

as

This means

long as a given temperature is mainthat the molecules must be perfectly elastic.

the temperature is increased, the particles will move about more rapidly; if the temperature is reduced, they will move more slowly.

18-3. Conversion of Energy of Motion Into Heat. A moving body may be made to do work. Examples of this may be found in the fact that the kinetic energy of a moving flywheel on a buzz-saw may be made to saw off a stick of wood after the power has been cut off. Or a moving stream of water may be made to turn a turbine. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, what becomes of this energy when the body stops moving? In every case of this kind, some heat is always produced, and in many cases the energy is entirely converted into heat. As an illustration of the latter case, carried to a theoretical extreme, imagine a piece of lead pipe with no heat in it (absolutely cold) but moving as a whole at a high rate of speed. The piece of lead is to be thought of as consisting of molecules, all of which are moving in the same direction, that is, in the direction in which the piece of lead as a whole
is

going.

Since the lead

is

random motion
strikes a hard,

relative to

one another. Suppose

earth, large

absolutely cold, the molecules have no now that the lead

smooth portion of the

movable," and also absolutely cold.

What will

enough to be "imbecome of the energy

18-4]

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

163

moving lead? The answer is that the individual molecules maintain the same average speed that they had before, but the motion will be quite chaotic, random, irregular. The energy of the motion has been changed to heat.
of the
will

18-4. Orderly

Motion Tends
illustration

to

Become
to

Chaotic, But
is

Chaotic Motion Does Not Tend

Another idealized
of

Become Orderly.
as follows:

the same thing

Imagine a billiard table with a row of perfectly elastic billiard balls, all moving parallel with one another at a certain instant, but not necessarily parallel with the edges of the table. If the table could
be absolutely without friction and the edges perfectly elastic, there would be nothing to stop this motion, therefore under our suppositions the motion would continue forever. But the changes in direction due to the rcboundings would result in a chaotic motion of the billiard balls instead of the original parallel motion. The question now arises, "How long will it be before by chance all the billiard balls will again be moving parallel with one another at some

With a given number of billiard balls and given given instant? dimensions of the table, it is possible to compute the answer to this question, and it will come out a surprisingly large number of years. Let us also ask the corresponding question about the piece of lead
in the preceding paragraph, or of any rock lying by the wayside. What is the chance that each of the molecules, moving with terrific

"

speeds but in

which is the Orderly motion tends to become chaotic, but chaotic motions do not of themselves tend to become orderly. It should now be clear why it is impossible to change the heat of a piece of lead completely back into energy of motion of the piece of lead as a whole, or in other words, why a body left to itself will never become completely cold. 18-5. Distinction Between Heat and Temperature. Temperature means the degree of hotness of a body and is not connected with the mass of the body, whereas the amount of heat in a body cannot be computed unless we know both the mass or weight of the body as well as its temperature and the material of which the body is composed. Thus if two bodies are made of the same material and weigh the same, the one with the higher tern perature will contain the more heat. But if two bodies are made of the same material, have the same temperature, but do not weigh
in infinity,

happen one chance

no

possible directions, will at to go in the same direction at once?

all

some future time

all

The answer is about mathematician's way of saying

cfiancc at all.

164

HEAT

AND TEMPERATURE

[18-6

the same, the heavier body will contain more heat than the lighter. In fact there is actually more heat in a tub of lukewarm water than in a teacup of boiling water.

18-6. Properties That

is

Depend on Temperature.

Temperature proportional to the average energy of translatory motion (translatory kinetic energy) of the molecules of the object
under consideration.

When

the temperature changes, various other

properties of the object also change; it is from a measurement of these other properties that we are enabled to determine the temperature.

Some

trical resistance,

of these other properties are length, volume, elecvapor pressure, character of radiation emitted, and

thermoelectric effect.

Most thermometers depend upon the

fact

when the temperature changes, volumes change. 18-7. Temperature Scales. We use a number of temperature scales. The two scales most convenient for everyday usage inthat

volve negative values for low temperatures, so that for scientific work, it is convenient to have in addition two absolute scales, each
of

which has zero

for its lowest value.

The ordinary Fahrenheit

scale has as its zero point the lowest temperature conveniently obtained with a mixture of salt and ice, while the 100 point is about

as high as the temperature would rise on a very hot summer day. The centigrade scale has the freezing point of water for its zero and

the boiling point of water for the 100 position. On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 and boils at 212, that is, there are 180
degrees between the two points. Figure 18-1 indicates the relative readings of the four scales which have been mentioned. The upper

FAHRENHEIT ABSOLUTE

459

491

aNTtGRADt ABSOLUTE

OR

AWOLUTE

im

KEVIN

Z73

293

VMTCR

373 WATER
SOIL*

Figure 18-1.

and lower ones are the two absolute

lowest theoretical temperature.

scales

and read zero at the

this

Although

temperature has

18-8]

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

165

never been reached, deHaas, a Dutch physicist, has succeeded in getting to within 0.0044 of it. The existence of the absolute zero
is

indicated

by

number

behavior of gases; and

273.15
off to

of physical facts, chief among there is very little doubt that

which
it is

is

the

located

called

below the zero of the centigrade scale. We shall round this 273. Thus, on the centigrade absolute scale which is often the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273 and boils at 373.

18-8.

How

to

Change from One Scale

to Another.

Since

there arc 180 Fahrenheit degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water and only 100 centigrade degrees in this same interval, each Fahrenheit degree is 100/180 or 5/9 as large as a centi-

grade degree.
absolute scale
of water

Thus
is

is 491 Fahrenheit absolute scale are 459 greater than those on the ordinary Fahrenheit scale, while readings on the Kelvin scale are 273 more than readings on the ordinary centigrade scale. To complete the system of changes, it is necessary to devise a method of changing from the ordinary Fahrenheit to the ordinary centigrade scale.

the boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit 9/5 of 373 or 671. Similarly the freezing point F. Abs., which is 9/5 of 273K. Readings on the

Suppose

it is

desired to express normal

a centigrade reading. First,

room temperature 68F. as by subtracting 32 from 68, we see that

normal room temperature

of water.

is 36 degrees above the freezing point so that these 36 Fahrenheit degrees cor20, respond to 20 centigrade degrees, and since on the centigrade scale water freezes at 0, 20C. is the result we are looking for. If we ex-

5/9 of

36

is

press this result algebraically,

tc

we

find that

=
-f~

(IF

32)

expresses the numerical operations that we have just performed, where t c represents the temperature on the centigrade scale and t p

on the Fahrenheit

scale.

If,

however, our problem was to change

into the corresponding Fahrenheit reading, the argument would run as follows. 20C. is 20 degrees above the freezing point on the centigrade scale. Since the Fahrenheit degrees are smaller,

20C.

more of them in the same interval, namely 9/5 of 20 or 36 degrees. The Fahrenheit temperature which is 36 degrees 32 or 68F. This process above the freezing point (32F.) is 36 may be summarized by the equation
there will be

tp

-|-

tc

+ 32
tp .

which after

all is

nothing but the previous equation solved for

166
18-9. Illustrative
heit absolute,

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Problem.
(1)

[18-9
centrigrade, Fahrento the corresponding

and Kelvin readings.

(2)

Change 15F. to Change 15C.

values on the other three scales.

(1)

To change Fahrenheit
tc

readings to centrigrade, use the equation

=
-J-

(/,

32)

IS degrees. Therefore t c (5/9) (15 32) (5) ( 17)/9 9.44C. Since the zero point on the Kelvin scale is 273 degrees below that on the centigrade scale, the Kelvin temperature corresponding to
tF

where

9.44 273 or 263.56. The corresponding 459 or 474. As a temperature on the Fahrenheit absolute scale is 15 check on these results we may notice that five ninths of 474 is 263.3. Since it is understood that problem results are to be reported to slide rule accu9.44 C., racy only, the answers to this problem should be reported: 474 F. Abs., and 264 K. (2) This time we start with
15
F. or

9.44

C.

is

*p

tc 4" o

32

where
32

lc

=
F.

59

15. Therefore tp = (9/5) (15) + 32 = 135/5 32 = 27 + Note that in this equation the parentheses do not include

the 32. The Fahrenheit absolute reading corresponding to 59 F. 459 or 518 F. Abs. The Kelvin reading corresponding to 15 C. 273 or 288 K. As a check, we note that (9/5) (288) = 518.

is is

59
15

+ +

18-10.

The

First

Two Laws

of

Thermodynamics.

The law

of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Since heat is a form of energy, when a certain

quantity of heat disappears from one body it will be found to have transferred itself to some other body, providing that it has not been changed into some other form of energy. This statement of the law of conservation of energy applied to heat is called the first

law of thermodynamics.

and
the

states that

when

second law of thermodynamics goes on a quantity of heat transfers itself from one

The

by natural processes, it will always be found that a higher temperature than the second. That is, at body heat will not of itself pass from a cold body to a hot body in such a
body
to another
is

first

way

as to

make

the cold

body colder and the hot body

hotter.

18-11. Generalization of the

is

Second Law.

The second

law of thermodynamics capable of generalization in such a way as to apply to things other than heat. It has already been stated
If

that heat represents a chaotic motion of the molecules of a body. we now return to the illustrations in sections 18-3 and 18-4, we

may

say that the second law states that

it is

more natural

for the

18-12]

HEAT

AND TEMPERATURE

67

molecules of the piece of lead mentioned there to change from the first condition into the second condition (orderly motion to chaotic motion) than it is for them to change from chaos to order. If all the
molecules of a rock, each one of which has a velocity measured in miles per second in perfectly random directions, should suddenly all commence to move in the same direction at the same time, it might

be extremely unfortunate for the innocent bystander! That this of the second law is equivalent to that made in the preceding paragraph will be evident when we consider that there is less randonlness of molecular motion in two bodies, one of which has one temperature and the other another, than if they both have the same temperature. Perhaps this will be seen more clearly if we exaggerate to the extreme case where all the heat is transferred from one body to the other, so that the first is left completely cold and the second is made quite hot. If the bodies are of equal weight, just half of the chaos has now been made into complete order. But this is just the sort of thing that the second law says cannot happen by itself because it involves making the hot body hotter and the cold body colder till the limit is reached. Thus the second law of thermodynamics may be generalized to read, whenever inanimate objects are left to themselves the tendency is always from order to chaos, and never in the other direction. If one should leave some papers

new statement

piled neatly

upon

his desk, leave the

floor,

room, return and find them

justified in saying that

scattered

all

over the

he would be

some

inanimate agency such as the wind was responsible. If, however, he should leave the room in this disarray, return a second time, and find the papers piled neatly upon his desk in their original order, he would never be justified in saying that a second gust of wind was responsible. It would be necessary to say that the second case involved an act of intelligence, and should therefore not be discussed in a course in physics.
18-12. Entropy. Efficiency of a Heat Engine. In a more extended course we should learn that entropy is a quantitative measure of the amount of randomness in a system, and by applying both the first and second laws of thermodynamics, we could discover that the maximum efficiency of a heat engine, say a steam or gasoline engine, operating between two given temperatures, is equal to the difference between those two temperatures divided by the
higher temperature expressed on the absolute scale. For example, if the steam in a steam engine is at a temperature of 300F. and the

condenser

is

maintained at a temperature of 200F., then the

168

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

is

thermal efficiency
is

(300

200)/(300

13.18 per cent. which must be regarded as the

Due to other losses, maximim efficiency

459) or 100/759 or 0.1318 the thermal efficiency possible at the given

temperatures and therefore as an upper limit to the actual efficiency.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
A

Technical Terms Defined

Heat.

form of energy which consists

of the

combined energy

of sepa-

rate molecules of a body.

Temperature. A quantity proportional to the average translatory kinetic energy of a single molecule of the body concerned.
Absolute Temperature.
lowest possible value
is

Temperature expressed on a
zero.

scale such that the

Laws
First
of

Law

of

Thermodynamics.
of

special

form of the law

involved.

of conservation

energy which holds when heat energy

to another

is

Second Law
given body

Thermodynamics. Heat will not of body of higher temperature.

itself

pass from a

Second Law Generalized.

Order
itself is

In inanimate nature, order tends to chaos. a sign of intelligence, which is not one of the things studied

in physics.

PROBLEMS
18-1.

Change the following temperatures to centigrade: 86F., 500F.,

Change the temperatures
of the preceding
of

5000F., 0F.,-40F., -273F.

18-2.

problem to Kelvin.

18-3.
18-4.

Change the temperatures

What

simple relation exists

problem 18-1 to Fahrenheit absolute. between the answers of problem 18-2

to

and 18-3?
18-5.

Change the following temperatures

Fahrenheit:

5000C.,

500C.,

50C, -40C., -200C.

Find the Kelvin temperature corresponding to 574F.

18-6.

18-7. Using the data in figure 18-1, make four graphs on the same chart in which Kelvin temperatures are plotted along the -Y-axis while along the

F-axis we have (1) Fahrenheit absolute, (2) ordinary Fahrenheit, (3) ordinary centigrade, and (4) Kelvin temperatures plotted. Do any of these four lines cross each other, and if so, where?

HEAT

AND TEMPERATURE

169

18-8. A turbine operates with saturated mercury vapor from a boiler at 840F., exhausting into a condenser at 350F. Find the maximum efficiency possible with an ideal heat engine operating under these conditions.

human body

Experiments made recently indicate that the efficiency of the operating between the temperatures of 98.6F. and 68.0F. is about fifteen per cent, and is furthermore greater than zero when the tem18-9.

perature of the surroundings

is

both thermal

efficiencies.

Have you an explanation

equal to the body temperature. Compute of the discrepancy?

CHAPTER

19

Heat Transfer

19-1. Three General Methods of Heat Transfer. The engineer is frequently faced with the problem of transferring a quantity of heat from one place to another, also with the opposite problem of insulating buildings to prevent heat transfer. A steam heating
plant is an excellent illustration of the first situation. If we trace the path of the heat in a plant from the time it is produced by the

combustion of the

fuel,

we

shall find that three different

methods

are utilized in delivering the heat ultimately at the place where we want it: conduction, convection, and radiation. If we generalize these three processes, we shall find that they include all possible

methods

of transferring heat.

19-2. Conduction. If we heat one corner of a solid object, very soon that some of this heat is transferred to the neighboring portions of the solid. Interpreting this in terms of

we

shall find

molecules, we can say that if the molecules of one portion of a solid object are set into agitation, this motion will gradually be com-

municated to the neighboring molecules. A similar situation might be imagined as follows: suppose a large crowd of very hot-tempered, pugnacious men is standing quietly in a room. If a fight starts at one point of the room, we can imagine it spreading in about the same way that the molecular action spreads, except that there is a law of conservation of energy and unfortunately no cor170

19-3]

HEAT TRANSFER

171

responding law of conservation of belligerency. The rate at which heat is conducted through a solid depends upon three factors:
(1)
(2)

the

differences

in

temperature
is

the material of which the solid

between the two surfaces, made, and (3) the ratio of its
of silver
is

cross section to its thickness.

The conductivity

nearly

6,000 times as

much

as that of asbestos.

In a steam heating plant, the heat passes by conduction through the shell of the boiler into the water, and later passes by conduction

from the hot steam through the material

outer surface of the radiator.

of the radiator to the

19-3.

Computation of Transfer of Heat By Conduction.

If we let II stand for the heat that gets through a slab of material of conductivity C, of thickness rf, and cross-sectional area A, in time /, when the temperature of the hot side of the slab is /2 and

that of the cooler side

is /i,

we can make

the statement that

That is, the heat conducted through the slab is proportional to the four factors time, temperature difference, area, and conductivity, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the slabs.
energy

common units by which heat measured, the British thermal unit and the Calorie. (See section 3-12). The combination of units that may be used in this
have seen that there are two
is

We

equation are rather numerous, the unit of

taking up the slack,

so to speak. For example, if // is in Calories, / in seconds, / 2 and t\ in centigrade degrees, in square meters, and d in meters, we can in C Calories express per second per degree centigrade per meter, and the units on the right side of the equation will reduce to Cal-

orics.
t

Or

if

we
/2

are using English units, //

in seconds,
in feet.

and

/i

This time

is in British thermal units, in degrees Fahrenheit, in square feet and in is expressed B.t.u. per second per degree

Fahrenheit per foot. However there is nothing to prevent the English engineer from expressing // in British thermal units, t in days, / 2 and t\ in Fahrenheit degrees, A in square feet, and d in inches, and he often does it! In this case C must be expressed in
B.t.u.-inches per
19-4.

day per square foot per degree Fahrenheit.

ductivities follows in the first

Numerical Values of Heat Conductivities. A table of heat contwo sets of units just mentioned.

172
Substanc*
Air

HEAT TRANSFER
Cal./sec.-deg. C-mcter

[19-5
B.t.u./sce.-dez. F-Joot

00000054
0.0422

00000036
0.0284 0.000013 0137

Aluminum
Asbestos Brass Brick

0000019
0.0204

Copper Cork slabs

Flannel Glass

000012 00975
000010

000008 00656
0000067

00000035 000018
0005 10 000009
0.00057

00000024 000012
000 343 000006 (KXW8

Granite Hair felt

Ice

Iron

Lead
Magnesia pipe covering Marble Sand Sawdust
Silver

00166 000836
000016

00112
01X1562 00001 1

0000470 0000093 0000015

0.1096

OOOOU6
0000063 0000010 00737 0000183
0(XKW)17

Slate

Snow
Tin

0000272 0000026 001S19

Water

OOOOM8
across grain

001021 0000093
(NXXXtt
(XKX)2

Wood Wood
Zinc

000009
0(XK)3

along grain

00284
Silver

00191

stances
sulators,

like hair felt, asbestos,

and copper are the best conductors of heat known, whereas suband dry sawdust are among the best inoften because they imprison a quantity of air, which is an ex-

tremely poor conductor.

Problem. Calculate the amount of heat that will 24 hours through a glass window of 2 square yards in house from a escape area, one eighth of an inch thick if the temperatures are 70F and 10F c outside. If the heat of combustion of coal is U, )00 B.t.u. per pound, how of this one window? on account much coal must be burned per day t is of section the 86,400 seconds, / 2 is 70, fi is 10, 10-3, Using symbols A is 18 ft. 2 T is 0.00012 B.t.u. /sec-cleg, /'"-foot, and d is 0,01042 foot.
19-5. Illustrative
,

Substituting these values into the equation of that section gives

//

n =

(80,400) (70

- 10) ---

(18) (0.00012)

1,075,000 B.t.u.

)T2

Dividing this by 13,900 B.t.u./lb. gives 77.3 pounds of coal per day. This assumes that none of the heat of combustion escapes up the chimney.

19-6.
lems, the

More Complicated

Cases.

In most practical prob-

same heat flows through several types of material. For the wall of a house could consist of several inches of brick, example, an air space, and an inch of wood. In this type of problem, a separate equation must be set up for each material involved. One of the unknowns will be the heat //, which is the same in each equation.

The time and

cross-sectional areas will likewise be the

same

19-7]

HEAT TRANSFER

173
will

in each equation.

The

additional

unknowns

be the intermediate

temperatures at the boundaries of the various materials. 19-7. Convection. Conduction of heat can take place in liquids and gases as well as in solids, but in these two cases the
complicated by the fact that in fluids (gases and liquids) convection is much more important than conduction. A hot fluid usually weighs less, volume for volume, than that same fluid at a lower temperature. This means that we shall generally find the hottest air near the ceiling and the coldest air near the floor. If we
situation
is

heat a portion of the air near the floor, it will rise, and if we cool of the air near the ceiling it will drop toward the floor. In certain types of automobiles formerly on the market, the water

some

was not forced through the cooling system by a pump but depended on I he fact that when cooled in the radiator it tended to drop, and when heated in the engine it tended to rise. Thus there was a continual transfer of heat from the engine to the radiator by convection currents of water, which worked moderately well
low speeds of those days. In the steam heating plant which we have been using as an illustration, heat passes from the hot burning fuel to the bottom of the boiler by convection of hot gases, the water churns about in
for the comparatively

the boiler due to convection, changes into steam (which is relatively light), and in this form rises into the radiators, condenses, and in
this heavier form, returns to the boiler.

In the

room where the

radiator

located, the air above the radiator continually tends to rise and thus maintains a convection current in the room. Hot air
is

heating plants, hot water heaters, and the trade winds serve as further illustrations of convection. A generalization of the idea of convection simplifies to a mere moving of a hot body from one
place to another, thus transferring the heat bodily.

the absolute zero

which has any temperature above continually radiating heat into space, whether an absolute vacuum or whether it is filled with consists of that space material substances. For example, the sun is surrounded by an excellent vacuum, containing only about 16 molecules per cubic inch. One of these molecules is so small that on the average it travels nearly 300 years before striking one of its neighbors. Nevertheless the sun sends out radiant energy in all directions to such an extent
.19-8.

Radiation.
is

A body

that at the distance of the earth (93,000,000 miles) we continually receive, on every square yard of surface perpendicular to the sun's
rays, energy at the rate of 1.5 horsepower.

These rays travel at

174

HEAT TRANSFER

[19-9

the rate of 186,000 miles per second in the vacuum between the sun and the earth's atmosphere, and at somewhat slower rates in other

transparent substances.

small fraction of

them

is

visible to the

eye as light, but all of the radiations will raise the temperature of any object upon which they may fall. The hotter an object is,
the greater is the rate at which it will emit radiation. We shall study radiation further under the heading of light, but just now we are interested chiefly in the fact that it constitutes a third method

While radiation is not itself a form of heat (heat involves molecular motion and there are no molecules in a perfect vacuum), it has its origin in the heat of bodies and is changed again into heat upon striking other bodies. If one stands in front of a hot fireplace, he may cut off the sensation of heat on his face practically instantly by suddenly placing his hand between the source of heat and his face. In our illustration of the steam heating plant, the bottom of the boiler receives heat from the hot coals by radiation as well as by
of transferring heat.

convection.

by

radiators also emit energy by radiation as well as conduction and convection. Since radiation is not heat at all

The

of heat transfer

(but another form of energy), a generalization of this third method would be the case where heat is transformed into

some other form of energy (for instance, electrical), transmitted in this form to some distant place, and then changed back again
into heat.

Computation of Transfer of Heat by Radiation. The amount of heat that is changed into radiant energy depends on the
19-9.

elapsed time, the surface area of the radiating body, the temperature of the body as well as the temperature of the surroundings, and the

nature of the surface.

for

Some

surfaces are almost perfect reflectors;

example a silver surface will reflect between 97 and 99 per cent of the infrared radiation falling upon it. On the other hand, certain substances reflect almost nothing, but absorb nearly all the radiation falling upon them; these are called black bodies. Good
reflectors are

poor radiators, but on the other hand, good absorbers are good radiators. We shall let B stand for the blackness of a surface. For a perfect absorber, that is, a perfectly black body, B = = 0.00; for all other bodies B lies 1.00; for a perfect reflector, B

between zero and unity.

If

//

is

the heat that

is

converted into

radiant energy, / the time in seconds, A the area of the emitting surface in square meters, T the Kelvin temperature of the body

19-10] surface,

HEAT TRANSFER]

175

and

the Kelvin temperature of the surroundings, then

H=

1.368

10- 11 tA(T*

- T*)B

1Q-10, Illustrative Problem.

Assuming that each square yard

of the

earth's surface receives 1.5 horsepower from the sun, compute the tem10 8 meters. perature of the sun's surface. The radius of the sun is 6.97

If

the

we imagine a huge hollow sphere of radius 03,000,000 distance between the sun and the earth, surrounding
1.5
2

miles,

which

is

the sun, with

horsepower, this would give a total of 746 watts or 3.77 X 1026 joules per second of 4Tr(93,000,000) radiant energy leaving the sun, only a small portion of which strikes the earth. This is 9.01 X 10 22 Calories every second. Thus we may substitute into the equation of the previous section the values H = 9.01 X 10 22 Cal., 2 t = 1 sec., A = 47r(r sun ) where r sun = 6.97 X 108 meters; 7\ is so much less than T that we may neglect it in this problem, and B may be taken as 1.00 since the sun is so nearly a black body. Hence we have

each square yard receiving

(1,760)* (1.5)

9.01

10 22
4

(1.368) (10~H) (i)

( 47r )

(6.97)2 (iQic) JM (j)

Solving,

and

T = 0.1079 X lO^ T = 5,730K

usually given for the temperature of the sun's surface is The temperature of the sun's interior is, this. The region near the sun's center may

The value
slightly

under 6,000Kelvin. however, much greater than

reach as high a figure as 20,000,000 Kelvin. The source of the sun's heat is doubtless subatomic; that is, the sun's mass is gradually being converted into heat energy.

19-11.

An

Illustration of

Heat

Insulation.

The problem

of preventing heat transfer also arises frequently; the thermos bottle provides an interesting illustration of this. The important

feature of the thermos bottle

it is

is the double layer of glass of which with the vacuum between the two glass constructed, together layers. This prevents the conduction of heat because heat can be conducted only by molecules of material substances, and there are In other words, a comparatively few molecules in a vacuum.

vacuum

is

the worst possible conductor of heat.

Convection cannot

take place because convection takes place only in fluids and not at all in a vacuum. But radiation takes place in a vacuum better than

anywhere else. Radiation is prevented in a thermos bottle however by silvering the sides of the glass that are next to the vacuum and
reducing B of section 19-9 to a value as nearly zero as possible. This results in reflecting the escaping radiation back in the direction from which it came. Thus, the only way in which heat can es-

cape easily from a thermos bottle

is

through the cork.

176

HEAT TRANSFER

[19-12

19-12. Perfect Reflectors and Perfect Absorbers. There no such thing as either a perfect reflector or a perfect absorber, but since in both cases we can make good approximations, it is possible to describe their properties. A perfect reflector would not
is

The

allow any of its heat energy to escape in the form of radiant energy. radiation would be reflected internally, back into the body,
just as perfectly as radiation

would be

reflected externally.

On

the

other hand, a perfect absorber would not reflect any radiation, but would convert it all into heat as fust as it arrived. A perfect absorber
is also the best radiator. Furthermore, when it is considered we are enabled to see the objects about us mainly by reflected light, we realize that a perfect absorber would also be perfectly

that

invisible

(perfectly black) unless it happened to be hot enough (above 5()()C.) to emit visible radiation of its own. Not only are the substances that emit radiation best the best absorbers, but the
reflectors.

worst emitters are the best

19-13. Thermal Equilibrium. After things have been left for a sufficiently long time, a state of equilibrium rethemselves to sults, after which the temperatures no longer change. When this condition exists, an object is receiving heat by all the methods at
giving off heat. If, after equilibrium has been established, any of the conditions are changed, we say that the equilibrium has been disturbed. For example, if an object exposed
it is

the same rate at which

to the sun's radiation has reached a state of equilibrium and is then cut off from the sun's rays, its temperature will drop to a new
state of equilibrium
is

where

it is

again receiving energy as fast as

19-12.

it

losing

it.

is

For another example, see problem not a static affair, but involves a
a

Thermal equilibrium

energy, yet in such

way

lively set of interchanges of that the rates are completely balanced.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

19

Technical Terms Defined

Conduction. A method of transfer of heat by handing the energy along from molecule to molecule through the body.
Convection. A method of transfer of heat in fluids which takes advantage of the difference in density of hot and cold fluids. Radiation is not heat, but is a form of energy which passes Radiation. readily through a vacuum at the characteristic speed of 186,000 miles per second. Heat may be converted readily into radiation in accordance with the equation in section 19-9, and radiation may be converted back

HEAT TRANSFER
into heat to

177

an extent proportional to the value of B. Thus heat may be by means of radiation. Thermal Equilibrium. A condition in which a body receives heat by all methods at the same rate that it loses heat.
transferred indirectly

PROBLEMS
19-1. Discuss how it would be possible so to shape a piece of silver and a piece of asbestos that heat would be conducted through both at the same rate with a given temperature difference. 19-2. Why does a piece of cold iron which is at the same temperature as a piece of woolen cloth feel so much colder than the cloth? 19-3.

How many
hour
if

layer of ice a foot thick in a pond is at 32F. B.t.u. of heat will pass through a square mile of this ice in an the temperature of the air above the ice is

The water under a

0F?

wall to consist of 8 inches of brick in contact with one inch of wood. Let the outer surface of the brick be at 10F. and the inner surface of the wood at 70F. Find the heat that will flow through 200 square feet of this house in 24 hours, also find the temperature at the junction of the brick and wood.
19-4.
19-5. Can an iceman be considered as being in the business of transferring heat? If so, of which of the three methods of heat transfer is the

Assume a house

process a generalization? 19-6. Suppose two sheets of metal to be thermally insulated from each other by a layer of air. Assume three cases % (1) when both surfaces are horizontal with the hot surface above, (2) when the cold surface is above the hot surface, both being horizontal, and (3) when both surfaces are vertical. Discuss the transfer of heat by all three methods in all three cases.
19-7. Draw a diagram of an automobile engine and radiator and show how, with no water pump, the water will flow while the engine is running. 19-8. If one horsepower is the same as 746 watts, and if 2.54 centimeters is equal to an inch, find the number of watts per square meter received from
solar radiation.

19-9. Why should a teakettle preferably have a black bottom and a polished upper surface? 19-10. Detective stories have been based upon the idea of the discovery of a perfectly black paint enabling the detective to cover himself with it and move about invisibly. What is the flaw in the idea?

19-11. The inner silvered coating of a thermos bottle has an area of 120 square inches. The hot coffee inside (100C) is losing a Calorie per hour when the outer shell of the bottle is at 25C. Compute the value of B
19-12.

and a thermometer stand near each other long enough for the thermometer to come to a constant reading. Without moving either, it is possible by means of a large reading lens to do some
cake of
ice

focusing that will result in lowering the reading of the thermometer. Docs "cold" travel like light so that it can be focused on the thermometer?

Explain.

CHAPTER

20

Expansion
20-1. Linear Expansion of Solids. Since the changes that substances undergo in their dimensions give us the simplest means of measuring temperatures, it is important to consider the relation between expansion and temperature change. We can talk about the lengths of solids, but not of liquids or gases. The increase in length of a solid during a rise in temperature is called a linear
expansion. The linear expansion is proportional to three things: (1) the original length, (2) the temperature rise, and (3) a constant depending on what material is under consideration. This

constant is called the coefficient of linear expansion. When e represents the elongation, / the original length, ti the lower temperature, ~~ / 2 the ti the temperature rise, upper temperature, and therefore / 2 and k the coefficient of linear expansion, the relation just stated may be expressed by the following equation

20-2. Coefficients of Linear Expansion. In the following table are a few coefficients of linear expansion, referred to the centigrade
Brass

scale.

Aluminum
Copper
Ebonite Fused quartz
Glass

00000236
0.0000186 0.0000173

Iron

Lead
Oak, || grain Oak, -i. grain Platinum
Silver

0000078
0.00000040 0.0000088 0.0000139 0.0000507 0.00000088

Gold
Ice

Steel

Tin
Zinc

Invar

0.0000110 0.0000282 0.0000049 0.0000544 0.0000088 0.0000190 0.0000111 0.0000217 0.0000285

178

20-3]

EXPANSION

179

These values are approximate; the exact value of a coefficient of expansion varies with the temperature as well as with the degree of purity of the specimen. It will be noted that although water expands when it freezes, the ice once formed contracts if the temperature continues to drop. study of the table will make it clear why hot fused quartz may be plunged into cold water without
cracking, whereas the same treatment will completely shatter a piece of glass. The coefficients of expansion of platinum and glass are so nearly alike that glass fused around platinum wire will cool

without cracking; this is not true of copper wire. It is only at ordinary temperatures that invar (36 per cent nickel and 64 per cent iron) has a low coefficient of expansion. Above 1()0C. the value
rapidly approaches that of iron.
20-3.

Numerical

Illustration of Linear Expansion.

As an

illustration

of the use of the equation given above, let us find the allowance that should be made for the expansion of a steel rail thirty feet long if it is to be sub-

jected to fluctuations of temperature between SF. and W5F. Since the coefficients given in the preceding paragraph hold only for centigrade degrees, it will be necessary either to multiply these coefficients

by

so that they will apply to Fahrenheit degrees, or to change the Fahren-

heit temperatures to centigrade readings. shall do the former because it is easier. Since the centigrade coefficient of linear expansion of steel is

We

0.0000111, the Fahrenheit coefficient will be | (0.0000111) or 0.00000617;

this

we

shall call k.
fe

We
e

set

therefore

h = 90. This

equal to thirty

feet,

/2

95, and

fc.

= 5;

gives us

(30) (90) (0.00000617)

fifth of

or e

0.01666 foot. This corresponds to a

an

inch.

If a straight strip of brass and a welded together to form a single rod, the combination will be straight at some one temperature. Above this temperature it will be bent with the brass on the outside, and at reduced temperature it will be bent with the steel on the outside, because of the di (Terence in the two coefficients of expansion. If no care were exercised in the construction of the balance wheel of a watch, it would run slowly on hot days and fast on cool days for two reasons: (1) the spring is weaker when hot, and (2) an expanded wheel moves more slowly. By making the balance wheel part steel and part brass (see sketch at the head of this chapter) with the brass on the outside, the diameter of the wheel becomes smaller when the temperature rises, and thus compensates for both effects when correctly

20-4. Balance

Wheel on a Watch.

straight strip of steel are

adjusted.

20-5.
in

Volume Expansion
volume

of Solids

and Liquids.

The

v, of a solid or of a liquid, with rise of temperachange ture, is proportional to three factors: (1) the original volume V,

180
(2)

EXPANSION

[20-6

the temperature rise (/ 2 0, anc* ( 3) a constant K, depending This constant is called the the material under consideration. upon
coefficient of cubical expansion.

The equation

therefore

becomes

is very can be shown that in the case of solids, the value of close to three times the value of k\ that is, the coefficient of cubical expansion for a given substance is practically three times the coefficient of linear expansion for the same substance. This makes

It

unnecessary a table of coefficients of cubical expansion of solids. On the centigrade scale, the coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury is 0.000182, and that of alcohol is 0.00110. Water is a bit
peculiar.

cubic centimeter of water at 0.0C. will shrink to

0.999868 cubic centimeter at 3.98C. At a little over 8C., its volume is back again to 1.000000 cubic centimeter, and at 15C. it has a volume of 1.000742 cubic centimeters and is behaving nor-

mally enough so that one can say that its coefficient of cubical expansion from that temperature on is 0.000372. If it were not for this peculiarity of water, there would probably be no life on this planet. Life is supposed to have originated in the sea. But if ice did not float on water, and if water at the freezing temperature were not lighter than water slightly above the freezing temperature, then any body of water that ever freezes at all would freeze from the bottom up, that is, would freeze solid. And since water is a poor conductor of heat, the greater part of this ice would remain frozen the year around, thus providing no opportunity for

A glass vessel has a volume of 100 cubic centimeters at 0C.; find the increase in volume when the temperature is raised to 60C. How much mercury will spill out
at

the development of life. 20-6. Numerical Illustration of Volume Expansion.

68C.

We
fe

if the glass vessel is just full of mercury at shall use the formula in section 20-5. is 100 cubic centimeters, is 60 centigrade degrees, and is three times the coefficient of

0C?

linear expansion of glass. (3) (0.0000088) (0.0000264) crease in volume of the glass vessel v is therefore
v

K.

The

in-

(100) (60) (0.0000264)

or 0.1584 cubic centimeter.

vessel

In other words, the space inside of the glass

of the of

expands in exactly the same way as a solid piece of glass volume. We can find the expansion of 100 cubic centimeters in a similar way. The equation will be
v

same mercury

=
is

(100) (60) (0.000182)

or

t;

1.092 cubic centimeters.

or 0.934 cubic centimeter,

The difference between 1.092 and 0.158, the quantity of mercury that will overflow.

20-7)

EXPANSION

181

The

than those of solids

fact that the coefficients of cubical expansion of liquids are greater is the underlying principle of the ordinary thermometer.

20-7. Volume Expansion of Gases. A small change in pressure has little effect on the volume of either a solid or liquid, but in the case of a gas, pressure is important. It is therefore necessary to
take both temperature and pressure into account in dealing with the volume expansion of gases. Furthermore, even if the pressure were held constant, the value of the coefficient of cubical expansion is
different for every initial temperature.

At constant temperatures, of the gas, is a convolume the by stant. (Boyle's law, see section 5-1.) The word pressure as used in this section is not simply the "gage pressure" as registered by a steam
the pressure on a gas, multiplied
pressure gage or automobile tire gage; it is 14.7 pounds per square " inch more than the "gage pressure. When a tire gage or a steam

gage registers zero pounds per square inch, there is not a complete lack of pressure (perfect vacuum), but simply the same pressure
inside as outside (atmospheric pressure,

pounds per square inch). It will now be apparent why "gage pressure" must be increased by 14.7 pounds per square inch to get the total pressure. If the temperature changes as well as the pressure, we can express
the situation mathematically by saying that PV/T is constant, where P, V, and T are respectively the total pressure, the volume, and the absolute temperature. For the purpose of solving problems, it is convenient to introduce three more quantities: the new total pressure P' the new volume V', and the new absolute temperature jf', of the same mass of gas, so that the equation becomes
y

which

is

14.7

PV _ ~ P'V
T

20-8. Numerical Illustration of the

Gas Law.

Let us consider an auto-

1,349 cubic inches when inflated to a gage pressure of 30.3 pounds per square inch at minus 9C. Assume that the volume of the tire increases to 1,350 cubic inches when the tempera-

mobile

tire,

the volume of which

is

ture rises to

24C. What

is

the gage pressure under the

new

conditions?

Therefore P = 45.0 pounds per square inch, and P' is the unknown. The temperatures, as stated, are on the ordinary centigrade scale and must be changed to the absolute scale before they will fit into the - 9 + 273 = 264, and = 24 + 273 = 297. The comequation. T = plete equation then becomes
in the formula.

1,350. The gage pressure, 30.3 pounds per square inch, must be increased by 14.7 pounds per square inch to give the total pressure required

V =
f

It will be necessary to use the equation of section 20-7.

V =

1,349,

(45.0) (1,349)

__

(PQ

(1,350)

264

297

182
Solving,

EXPANSION

we

find that P'

is

which

corresponds to a gage pressure of 35.9

50.6 pounds per square inch total pressure, pounds per square inch, the

required answer.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 20
Technical Terms Defined
Coefficient of Linear Expansion. A quantity characteristic of a particular substance in a partiuilar condition found by dividing the increase in length of the specimen by its original length and the change in tem-

penituie which caused the elongation. The quotient of the increase in volume Coefficient of Cubical Expansion. of a parlii ular specimen by its original volume, and by the corresponding change in temperature. In the case of solid materials, the coefficient of cubical expansion is three times the coefficient of linear expansion.

Gas Law
The product
absolute temperature
of the total pressure of a gas by its volume divided is a constant for a given mass of gas.

by

its

PROBLEMS
20-1. A distance of 1,000 feet (correct value) is measured with a steel tape correct at 15C. on a day when the temperature is 25C. What is the reading of the tape? 20-2. A distance is measured with a steel tape which is correct at 15C. when the temperature is 25C and the uncorrected value is found to be 2,000 feet. What is the corrected value?
,

20-3. Imagine two concentric circles drawn upon a sheet of copper and the material inside the smaller and outside the larger cut away. If the piece of copper is now heated 50 centigrade degrees, will the inside circle grow larger or smaller^ If the two diameters are ten inches and twelve inches at the lower temperature, find the diameters at the higher temperature.

corresponding to
expansion.

20-4. In section 20-3, what would be the two centigrade temperatures 5F. and 95 F.? Find the expansion of the thirty-foot steel rail between these temperatures, using the centigrade coefficient of
20-5. Referring to the data in section 20-5, describe numerically just will happen to exactlv one cubic inih of water as the temperature rises from zero degrees centigrade.

what

50 centigrade degrees,

a steel rail shorten when the temperature drops the original length is 30 feet? If Young's modulus 2 for steel is 28,000,000 lb./in. and the rail has a cross-sectional area of force find the 12 square inches, necessary to restore the steel rail to its original length. 20-7. A steel ball one centimeter in diameter is too large to go through a hole in an aluminum plate at 0C., but will just go through when both are heated to 80C. Find the diameter of the hole at 0C.
20-6.
\vill
if

How much

EXPANSION
20-8.

183

cube of iron is 10 centimeters on an edge at 0C. Find the one edge when the temperature rises to 100C. Find change the change in volume. Substitute in the formula in section 20-5, and compute the coefficient of cubical expansion. 20-9. The equation in section 20-1 may be supplied with units as follows: e feet = (/ feet) (/2 h degrees centigrade) (*/C.) For example, k might be numerically 0.0000236 per degree centigrade, which is atao sometimes read 0.0000236 reciprocal degrees centigrade. It will be noticed that the product of the three units on the right-hand side of the equation is "feet," the unit on the left-hand side; that is (feet) (C./C.) = feet. In a similar way, determine the unit belonging to K in section 20-5. 20C. contains a cavity just one cubic centi20-10. A block of ice at meter in volume. At what temperature will the volume of the cavity be three- tenths of a per cent larger? What will the volume of the cavity beat 6C?
in length of

20-11. If a certain mass of air occupies just one liter at 0C. and at an absolute pressure of one atmosphere, find the volume at one atmosphere and 100C.; at 200C. Answers: 1.366 liters; 1.733 liters. 20-12. Using the data of the previous problem, as well as the answers, find the coefficient of cubical expansion of air when the initial temperature Does the result of this is 0C.; when the initial temperature is HK)C.

problem check the statement

in section 20-7?

20-13. In the illustrative problem in section 20-8, recompute the gage pressure, assuming that the volume of the tire remains constant.

CHAPTER

21

Calorimetry

21-1.

Measurement

of Heat.

age energy of translatory

Temperature represents the avermotion of a single molecule, whereas heat

represents the combined potential, translatory kinetic, and rotatory kinetic energies of all the molecules in the object under consideration.

The quantity

of heat in a

body corresponding

to the total

energy of all its molecules may be considered equal to the product of three factors: one equal to the total energy of one molecule; a second
equal to the number of molecules in one unit of mass (for example, the number of molecules per unit mass) and the third factor equal to the number of units of mass in the body. The absolute tempera;

ture
cule,

is

and roughly proportional

proportional to the translatory kinetic energy of one moleto the total energy of one molecule.

physical quantity known as the heat capacity per unit mass is the number of heat units necessary to raise the temperature of unit

mass one degree, and

is

roughly proportional to the number of mole-

cules in a unit of mass. This statement of proportionality is known as Dnlong and Pelifs law. The ratio of the heat capacity per unit
of a given substance to the heat capacity per unit mass of water is called the specific heat of that substance, and by choosing

mass

the unit of heat in such a way that the heat capacity per unit mass of water shall be unity (1.000), w e can make specific heat numerically equal to heat capacities per unit mass. This reminds us of the fact
r

meter-gram system (section

is

that specific gravity and density are numerically alike in the centi5-2). The British thermal unit (B.t.u.)

the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one 184

21-2]

CALORIMETRY

185

of water one degree Fahrenheit, and the large Calorie (or in this book, simply Calorie with a capital C) is the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one de-

pound

gree centigrade.

Since in this book

it is

understood that we work

only

to slide-rule accuracy,

which

is

sufficient for engineering pur-

poses, it is not necessary to specify which degree the water has been raised through, although it does make a slight difference. The small caloric, written with a small c, is equal to 1/1,000 of a Calorie.

and 858 Calories equal a kilowatt-hour. This

so

3,97 B.t.u. equal 1 Calorie, 3,410 B.t.u. equal one kilowatt-hour, is the Calorie we hear

of a body, then, the increase the product of the increase of temperature, the heat capacity per unit mass (which is numerically equal to the specific heat), and the mass. If we represent the increase of heat by //, the
of heat
is

much about in dietetics. When we raise the temperature

heat capacity per unit mass by c, and the mass by m, the relation may be represented by the following equation
//

(/ 2

/i) (r)

()

21-2. Definition of Specific Heat. It is possible to define specific heat without the use of the term heat capacity just as it was possible to define specific gravity without the use of the term density, but such a definition is somewhat clumsy. The specific heat of a substance is the ratio of the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a given mass of the substance

a certain number of degrees to the quantity of heat necessary to raise the same mass of water the same number of degrees. From this definition it is clear why the specific heat of a substance has no units, and why it has the same value regardless of whether centigrade degrees or Fahrenheit degrees are used and whether pounds or kilograms are employed. Since the heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of the body one degree, the introduction of the term heat capacity into the definition of specific heat tends to brevity.
Numerical Illustrations of Calorimetry. The measurement of known as color imetry; two problems will be worked as illustrations. (1) How many pounds of boiling hot water (212F.) must be added to 610 pounds of water at 40F. in order to get a final mixture at 90F.? The procedure will be to equate the heat gained by the cold water to the
21-3.
is

heat

heat lost by the hot water, thus utilizing the law of conservation of energy. For this purpose we use the equation in section 21-1. Since the specific heat of water is unity, the heat gained by the cold water is (90 40) (1) (610) or 30,500 B.t.u. Similarly the heat lost by the hot water is equal to

186
90) (1) (m) where necessary. Equating these

CALORIMETRY

[21-4
of

(212

represents the

number
of heat

two quantities

pounds of hot water and solving for m, we

obtain 250 pounds for our answer. The student will notice that while the mechanical engineer uses the pound as a unit of weight, the heat engineer uses it as a unit of mass. (See section 11-9.) (2) Let us suppose that an experiment is conducted for the purpose of determining the specific heat of lead (which is 0.03). Let us assume that 0.05 kilogram of lead shot have been heated to a temperature of 100C. and then dropped into 0.120 kilogram of water at 19C. Let us assume further that the resulting mixture has a temperature of 20C. The equation expressing the fact that the heat lost by the lead is gained by the water is
(100
Solving,

20) (r) (0.050)

(20

19) (1) (0.120).

we

find that c

0.120/4 or 0.030.

21-4. States of Matter.

Matter

is

usually said to exist in

three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous. In the solid state, the word molecule loses its significance; the solid is practically one large mole-

which the atoms are very closely packed and do not on the average leave their positions, but merely oscillate about a mean
cule in

depending upon the temperature. In a liquid the word molecule regains its usual meaning, although the particles arc nearly as close to each other as in a solid, but, due to a higher rate of motion, they now zigzag about among their neighbors. This results in the fact that a liquid has no fixed shape of its own, but merely a fixed volume (at a given temperature). In the case of a gas, the molecules actually move fast enough to result in a complete separation from the neighboring molecules. Thus, a gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume, but expands to fill the space available.' When one compresses a gas, he is really compressing the spaces between the molecules. Molecules attract each other; this is why the parts of a solid stick together so securely
position, the rate of oscillation

and why

liquids tend to cling together in drops. In gases, however, the molecules are sufficiently far apart to exert very little attrac-

tion on each other.

Separate Molecules. The attractive forces between molecules are labeled cohesion when the molecules involved are alike and adhesion when the molecules are different. Whenever two molecules have been separated, work has been done and we say that energy has been expended. We recog21-5.

Energy

is

Required

to

nize the fact that the potential energy of the molecules has been increased. If the space under the plunger of an air pump is increased,

the motion of the molecules drives them farther apart and utilizes the extra volume. But the energy necessary to do this is at the ex-

21-6]

CALORIMETRY

187

pense of the kinetic energy of the molecules, and as a result, their average speed has been decreased. Since the temperature is proportional to the average energy of translatory motion of the molecules, the temperature is lowered by a sudden expansion. On the other hand, a sudden compression of air, as in a bicycle pump, will
very striking case of increase of molecular potential energy is when a liquid changes into a vapor. We call this process evaporation and observe that the remaining liquid tends to be cooled by the process. If, however, we supply the necessary energy in the form of heat from some external source, it is observed that a definite quantity of heat is necessary to vaporize a definite mass
raise its temperature.

of the substance.

21-6.

The Triple Point Diagram. The

temperature, and changes

relation

between

pressure, so-called triple point diagram (figure 21-1).

of state are best

shown by the

Suppose we start with

ATMOSPHERIC

O'C.

100'C

INCREASING

TEMP.

Figure 21-1.

a sample of ice (solid) at atmospheric pressure, and at a temperature below 0C., point A on the diagram. Keeping the pressure constant and raising the temperature, we presently reach point B. The

temperature remains at this value (0C.) until all the ice is melted. further rise in temperature brings us to point C, and before the temperature can rise any further, all the water must vaporize.

Point

therefore represents water vapor.

It

is

possible, however,

to start with a low pressure and temperature (point E) with the vapor phase. Keeping the temperature constant and increasing

the pressure, the vapor will condense to ice at point F. So far the pressure has been less than one atmosphere. When the pressure

188

CALORIMETRY

[21-6

reaches one atmosphere, the ice will melt, and at higher pressures (at 0.C.) will remain liquid water. An inspection of the diagram will reveal the fact that at pressures less than one atmosphere, the

melting point of ice is above 0C., and the boiling point below 100C. Ice at low pressures will "sublime," that is, change directly from solid to vapor with rise of temperature.

The boundary
ward

line

between the

solid

to the left in the case of water

and liquid region slopes upand a few other substances.

in the large majority of cases this line slopes upward to the right. There is a direct connection between the slope of this line and

But

the fact that water expands when it freezes. When a substance expands as it freezes, an
increase of pressure tends to put it into the state in which it has the smaller volume,

namely, the liquid state. On the other hand, a substance like paraffin or aluminum, which contracts as it freezes, in tending to go into the state with the smaller volume, solidifies. This means that the freezing point of water decreases with increase of pressure, while the freezing points of paraffin and aluminum increase with increase of pressure. Skating is much easier when the temperature is close to 0C. than when it is very cold, because in the former instance the skater is actually skating upon water. This is because the pressure is so high directly under the skate that the ice finds itself above its freezing point

and liquefies, although has passed on.

it

immediately freezes again after the skater

Imagine a vessel containing ice, liquid water, and water vapor sealed off and maintained for an indefinite time at the temperature and pressure represented by //. The proportions of the three phases will not change. This does not mean that if we started with a perfect cube of ice floating upon some water with water vapor in contact with each, that we could come back after a week and find our ice still in the form of a perfect cube. There would still be the same volume of ice present but its shape would be different. This is because in the equilibrium under consideration, six things are going on at once, but at balancing rates: ice is both melting and subliming, water is both evaporating and freezing, and water vapor is condensing to both the solid and liquid forms, all simultaneously. The curve HCK comes to a definite end at the so-called critical
// is called the triple point.

The point

21-7]

CALORIMETRY
;

189

point. The critical temperature in the case of water is 365C. above this temperature water exists only in the gaseous state. Oxygen,

nitrogen, and hydrogen, as well as several minor constituents of air, are gases which at ordinary temperatures are well above their critical temperatures.

Before the relations depicted in the triple point

diagram were understood by scientists, time and money were wasted in the attempt to liquefy these gases by putting them under pressure. It is now known that their temperatures must be lowered at least to the critical point before there is any hope of liquefying them. 21-7. Artificial Refrigeration. Artificial refrigeration depends on the principle that evaporation is a cooling process. A
working substance is compressed or condensed, and the resulting heat removed. Then the reverse process is allowed to transpire in the place where the refrigeration is desired, with the result that heat is withdrawn from the objects in the refrigerator in order to
supply the necessary energy for expansion, or evaporation.
21-8. Heat of Vaporization. When heat is added to a liquid at its boiling point, the temperature does not rise while the boiling is taking place, but the newly formed vapor has the same temperature
as the liquid, and during this process, a definite amount of heat is necessary to vaporize each unit of mass. For example, it requires

540 Calories to vaporize each kilogram of water. Letting

stand

for the heat of vaporization, we can say that when grams of of amount of the to heat grams liquid change vapor, necessary to produce the change //, is given by the equation

//

(L) (m)

different value for L, the same equation can be used when the units arc B.t.u. and pounds. The equation in section 21-1 holds when there is a change of temperature, but no change of state, and the

With a

equation just stated above holds

when

there

is

a change of state

and no change

of temperature.

21-9. Illustrative Problem.

By

the use of these two equations,

we

which we have both a change of state and a change of temperature. How much heat is necessary to change 10 kilograms of water at 90C. into steam at 115C.? The specific heat of steam is 0.48, considerably different from that of liquid water. The problem must be separated into three parts: first find the heat necessary to raise the liquid water to the boiling point, next find the heat necessary to vaporize the water at 100C., and finally find the heat necessary to raise the steam from 100C. to 115C. This means applying the
can solve a problem
in

equation in section 21-1 twice, and the equation of section 21-8 once.

190
Putting in
(540) (10) the answer
all

CALORIMETRY
the numerical values,

[21-10

(115 off, as

is

(100 90) (1) (10) equals 5,570 Calories, rounding 100) (0.48) (10), or our custom, to the first three significant figures.

we have

H=

21-10. Heat of Fusion. To a less degree, a similar situation holds during the transition from the solid to the liquid state. It is necessary to add a given quantity of heat to change a given mass
of solid to the liquid form, and the mixture remains at the temperature of melting as long as there is both solid and liquid present,

being assumed. It requires 80 Calories to melt one kilogram of ice; this quantity is called the heat of fusion. Eighty Calories per kilogram is equivalent to 144 B.t.u. per pound. The
efficient stirring

process

reversible; by extracting 80 Calories of heat from each kilogram of water at 0C., it is possible to freeze water. The equation in section 21-8 may be used for fusion if L be interpreted as
is

heat of fusion instead of heat of vaporization. 21-11. Illustrative Problem. Imagine a mixture of 20 kilograms of ice at 0C. and 100 kilograms of water also at 0C. contained in a copper
tank weighing 25 kilograms. The specific heat of copper is 0.093. How much steam at 11()C. must be passed into the mixture to bring the temperature up to 2()C.? The steam will lose a certain quantity of heat, and the ice, water, and copper vessel will gain this same heat, therefore the procedure will be to put on one side of an equation the heat lost and on the other side of the equation the heat gained. The equation thus becomes
(110

is

+ (540) (m) + (100 - 20) (1) (m) - 0) (1) (100 + 20) + (20 - 0) (0.093) (25) (80) (20) + (20 therefore equal to (1,600 + 2,400 + 46.5)/(4.8 + 540 + 80), or 6.48
100) (0.48) (m)

kilograms of steam.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Heat
Capacity.

21

Technical Terms Defined

The heat capacity

of

a body

is

the

number

of heat units

necessary to raise its temperature one unit. Units are Calorie per degree centigrade or B.t.u. per degree Fahrenheit.

The ratio of the heat capacity of the given body to the heat capacity of the same mass of water. It is therefore a pure number. Numerically it has the same magnitude as the heat capacity per unit mass, but the latter has units (either B.t.u. per pound per degree Fahrenheit, or Calories per kilogram per degree centigrade). The point on a temperature-pressure diagram at which Triple Point.
Specific Heat.
solid, liquid, and vapor are in equilibrium. Sublimation. A direct change from the solid state to the vapor state without passing through the liquid state.

CALORIMETRY
Critical

191

Temperature. The highest temperature at which it is possible to liquefy a vapor by increasing the pressure sufficiently. Critical Pressure. The pressure necessary to liquefy a vapor at the
critical

temperature.

Heat Of Vaporization.
called boiling.

The number of heat units necessary to vaporize unit mass of liquid at normal atmospheric pressure. The process is
of Fusion.

Heat

The number

of heat units necessary to melt unit

mass

of solid at

normal atmospheric pressure.

PROBLEMS
21-L Iodine passes
directly

from the

under ordinary conditions.

What

solid to the vapor state (sublimes) could be done to obtain iodine in the

liquid state? 21-2. If figure 21-1 were to be replaced by the incorrect figure 21-2, in what state would the substance be inside the small would you proceed to triangle PQRt prove that these three lines would have to meet at one point II as in figure 21-1?

How

21-3. Imagine compressing a quantity

of gaseous water at 380 C. until all the molecules are in contact with each other. What

property of a solid will the mass still fail to have? What property of a liquid will it fail to have? 21-4. Why is the boiling point of water only 86C. on Pikes Peak, Colorado? At which place will an egg cook sooner by boiling, Pikes Peak or Boston?

SOLID

VAPOR

Figure 21-2.

- 10C.

21-5.

How much
to water at

heat

is
if

90C.,

necessary to change 2 kilograms of ice at the specific heat of ice is 0.5?

What is the resulting temperature when 50 grams of lead shot heat = 0.03) at 90C. are poured into 1 kilogram of water contained in a brass calorimeter weighing 200 grams, both the water and container being originally at 20C.? The specific heat of brass is 0.09.
21-6.
(specific

21-7. How many pounds of steam at 212F. let into a swimming pool containing 10,000 cubic feet of water will be necessary to raise its temperature from 62 to 70F.? One cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds.

pounds of coal, the heat value of which is 14,400 be needed in a boiler the efficiency of which is 100 pound, per cent, to convert 100 pounds of water at 62F. into steam at 212F.? (No boiler can have an efficiency of 100 per cent.) How many pounds of
21-8.
B.t.u. per
will

How many

coal will

it

take

if

the efficiency

is

50 per cent?

CHAPTER

22

22-1. Elementary Facts of Magnetism. Every boy knows that a horseshoe magnet will attract a steel needle. Moreover, if the needle is first stroked several times in the same direction by one of the ends of the magnet, it will be found possible to hold the horseshoe magnet at a suitable distance from the now magnetized needle such that repulsion will take place if the relative positions are correct. If the large magnet is brought too near the needle, the magnet is likely to reverse the newly acquired magnetization of the needle and produce attraction. Or, if the ends of the needle are just reversed in position, attraction will result. If a knitting needle is

magnetized

in the
it

manner described above and suspended by a

north-and-south position, thus

single thread,

will set itself in a

constituting a magnetic compass. This provides us with a basis for naming the two ends. The end that points north will henceforth be called the north pole, and the other end will be called the south
pole.

If

near each other,

two knitting needles are magnetized and similarly suspended it will be found that (1) their north poles repel each

other, (2) their south poles repel each other, but (3) a north pole attracts a south pole. If a magnetized knitting needle is thrown violently on the floor several times in random directions, it will lose

magnetism; or if it is heated red hot, it will cease to be a magnet. But if an unmagnctized knitting needle is held in a

most

of its

north-and-south direction and

hammered a number
192

of times,

it will

22-2]

MAGNETISM

193

acquire a slight amount of magnetism. Finally, if a magnetized knitting needle is cut in two, both halves will now be found to be

complete magnets; this process may be continued indefinitely. 22-2. The Underlying Theory. Everything that has been said in the previous paragraph may be explained if we think of steel (or iron) as made up of a very large number of little magnets, each

change its orientation. An unmagan merely aggregation of these little magnets, all in complete disarray, so that the north poles of all the little magnets point in thoroughly haphazard directions; therefore the needle as a whole exhibits no evidences of magnetism. Stroking the needle systematically from one end to the other (but not in both directions) with the north pole of a strong magnet, swings most of the south poles of ihe little magnets into similar positions, and when they are thus lined up, the needle as a whole behaves like another
of

which

is

more or
is

less free to

netized needle

magnet. The elementary magnets swing more freely in soft iron than they do in hardened steel, and for this reason it is easier to magnetize soft iron than it is steel, but likewise it is easier for soft iron to lose its magnetism; in fact, soft iron loses its magnetism almost immediately after the magnetizing process stops. Tn the case of steel, where the elementary magnets swing with more difficulty, another effect has a chance to show itself; once the little magnets are lined up, each one tends to be held in position by its neighbors, since north poles attract south poles. Since the earth is itself a huge magnet, hammering a knitting needle held in a northand-south position (especially with the north end held lower than the south end) tends to make the elementary magnets behave like little compasses and line up in parallel directions. This is why the hulls of steel ships are found to be magnetized after the riveting
process is completed. Heating the magnet to a red heat agitates the individual molecules violently in a haphazard way, breaks up
the formation of the elementary magnets, and thus produces demagnetization. Similarly, throwing the needle on the floor tends to

demagnetize it by disarranging the little magnets. Furthermore we can now see why a magnet cut in two yields two complete magnets, because, if the cutting were continued until we had the individual elementary magnets all separated, each would still have its own north and south poles.
22-3. The Earth as a Magnet. We have seen that the north pole of a magnet is so called because it points nearly north when the magnet is mounted so that it is free to swing, that is,

194

MAGNETISM

[22-4

as a compass. But we have also seen that north other and that north and south poles attract. each poles repel of the geographically northern end of the Therefore the polarity earth must be magnetically south! In the United States, the north pole of a perfectly balanced magnet, in this case called a dipping needle, tends to pull down as well as to point north. This action is called dipping, and is due to the fact that we are nearer to the north pole than we are to the south pole. If we were to stand directly over

when functioning

a magnetic pole of the earth, the magnet would orient itself vertically. The earth is a magnet because of its rotation relative to an
excess of positive ions in the upper atmosphere. The magnetic poles do not exactly coincide with the geographic poles because of the irregular distribution of iron in the earth together with the fact

constantly being bombarded with electrons from the solar sunspots in an irregular fashion. We shall see later that
that the earth
is

motion of
ions)

electric charges

(which includes electrons and positive

It
if

produces magnetic 22-4. Magnetic Lines of Force.

effects.

becomes rather

easier

We visualize these lines as coming out north end of a magnet and going in at the south end. Their direction in space at any point is that which a small compass needle would take at the point in question. Thus the north end of a small compass needle would point toward the south end of a large magnet.
of the
If

to discuss both electricity and of "magnetic lines of force."

magnetism

we introduce the

idea

substance

a sheet of paper, or a glass plate, or some other thin nonmagnetic is placed upon a strong magnet, and iron filings sprinkled
it,

upon

each

filing will constitute

a tiny compass and will set

itself

parallel to a line of force at that point. Thus we can determine line of force is experimentally the direction of the lines of force.

considered to be a closed curve, passing through the magnet as well as through the region outside of the magnet. By definition, the lines pass from the south end of the magnet to the north end inside

magnet, and from the north end to the south end outside of the magnet. (See figure 22-1). In terms of lines of force, a north pole is a region where lines of force emerge from a piece of iron, and a south pole is a region where lines of force enter a piece of iron. Lines of force prefer to pass through iron rather than air. Lines of force tend to shorten, and two lines of force adjacent to each other repel each other. The works of a watch may be considerably shielded from magnetic effects by enclosing them in an iron case. Then any
of the
lines of force in the region of the

watch

will pass

through the iron

22-5]

MAGNETISM

195

of the case rather than through the air within the case, and very little magnetic effect will be experienced inside the case. mag-

netic field is

a region containing
force.

magnetic lines of

22-5. Quantitative AsTwo pects of Magnetism. magnetic poles repel or attract

each other more strongly when near each other than when far If we double the disapart. tance between them, the effect becomes only one fourth as
great,

and

if

we

treble the dis-

tance, the effect drops to one ninth. If we let the strength of

Figure 22-1.

the two poles be represented by pi and p2 respectively, the distance between

force of repulsion

them by

d,

and the

by F, the

relation*
,

is

F _pip2 km

~l^

We shall assume in this equation that d is in meters, F in newtons, and pi and p? in the corresponding unit of the so-called practical system of electrical units which ties in with the meter-kilogramsecond system. This unit of pole has no name, so we shall refer to
2 as a "pole unit." The value of k m is 10,000,000 newton-meters shall find it more convenient to express per pole unit squared.

it

We

number which is called the permeability of the medium. Its value for a vacuum is exactly unity. For air it is slightly more, 1.00026, and for a few materials considerably more, but in most cases we may safely ignore it as a factor.
this

number

7 as 10

ju

represents a pure

Since a given magnet pole

is

always attached to another of equal

strength and opposite polarity, the poles which are not involved in the equation just mentioned must be considered to be a great distance away. That is, the magnets concerned are very long. It is often convenient to compute the force which would exist at a given point on a north pole of unit strength. In order to visualize this, we must imagine the unit magnet again to be very long so that the south pole which inevitably accompanies a north
*

and

is

This relation was discovered by the French physicist, Charles A. Coulomb, 1736-1806, often labeled with his name.

196
pole
is

MAGNETISM
far

[22-6
effect

enough away to have a negligible

on the
is

situation.

The

force per unit north pole at the given point

called the field

intensity at that point, and is generally represented by the letter //. Knowing the value of the field intensity, it is merely necessary to multiply it by the strength of an actual pole placed at the given

point to find the force on the actual pole. That

is

F = pH
where F is in ncwtons, p in "pole units," and // in a unit which is one thousandth of a certain unit in the c.g.s. system called the oersted] we may therefore speak of // as measured in millioersteds.

H millioersteds is considered to consist of lines of force just far enough apart so that H of them would pass through
A
uniform
field

of

a square meter placed at right angles to the field. A convenient method of measuring the field intensity at a given point is to set up a small compass needle there, displace it slightly from its equilibrium position, and let it oscillate. Then perform the same experiment with the same compass needle at a place where the magnetic field is known. If the two fields are represented respectively
will

by Hi and 7/2 and the two frequencies of respectively by/i and/2, the relation between the four
be

oscillation

quantities

The student
is

will

be able to convince himself that this equation

correct

by

recalling the relations for a

compound pendulum

in a

gravitational field (section 15-11) where the period T was shown to be inversely proportional to the square root of the gravitational
field,

Therefore the frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the gravitational field, or in our present problem, to the square root of the magnetic field.*
.

22-6. Illustrative Problems.

(1)

Given two long magnets one with

(Micro means one poles of 5 muTounits and the other of 6 microunits. millionth in scientific work). If the north pole of the first magnet is placed

two south poles as far apart as possible), by one north pole on the other.
Solution: Let

within 0.1 meter of the north pole of the second magnet in air (with the find the repulsive force exerted

=
*

0.1.

0.000005, p* = 0.000006, m these values into the equation F Substituting

pi
jfe

= 10,000,000, and = k m pip2/d2 gives

field //,
is

The

period the

2T,

of the oscillating

magnet

in a horizontal

magnetic
its

given by

T=
where
7 is

TT

Vl/Hlp
/ its

moment

of inertia of the

magnet,

length,

and p

pole strength.

22-6]
-,

MAGNETISM
r

197
, = nn O.UJ

(10,000,000) (0.000005) (0.000006)

.

newton

A newton is a little less than a quarter of a pound (4.45 newtons =

so
it is

pound)

not very large, although the magnets of this problem represent fairly strong "permanent magnets." Electromagnets can be made much stronger.
is

seen that this force

In handling large or small numbers the so-called index notation is convenient. Thus in this problem it would have been easier to state the
equation

p=
(2) (a)

(10*)

OOy
field at

3(1(H)

0.03 newton

Find the

the vertex of an equilateral triangle 0.2 meter on

a side

if

at the other two vertices

we

have respectively the north and south

poles of a cobalt steel magnet of pole strength 4 micropole units, (b) How

meter would we a uniform magnetic field of this strength? (c) What force will act on a magnet pole of 0.000001 pole unit if

many
have

lines per square

in

placed at the point p? Solution: (a) In order to find the field at the point p of figure 22-2, we first imagine a unit north pole at the Figure 22-2. point p, then compute the force F\ due to the repulsion arising from N, then find the force 1*2 due to the attraction of S, and lastly get the resultant //.
Fl

If00 o mfflioemted.

Since exactly the same numerical values enter into the computation of And since the parallelogram contains 7*2, this is also 1,000 millioersteds.

two equal forces 120 degrees apart, the resultant oersteds, parallel to the magnet.

// is also

1,000 milli-

(b) The number of lines per square meter will be numerically equal to the field strength in millioersteds. Therefore in this case the field corresponds to 1,000 lines per square meter.
(c)
it will

If a pole of 10~ 6 units is placed at the point p, the force acting on be given by the relation /" = pll. In this case it will be

F =
is

(10-6) (iQ3)
is

10-3

newton
this force

This is a small force. A newton about 1/278 of an ounce.

(3)

about 3.6 ounces, therefore

to

certain

compass needle takes 50 seconds

magnetic
field,

make one complete

component
of

oscillation in the earth's

the horizontal

which

198
is

MAGNETISM

[22-7

166 millioersteds. When placed near the poles of a certain electromagnet it oscillates five times per second. Find the field at this point. Solution: Let/i be 0.02 vibration per second, the reciprocal of a period of 50 seconds per vibration. Let /2 = 5 vib./sec. Let HI be 166 millioersteds. 7/2 may be found by substituting in the equation B.2/ Hi =
2

/2 //l

~~

166
Solving,

(0.02)2

we obtain

7/2

ten times this figure

may

Fields more than 10,380,000 millioersteds. be obtained by well designed electromagnets.

become when near a brought strong temporarily magnetized very easily magnet, but it will immediately lose its magnetism, that is, become demagnetized, when it is taken away again. Soft iron is therefore used for the cores of electromagnets. On the other hand, it is more difficult to magnetize a piece of hardened steel, but once magnetized it tends to retain its magnetism and becomes a permanent
22-7. Demagnetization.
piece of soft iron will

By shaping the permanent magnet like a horseshoe, its two poles are brought near to each other, thus resulting in a more concentrated magnetic field. It is sometimes desired to demagnetize a piece of magnetized steel. Heating is a possible method, for heat represents a random molecular motion and therefore tends
magnet.
to disarrange the little magnets that constitute a permanent magnet. Raising to a red heat will spoil any permanent magnet. The hairspring of a watch cannot be demagnetized by this method, however.

The magnetization

in this case

the watch in the magnetic field

can be removed by placing produced by an alternating electric

it.

current and then slowly removing

All electric currents are sur-

rounded by magnetic fields, and an alternating current is surrounded by an alternating field that reverses its direction many times a

Thus the elementary magnets in the hairspring attempt to wheel about every time that the field reverses its direction. As the watch is gradually removed from the field, a decreasing number of
second.

magnets within the hairspring is able to obey the alteruntil finally the little magnets are completely disnating The same effect may be produced by means of a permaarranged. nent magnetic field and a rotating watch. In this case the watch is merely suspended from a twisted string in a strong horizontal magnetic field and gradually removed as the string untwists.
the
little

field

22-8. Additional Evidence of the Identification of

Magnetism with Arrangement

of

Elementary Magnets.

Anyone who has ever been near a large electric transformer operating

22-9]

MAGNETISM

199

on a 60-cycle alternating current has noticed the so-called "60-cycle hum." In fact, if one listens carefully to a small transformer or even an electromagnet with alternating current flowing through it, the same 60-cycle tone will be heard. This is due to the fact that the

magnets in the iron of the transformer are obliged to turn over with great regularity every time the current reverses direction. A regular vibration in the region which the ear can detect constilittle

The 60-cycle tone is a fairly low pitch; on the other hand, a 500-cycle transformer emits a rather high-pitched
tutes a musical tone.
squeal.

22-9.

Magnetism Not Confined

to Iron.

Every substance

is affected to some slight degree by a magnetic field, but it requires rather strong magnetic fields to demonstrate it except in the case of iron. For this reason it is usual to consider iron the only magnetic

actually a universal property of matter. Some substances make a feeble attempt to get out of a strong magnetic field; they are called diamagnetic. Other substances which make a feeble effort to get into a strong magnetic

material, in spite of the fact that

magnetism

is

field

are called paramagnetic.

is

Iron,

which

is

in a class

almost by

itself,

called ferromagnetic.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 22
Technical Terms Defined

Magnetism. A property possessed feebly by all substances but to a pronounced extent by iron; it involves a rearrangement of the constituent particles of the material and results in attractions and repulsions between the magnetized objects. A magnetized piece of iron or steel is
called a magnet.

Magnetic Pole. One

forces are greatest.

of the

ends

of a

magnet or other portion where the

shape of a bar or needle mounted so that it is The end that points north is labeled the north pole and the other end the south pole. Unit Pole. Two poles, just alike, in vacuo, which will repel each other with a force of 10,000,000 newtons when separated by a distance of one meter, are said to be unit poles in the practical system of electrical units.

Compass.

magnet

in the

free to rotate in a horizontal plane.

Magnetic Field Strength. The strength of a magnetic field at a given point is the magnetic force in newtons which will be exerted on a unit
north pole placed at that point. Magnetic Lines of Force. A magnetic
field is described by "lines of force." These are thought of as emerging from north poles and re-entering the magnets at the south poles, forming closed curves. A small compass

200
needle or iron

MAGNETISM
filing will set itself parallel to
is

a line of force.

It is con-

sidered that there

the

same number

of lines per square

meter as the

numerical value of the

field

strength in newtons per unit pole.

Diamagnetic Substances. Substances which tend feebly to remove themselves from a magnetic field. Usually the best they can do is to set
themselves crosswise in a
field.

Paramagnetic Substances. Substances that feebly to a magnetic field.

set

themselves parallel

Laws of Magnetism
Like poles repel each other; unlike poles attract.

A given magnet always possesses the same strengths of north and south polarity.
It is

impossible to separate a north pole from a south pole.

Coulomb's Law.
is

A magnetic pole will exert a force on another pole which proportional to the product of the two pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

22-1.

Why

is it

impossible to have a north pole unaccompanied

by a

south pole?
latter

Assume two bars, one of soft iron and the other of steel, the magnetized; state how you could distinguish the magnetized bar from the other, with no equipment other than the two bars and your two hands.
22-2.
will start a

22-3. Give an opinion as to whether a compass floated on the ocean journey toward the nearer of the earth's magnetic poles.

22-4. Discuss the permanency of a bar magnet made by filling a sodafountain straw with iron filings, and plugging the ends. 22-5. An imitation of Mohammed's coffin, which was said to float in mid-air, is sometimes accomplished by means of two strong bar magnets. Make specifications for a piece of lecture demonstration apparatus which
will illustrate this.

by

side in the

22-6. Specify the best arrangement of same box.

two bar magnets when stored

side

and

22-7. Find the attraction between a north and south pole of strengths 1 2 micropole units respectively when placed 0.05 meter apart in air.

22-8. Two equal poles 0.04 meter apart in air repel each other with a force of 0.00016 newton. Find the pole strength of each. 22-9. Two unlike poles attract each other with a force of 0.004 newat a distance of 0.06 meter. If the south pole has a strength of 0.6 micropole unit, what is the strength of the north pole?

ton

22-10. Two like poles, each with a strength of 10~6 unit, repel each other with a force of 0.004 newton. What is the distance between the
poles?

MAGNETISM
of strength one micropole unit.

201

22-11. Find the field strength at a point distant 0.0$ meter from a pole How are the lines of force spaced at this

point? 22-12. Calculate the strength of the magnetic field at a point 0.08 meter from the north pole of a bar magnet and 0.1 meter from the south pole. The distance between the poles of the magnet is 0.06 meter, and each pole has a strength of 96 X 10~ 8 unit.
22-13. Find how many complete make per minute at a place where

millioersteds, if its period is square meter. 22-14. Two like magnets are placed in line with their north poles 0.1 meter apart and their south poles half a meter apart in air. (1) What is the repulsion between these magnets if each pole is 2 microunits? (2) What is the magnetic field strength midway between the north poles of these

compass needle would the horizontal field strength is 180 6 seconds where the field is 185 lines per
oscillations a

magnets?

CHAPTER

23

Static Electricity

23-1.

How Atoms

Are Put Together.

In order to understand

the basic facts of electricity, it is helpful to get a mental picture of the internal structure of atoms. They are no longer considered to
entities, but we speak quite confidently of three of their constituents (and speculate on the possibility of a fourth). Atoms are constructed out of three kinds of particles

be hard, spherical, uncuttable

called electrons, protons,

and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have

10~ 28 kilogram) while electrons are 31 lighter (1/1,834 as much, or 9.11 X 10~ kilogram). Protons repel one another (except when very close together, when they attract one another). Electrons also repel each other, but protons and electrons attract each other at all distances. Neutrons exert no forces on one another or on other particles except at very close range,

about the same mass (1.671

when

the force

is

one of attraction. 6.24

10 18 electrons constitute

a coulomb of negative electricity, likewise the same tons constitute one coulomb of positive electricity.

number

of pro-

In the structure of the typical atom, the protons and neutrons are concentrated in a comparatively small region called the nucleus at the center of the atom. In most atoms, there are at least as many

neutrons as protons and usually more; the total number of both together
is

When

called the atomic weight. in the normal state, an

atom contains a

series of

concen-

(starting from the inner one) respectively, the K-shell, L-shell, and so on. These shells are not to be
tric shells

which are named

202

23-2]

STATIC ELECTRICITY

203
lo-

thought of as made of anything; they are rather the average

cation of groups of electrons, two in the K-shell, 8 in the L-shell, 18 in the M-shell, and so on, until there are as many electrons present as there are protons in the nucleus. It will be noticed that

and so on, are twice the perfect squares, Since the recent discovery of neptunium and 1, 4, 9, 16, plutonium, there are 94 different kinds of known atoms (with some
2, 8, 18, 32,

the numbers

and

so on.

doubt about two of them) and probably numbers 95 and 96 will be added to the list before long. These make a continuous series all the way from hydrogen with one proton in the nucleus and one electron in the K-shell, up to plutonium with 94 protons and 145
neutrons in the nucleus and 94 electrons distributed
shells.

among

several

23-2. Conductors
varieties of
electrician

and Insulators.
and
insulators,
all

The nearly one hundred

classes, called

atoms

may

be divided into two

by the

conductors

and by the chemist metals

and nonmetals.
sible for the

have one, two, three, or in some cases four, electrons held loosely enough so that it is perfectly posMetallic atoms

nucleus

is

atom temporarily to lose them entirely. Since the positive, and since under normal conditions there are

just enough electrons to balance exactly this positive charge, it will be clear that if one or more electrons are lost from the atom, what is left will have an excess positive charge. The technical term
for this positive aggregation is positive ion. A nonmctallic atom, on the contrary, is so constituted that it has an attraction for more electrons than are necessary to balance the positive charge of the nucleus. An aggregation of this sort, containing an excess of elecIn an insulator, the nonmetallic trons, is called a negative ion. atoms are predominant; no free electrons to speak of are present. But in a group of metallic atoms, there will always be plenty of free electrons roaming about between the atoms. Given a metallic wire, it is possible to force in extra electrons at one end and remove electrons from the other end, while, in between, the electrons drift along from atom to atom. Such a wire is said to conduct electricity.

23-3. Static Electricity. The tendency of a substance to gain or lose electrons varies from substance to substance. Therefore if

any two

dissimilar materials be placed in very close contact, electrons will tend to desert one substance and cling to the other. The

former material thus becomes positively charged and the latter negatively charged. Examples are: leather belts running on steel pulleys, fountain pens in contact with cloth, rubber tires in contact

204

STATIC ELECTRICITY

[23-4

with the road, combs pulled through hair, shoes scuffed on rugs, If one strokes a cat on an exceptionally dry day and then touches the cat's nose, a small spark will jump. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the glass loses electrons and the silk

and so on.

gains them, that

silk negatively.

is,

the glass becomes positively charged and the

It is

customary to

refer to this

phenomenon

as

frictional electricity or static electricity] it is however the contact rather than the friction which produces the effect. If two very
light objects,

such as small balls

made

of pith covered with metallic

foil, and suspended by means of nonconducting threads, are now given, one some of the charge that is on the glass rod, and the other some of the charge on the silk cloth, it will be found that the two pith balls attract each other. If, however, both balls are charged from the same object, say the silk cloth, they will repel each other. Furthermore, if an insulator be given a negative charge by the method just mentioned and then rotated rapidly in a clockwise direction as viewed from above, the upper side will be found to be (during the rotation) a feeble north magnetic pole, and the under side a south pole of equal strength. If on the other hand the insulator is given a positive charge, it will have to be whirled in a counterclockwise direction as seen from above to make the upper side a

north pole. 23-4. Coulomb's Electrostatic Law.

The

electrician's unit

of electric charge is called the coulomb. The number of electrons necessary to constitute a coulomb is very large; a microcoulomb is

one millionth of a coulomb and

go.

The equation
,

charges #1 and </ 2 that each exerts on the other

large as electrostatic charges giving the relationship between the electrical the distance d, between them and the force F,
is still

is

In this case
ke
is

is

10"

in newtons, d in meters, q\ and q% in coulombs, and newton-meters 2 per coulomb 2 If everything takes
.

place in
slightly

a vacuum

e is

more, 1.00059. the charges. Typical values are 16.5 for diamond, 9.9 for heavy flint glass, 5.8 for mica, 2.1 for both paraffin and

medium is air, e is exactly unity. e is known as the dielectric constant for the
If the

medium between

kerosene.

Two pith balls weighing 90 milligrams 23-5. Illustrative Problem. each are suspended in air by nonconducting silk threads, each 0.13 meter long (the weight of which may be neglected) from a single point, and given

23-6]

STATIC ELECTRICITY

205

equal positive charges. As a result the centers of the pith balls stand 0.10 meter apart. See figure 23-1. Find the charge on each, in coulombs and in microcoulombs. Since both pith balls Solution:
are in equilibrium, the tension in one of the threads, the electrostatic repulsion, and the pull of gravity represent three forces on one pith ball which are all in equilibrium. If we resolve the tension into a vertical and a horizontal component (figure 23-2), we discover that the diagram con-

tains 5, 12, 13 triangles.

tical

The

ver-

component balances mg. In

this case

m=

0.000090 kilogram

and g 9.80 newtons/kilogram, making mg = 0.000882 newton.

Since this represents the 12 side
of the 5, 12, 13 triangle, and the force F, which we need, balances

the 5 side,
shall

is

5/12 of 0.000882

newton or 0.000368 newton.

substitute

We
the
Figure 23-1.

then

into

equation of section 23-4 this value

together

with k e

109 newton-meters 2 /coulomb 2

and

1.001.

d = 0.10 meter, This gives

,

0.000368
Solving for

10 9
2

(1.001) (0.10)

0.0000000202 q, we obtain q 10~ 8 coulomb. coulomb, or better 2.02 This can also be expressed as 0.0202

microcoulomb coulomb.

or

2.02

10~2

micro-

23-6. Condensers; Capacitance.

very useful piece of electrical apparatus consists of two sheets of conducting material, such as tin foil, separated by a nonconductor, such as glass or mica or paraffined paper.

This

is

called a condenser.

If

one of

'

-ro$

Figure 23-2.

is given an electric and other the conductor is concharge nected to the ground, say by joining it by means of a copper wire to a

the conductors

206

STATIC ELECTRICITY

[23-7

water pipe, the grounded side of the condenser will be found to have a charge of opposite sign but equal in magnitude to the original charge. The two opposite charges hold each other in place by their electrostatic attractions. The charged condenser may be "discharged" by making a metallic connection between the two plates.
physical quantity known as the capacitance of the condenser, represented by the letter C, is proportional to the overlapping area of the two conductors A, in square meters, inversely proportional to the thickness d, in meters, of the nonconductor (which is often
called a dielectric) also proportional to the dielectric constant e, of the nonconductor. The equation expressing these relations is

c '

newton-meters 2/coulomb 2 We should ex2 pect to express the capacitance C, in coulomb per joule, indeed this would be an entirely correct unit, but it is customary instead to express the capacitance in farads. Like the coulomb, this is a very large unit, so that we find the microfarad, which is a millionth of a farad, much more convenient for ordinary use.
&e
is

as before 9

10

23-7. Voltage. The ratio of the positive charge on one side of a condenser to the capacitance of the condenser is called the voltage across the condenser. Sometimes we use the expression potential
should expect the unit of this ratio difference instead of voltage. to be either coulombs per farad or joules per coulomb. While both

We

another unit is used, the volt. The best the energy in joules necessary to transfer a coulomb of electricity from one side of the condenser to the other. At the same time, it is convenient to think of voltage as the degree
of these are correct, definition of the volt
still
is

of abnormality of distribution of electrons. This results in a tendency to force the electrons back into the atoms where they normally belong. Thus if we desired a large flow of electrons in a wire

the thing to do would be to create a large potential difference or voltage across the ends of the wire.
(1) Find the capacitance of a condenser of a cylindrical glass jar 11.2 centimeters in diameter, thickness of glass 3.5 millimeters, with 700 square centimeters of its inner area coated with tin foil opposite an equal area of tin foil on the outer surface.

23-8. Illustrative Problems.

which consists

Consider the dielectric constant of the glass to be 8. Solution: It is necessary to substitute into the equation of section 23-6 = 8, A = 0.0700 meter2 k f = 9 X 109 newton-meters2 /couthe values lomb2 and d = 0.0035 meter. Thus
,

23-9]

STATIC ELECTRICITY
(8) (0.0700)

207

47r9(10

9
)

(0.0035)

or C 1.415

more customary to express this as X 10~3 microfarad or even 1,415 micromicrofarad. The piece of apparatus described in this problem is called a Leyden jar and has more
1.415
farad.
It
is

10~9

historical

than practical interest. Much greater capacitances than this obtained be by using alternate layers of tin foil and waxed paper may with every other piece of tin foil connected electrically. The whole can then be rolled up into a compact cylinder.
(2)
If

the two metallic surfaces of the Leyden jar of the previous are connected respectively to the positive and negative terminals problem of an electrostatic "influence machine" which furnishes a potential difference of 50,000 volts, find the quantity of electricity that can be from one surface of the Leyden jar and placed on the other. Substitute into the equation Solution:

removed

implied in the

first

and C
(3)

1.415

sentence of section 23-7 the values V 10~ 9 farad, and solve for q. This gives q

= -

50,000 volts 7.08 X 10~ 5

microcoulomb.

How much
is

energy goes into the electric spark when this Leyden

jar is discharged?

A volt may also be called a joule per coulomb. While the discharged, we may think of its voltage as dropping being Leyden jar from 50,000 volts to zero with an average value of 25,000 volts, or 25,000 5 joules per coulomb. This multiplied by the 7.08 X 10~ coulombs, which is to be transferred from one metallic surface of the Leyden jar to the other, gives 1.77 joules of energy. This energy is not annihilated but appears in the form of heat, light, and sound in the electric spark, 1.77 joules is equivalent to 1.31 foot-pounds, which represents the mechanical work done by the man that turned the crank of the "influence machine" in the
Solution:
first

place.

23-9.

Comparison of Magnetic and Electrostatic

Magnetism
Electrostatics
Is noticeable in
all

Effects.

Occurs to a noticeable extent only

in iron

substances, cs-

and

its alloys.

pecially in nonconductors.

Magnetism

in a piece of steel is pro-

An
tor

electric charge in a
is

nonconduc-

duced by lining up the elementary magnets of which the sample is made,

Magnet poles always occur in pairs which cannot be separated.

r

produced by giving it extra electrons, or taking some away. Unlike electric charges may be separated to any extent. k tqiQ2

k pip2
5 \ir*

er*

Magnet

poles are designated

by the

Electric charges are designated

by

terms north and south.

the terms negative and positive.

A magnetic pole at rest has no effect on an electric charge at rest.

208

STATIC ELECTRICITY

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 23
Technical Terms Defined
Electron.

kilogram and coulomb. It represents the a negative electric charge of 1.63 X smallest quantity of negative electricity discovered; all other charges
of 9.11

minute particle having a mass

10"~81

10~ 19

are integral multiples of this.

Proton.

10~ 28 kilogram and a posiparticle having a mass of 1.67 19 10~ It is one of the constituents of of 1.63 coulomb. tive charge

the nucleus of an atom and can be removed from an atom only by very extreme measures.

Neutron. with no
nuclei.

electrical charge.

particle with approximately the same mass as the proton and It is also one of the constituents of atomic

Atom.
are

The chemical unit of matter. So far, nearly 100 kinds of atoms known. An atom represents an aggregation of protons in its nucleus,
of

an equal number
Conductor.

electrons in

concentric

shells

surrounding the

nucleus, also, with one exception, neutrons in the nucleus.

A metallic substance in which there are free electrons moving between the atoms and belonging to these atoms. This motion of electrons in a conductor is called an electric current.
A
nonmetallic substance containing practically no free elecelectricity.

Insulator.
trons.

nonconductor of

Dielectric Constant.

property of a nonconductor.

The

greater the

dielectric constant of

that exists

an insulator, the smaller is the electrostatic force between two charges embedded in the insulator.

Condenser.

A piece of apparatus consisting essentially of two sheets of conducting material with a sheet of insulating material between.

Voltage.

The energy in joules necessary to remove one coulomb of elecone side of a condenser and place it on the other side. One from tricity is called one volt, coulomb joule per

Capacitance. The ratio between the quantity of electricity on one side of a charged condenser and the voltage across the condenser. Its unit is the farad. One microfarad is a millionth of a farad. The capacitance
of a condenser
is directly proportional to the dielectric constant of the insulating sheet, directly proportional to the overlapping area of the conducting sheet, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the

insulator.

Coulomb's Law.

The

force with which one electrostatic charge q\, repels

or attracts another charge #2, varies directly with the charges, inversely with the square of their separation, and inversely with the dielectric

constant of the intervening medium. charges attract.

Like charges repel and unlike

STATIC ELECTRICITY

209

PROBLEMS
23-L Given a mounted compass needle not enclosed in a case. What would be the effect of bringing near the north pole of the needle each end of (1) a magnet, (2) a bar of unmagnetized soft iron, (3) a stick of wood, and (4) an electrified glass rod? In what respects are effects (1) and (2)
similar?

23-2.

Two

and their centers are two centimeters apart. What on the other?

pith balls in air are charged with three microcoulombs each force does each exert

23-3. A positive charge of 10 microcoulombs and a negative charge of 5 microcoulombs are separated 0.2 meter by kerosene of dielectric constant 3. What force docs each charge exert on the other?

23-4. Find the capacitance (in both farads and microfarads) of a condenser consisting of two sheets of lead foil each 20 cm. 2 area and one sheet of paraffined paper 0.05 mm. thick, of dielectric constant 2.
23-5. If a condenser of one farad capacitance were to be constructed of lead foil and paraffined paper 0.05 mm. thick of dielectric constant 2, find the necessary area of the "plates." From the result of this problem, state the reason for the unpopularity of the farad as a unit.
tential difference of

23-6. If a condenser of 2 microfarads capacitance is charged to a po500 volts, find the charge on each side.

23-7. What energy was expended in charging the condenser of the previous problem? Express this in joules, foot-pounds, and British thermal units. What ultimately becomes of this energy?

CHAPTER

24

Electricity In

Motion; Heating Effect

24-1. Electric Currents. A negatively charged object is one with more electrons than normal, while a positively charged object has less electrons than normal. There is no easy method of moving protons about; they remain fixed quite permanently in the nuclei of the atoms present, but the electrons are free to move. If, then,

by some means maintains more

it is

possible to arrange two regions, one of which electrons than enough to balance the protons in

the nuclei of the atoms, and the other less electrons than protons, and if these two regions are connected by means of a conducting wire which contains a great many loose electrons, but an equal

number
is

of positively charged atoms (so that the wire as a whole electrically neutral), the result will be that extra electrons will

and electrons will flow out at the other end at an equal rate, and the wire as a whole will still remain neutral. This migration of electrons through the wire is known as
flow into the wire at one end
(Electricians are coming to use the idea of elecmore and more in preference to the old "conventional current" which was said to flow in the other direction and which dates back to the time when no one knew just what was going on.) In this book, from here on, the word current will be understood to

an

electron current.

tron current

mean

an excess of electrons
lent to saying that
If it
tential.

electron current, or current of negative charges. It will flow from to a deficiency of electrons, which is equiva-

it will flow from a low potential to a high powere possible to count the electrons that went by a point of the wire in one second we could visualize one ampere as a

210

24-2]

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

is

211

flow of 6.24
second.

10 18 electrons per second, which

one coulomb per

24-2. Drift

Speed of the Electrons Versus Signal Speed.

The

actual progress of an electron along a wire is in a very zigzag fashion. It is constantly colliding with the other particles of the
wire, so that a current of one ampere flowing in a copper wire a square millimeter in cross section would correspond to an actual

speed of about a foot per hour. How is it then that we can carry on a telephone conversation with someone 3,000 miles away and notice no delay whatever in the return of the other person's answer? The answer is that the drift of the electrons and the signal speed are two utterly unrelated quantities. As an illustration of
drift

how

can be, consider a pipe full of water with a tightly fitting plunger inserted at each end. If now one plunger is moved forward slowly, say at the rate of one inclvper second, all the water in the
this

pipe will also move at that rate, and so will the plunger at the other end. The drift speed is therefore one inch per second. The question

now

arises as to the length of

time intervening between the motion

and that of the second plunger. If both the water and the pipe were incompressible, the process would be instantaneous, although no drop of water actually travels faster than one inch per second. Thus a series of signals can be transmitted with this mechanism much more rapidly than the actual motion of the particles because all the particles start moving at the same time.
of the first plunger

The strong repulsions that the free electrons in a wire exert upon each other make them behave like a nearly incompressible fluid in a pipe,
so that the signal speed is practically the speed of light (186,000 miles per second) in spite of the fact that the drift speed is so small. 24-3. Electromotive Force. Since the drift of electrons

through a wire is so analogous to the flow of water in a pipe, it will be helpful to use the illustration further. Consider a "centrifugal" water pump with the outlet connected to the inlet by means of a long pipe. (See figure 24-1.) The pipe will be somewhat more analogous to an electric wire if we imagine it filled with pebbles to
correspond to the atoms and ions all through the cross section of the wire. If both the pump and the pipe are full of water to begin with, to correspond to the free electrons which are always present
in a conductor, it will be clear that there will be no circulation of water in the system until the pump begins to act. Let us however

imagine the pipe to be equipped with a valve which is closed at the beginning of our discussion this corresponds to a break in the elec;

212
trie circuit,

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

[24-3

that

started while the valve

tion of the

pump

If the centrifugal pump is the closed, only result from the acwill be to produce a difference in pressure on the
is,

a nonconductor.
is still

two

sides of the closed valve,

which

may

be determined by reading

Figure 24-1.

the two gages. Pressure in mechanics is equivalent to energy per unit volume (see section 5-1); voltage in electricity is equivalent to energy per unit charge; thus if we consider volume of water in
this

difference

analogy to correspond to quantity of electricity, this pressure on the two sides of the closed valve corresponds to a po-

tential difference in the electrical case.

There

exist devices like bat-

tery cells (often called voltaic cells) which are capable of maintaining a difference in potential across a break in an electric circuit,

and we

call this
if

Now

we open

voltage the electromotive force of the voltaic cell. the valve and allow the water to flow, the pres-

sure gages will change their readings so that the difference will be less. It will still require a certain amount of energy to force unit

water all the way around the circuit once, through the pebbles, but this energy can no longer be determined by reading the gages; the gages will give only that part of the energy utilized between the high pressure and the low pressure gages, and not that used up in the pump. This process is equivalent to closing the switch in figure 24-2. The energy in joules necessary to make one coulomb of electrons go around the circuit once is again the electromotive force of the cell in volts, but while it could be read directly from the voltmeter when the switch was open as in the diagram, the electromotive force must be computed and not measured when

volume

of

the switch

is

closed.

The volume

of water

which passes any given cross section of

is,

the pipe per second, that

the current,

is

directly proportional to

24-4]

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

213

pump action and inversely proportional to the resistance offered the by pebbles. Likewise the electron current in amperes is directly proportional to the electromotive force of the cell and inversely
the
proportional to the resistance offered

by the

electric circuit.

VOLTMCTEQ

Figure 24-2.

24-4. Ohm's Law. The proportionality between the electromotive force in an electric circuit and the current that flows is known as Ohm's law and the proportionality constant is technically known
as the resistance of the circuit.

Thus,

if

stands for the electro-

motive force of the circuit, / for the current flowing through the circuit, and R for the resistance of the circuit, Ohm's law is expressed

by the equation

E = IR
This is equivalent to defining the resistance of a circuit as the ratio between the electromotive force in volts and the current in amperes. But instead of expressing the resistance in volts per ampere we express it in ohms. We also speak of the voltage F, across a portion of a circuit;
equal to the current flowing through this part of the circuit multiplied by the resistance of the same portion of the circuit
this
is

V = IR
24-5. Distinction
In order to

Between Electromotive Force and

electrons flow around an electric cirVoltage. cuit,' energy must be supplied somewhere in the circuit. This usually happens in a comparatively small portion of the circuit; the source may be chemical energy, heat energy, or mechanical energy, but however it is done, the result is a more or less sudden jump in electrical pressure called an electromotive force. There will then be

make

a gradual drop in electrical pressure al) through the rest of the cirsudden rise (the electromotive force) is equal to the sum of the gradual drops. These gradual drops are sometimes called
cuit so that the

214

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

[24-6

drops, sometimes potential drops, and sometimes merely the "voltage across such and such a resistance."

IR

Electromotive forces may be negative as well as positive. An example of this is a battery put into a circuit backward, as is done in charging a storage battery. In this case there is a sudden drop in electrical pressure and electrical energy is converted into chemical
or

some other form

of energy.

24-6. Illustrative Problems. (1) Assume that in figure 24-2 there is just enough No. 20 nichrome wire connected to the terminals of the dry cell
to

have a resistance of one ohm (1.70 feet), and that the switch is closed. Let the resistance of the cell itself be 0.05 ohm and assume that the ammeter reads I A3 amperes. What is the electromotive force of the cell? In a simple circuit of this type (with no branching) the Solution:
is

current

the

same throughout, namely,

1.43 amperes.

The

total resistance

of the circuit is the

sum

of 0.05

ohm

in the cell

and 1.00 ohm

in the rest
of the

of the circuit, or 1.05

ohms. This assumes that the resistance

am-

negligibly small and the resistance of the voltmeter so large that practically no current goes through it. Substituting into the equation E IR we obtain

meter

is

E=
or

(1.43) (1.05)

E=
(2)

1.50 volts.

V = 1.43 volts. The same result may be obtained by arguing that at the place where the voltmeter is connected we have almost the full effect of the electromotive force of 1.50 volts. There is only the IR drop through the battery to be subtracted. This is (1.43) (0.05), or 0.0715 volt.
and therefore
1.50 volts
(3)

Find the reading of the voltmeter in part (1). This may be done by two methods. First we may use the equation V = IR for the part of the circuit consisting of the nichrome wire, switch, and ammeter. In this case, R = 1 ohm, / = 1.43 amperes,
Solution:

minus 0.07
will

What

volt is 1.43 volts as before. the voltmeter read if the switch

is

opened?

opened the current drops to zero, there are no IR drops, and therefore the voltmeter reads the full electromotive force of 1.50 volts.
is

Solution:

When

the switch

predict the resistance of a piece of length, cross sectional area, and the material of = resistance, cross sectional area, and / which it is made. If length of the wire the relation is

24-7, Resistivity.
if

We can

wire

we know

its

The

proportionality constant r

is

called resistivity.

This equation

states that a long wire offers more resistance to the flow of electrons than a short wire, a fat wire offers less resistance than a thin wire,

and some materials are better conductors than

others.

As

in the

24-8]

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

215

case of heat conduction, silver

and copper are the best conductors

of electricity. If / is in meters and 1CT 8 of rare: aluminum, 2.83

A
;

in square meters, a

few values
;

1.692

1(T
;

8
;

German
22

10X10- 8
100

lead,
;

10~ 8 copper, carbon, 3,500 8 10~ 10~ 8 iron, silver, 33 gold, 2.44 8 8 10~ 10~ mercury, 95.8 nichrome,

X
;

10- 8

silver, 1.65

10~ 8

These values hold at 20C.

At higher temperatures, the

re-

sistance of metals increases according to the same type of law as linear expansions. That is, the increase of resistance is proportional

to the original resistance times the temperature coefficient times the increase in temperature. The temperature coefficients of non-

metals are negative.

few centigrade temperature

coefficients are:

aluminum, 0.0039; carbon,

0.0005; copper, 0.0039;

German

sil-

ver, 0.0004; gold, 0.0034; iron, 0.0050; lead, 0.0043; mercury, 0.00089; nichrome, 0.0004; silver, 0.0038. 24-8. Illustrative Problems. (1) How long must a piece of nichrome wire be in order to have one ohm resistance if its diameter is 0.03196 inch? Here it is necessary to convert the resistivity into English Solution: units or convert the diameter into metric units. We shall do the latter.

Since there are 39.37 inches in a meter, 0.03196 inch is 0.03196/39.37 or 0.000812 meter ( = 0.812 millimeter). Thus we have r = 100 X 10~ 8 or = 10~ 6 from the previous section, R = 1 ohm, and A = 7r(0.000406) 2 = 5.18 X 10~ 7 w 2 Substituting these three values into the equation of sec.

tion 24-7 gives

1

^
5.18

10-7

Thus,

Since there are 3.28 feet in a meter, / may also be I = 0.518 meter. expressed as (0.518) (3.28), or 1.699 feet. (2) Find the resistance of this piece of wire at 100C., also at 0C., also

find its temperature coefficient at 0C. Solution: The increase in resistance

from 20C., at which the

resist-

ance

is

1.000

ohm, up

to
is

by 80. This product

ohms.

100C. is the product of 1 ohm by 0.0004 per C. 0.032 ohm. Thus the resistance at 100C. is 1.032

The
product
at

decrease in resistance from

of
is
1

20C. down
or 0.008

to

0C.

is

similarly the

ohm by 0.0004/C. by 20,

ohm. Thus the resistance

0C.
If

0.992 ohm.
coefficient referred to

we wish a new temperature

1.032

0C., we must

solve the equation

0.992

(0.992) (*) (100)

This gives x

0.040/99.2

0.000403 per degree centigrade.

Heat Produced by an Electric Current. If we remember that V volts may also be written V joules per coulomb, also
24-9.

216

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

[24-10

that an ampere is the same as a coulomb per second, and thus that a coulomb is the product of the current in amperes by the number
of seconds
it

flows, that is

q=
then
it

It

will

be clear that the product of V joules per coulomb and // coulombs will be the energy in joules involved in causing a current / amperes to flow / seconds through a potential drop of

V
If

volts.
joules

Vlt

there are

no negative electromotive

forces present, this energy will be converted into heat in the circuit. In order to avoid any qualifying "ifs," an equivalent expression may

be obtained eliminating the voltage V. Since

heat in joules

V=

IR, we have

I2 Rt

That

is,

ohms times

the current in amperes, squared, times the resistance in the time in seconds will always give the heat developed

in this resistance in joules.

24-10. Illustrative Problem. Find the heat developed by a 20-ohm, 120-volt electric stove in half an hour. Express the result in joules, Calories,
B.t.u.,

and

KWH.

Using Ohm's law, V = IR, when V is 120 volts and R is 20 ohms, we conclude that the current is 6 amperes. Substituting 20 ohms, and / = 1,800 seconds into the last equation of amperes, R section 24-9 gives
Solution:

7=6

heat in joules

(36) (20) (1,800)

or 1,296,000 joules of heat are developed in the half-hour. Since there are 4,190 joules in a Calorie, this is equivalent to 3,090 Calories.

Multiplying 3,090 Calories by 3.97 B.t.u./Cal. gives 12,270 British thermal units.

Dividing 1,296,000 joules by 3,600,000 joules/KWH gives 0.360

KWH.
al-

24-11.

Hot Wire Ammeters.

Since an electric current

ways produces heat and since heating a wire changes its length, ammeters can be constructed on this principle to measure currents.
only necessary to put the ammeter into the circuit so that the same current flows through it that flows through the rest of the circuit. The wire whose length is to change (on account of the heating effect of the current through it) is kept taut by a spring;
It is

the motion of this spring is communicated to an indicating pointer which moves over a calibrated scale.

24-12]

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

If

217

24-12. Electric Light.

wire,
it

sufficient

heat

is

produced in a

will

become

able light.

The

red-hot, or even white-hot, and emit considerfraction of the energy thus converted into light is,

however, small and dependent on the temperature. Incandescent lamps with tungsten filaments surrounded by an atmosphere of nitrogen emit about 1 1 per cent of the energy

consumed in the form of light. These filaments reach temperatures of 2,SOOC. The electric arc between carbon terminals
3,000C. at the negative terminal, and 3,500C. at the positive terminal. These temperatures may be increased by enclosing the arc in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and increasing the
pressure. In this way temperatures of 6,000C. have been reached at about 30 atmospheres pressure. 24-13. Electric Power. Since power is the rate of doing work, the quotient of energy by time gives power. Since the energy in joules is Vlt we have
in air reaches temperatures of

power

in watts

= VI

That
watts.

is,

current in amperes times voltage in volts gives power in 600-watt flatiron on 120 volts, for example, carries 5

amperes.

By

using

V=

IR we may eliminate
power
in watts

and obtain

= PR
power was
2

For example,

in the

equivalent to 0.720 kilowatt. We could have obtained the last answer by multiplying 0.720 kilowatt by 0.5 hour

problem
is

of section 24-10, the

(6) (20)

720 watts. This

and obtaining 0.360

KWIL
If

24-14. Thermoelectricity.

two wires

of different materials

are connected at both ends, no current tends to flow so long as the two ends are at the same temperature. But if the two junctions are

maintained at different temperatures, a small electromotive force is developed resulting in a feeble current. This current is too small for any commercial application other than for the purpose of measuring temperatures. The arrangement used in this may be called a thermocouple. For example, if one junction is in contact with an automobile engine and the other is at the temperature of the instrument board, a current will flow sufficient to give an indication on a
galvanometer which

may be

calibrated to read the engine tempera-

218

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

[24-15

ture in degrees Fahrenheit.

It is also of theoretical interest that

is

one of the three principal ways of creating an electromotive force

thermally.

24-15.

Some

Practical Aspects of an Electric Current.

In practical work, three things are necessary for the satisfactory operation of an electrical device (assuming of
course that the devi ce itself is properly designed)
:

(1) the proper connection of a proper source of electromotive force, (2) a complete circuit con-

and (3) the precaution of the current from flowing in undesired preventing
sisting of conductors,

directions, accomplished lation and insulators. As

by the use of insuan illustration, consuch as

force for the

sider

any simple

electrical apparatus,

an

electric bell or electric flatiron.

The electromotive

bell may be supplied by a couple of dry cells or some other source of low voltage. If the cells are used, the first item consists in making sure that the carbon (center terminal) of one cell is connected to the zinc (outside terminal) of the other cell. The second item includes a check of the wiring, the condition of the bell itself, and the switch. The wiring must be arranged so that when the switch is closed, there is a complete circuit from the zinc of one cell to the carbon of the next, then from the zinc of the next cell through the bell and the switch, back to the carbon of the first cell.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 24
Technical Terms Defined
Electric Current.

Migration of free electrons through the body of a con-

ductor, measured in amperes, or coulombs per second.

Electromotive Force.
of electrical

The electromotive

force of a battery or other source

power is the energy in joules that it is capable of expending while pushing a coulomb of electricity completely around a closed circuit. This is a characteristic of the battery and not of the circuit and will be the same, whatever the nature of the circuit. It is measured in volts. Potential Difference. The energy in joules expended in forcing a coulomb of electricity through a portion of a circuit. It is also measured in volts. Resistance. The ratio between the potential difference in volts across a portion of an electric circuit and the current in amperes. It is characteristic of the conductor and is measured in ohms.

The resistance of a specimen of material of unit length and Resistivity. unit cross section. The resistivity is a characteristic of the material at a definite temperature. The change in resistivity of a conductor with

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION/ HEATING EFFECT

change

temperature is directly proportional to its original resistance, the in temperature, and its temperature coefficient.

Thermoelectricity. A small electromotive force may be produced by joining two or more dissimilar metals to form a closed circuit and maintaining different temperatures at the junctions.

Laws
Ohm's Law.
This law states that the current flowing in a circuit
is

direct-

ly proportional to the total electromotive force present and inversely proportional to its resistance. Ohm's law may likewise be applied to a

portion of a circuit. The voltage across any portion of a circuit is proportional to the current flowing and to the resistance of this portion of the circuit.
Joule's Law. The heat developed in a portion of an electrical circuit is proportional to its resistance, to the time, and to the square of the current.

The power

applied to a circuit the current.

is

proportional to both the voltage and

PROBLEMS
24-1. If

E=

100 volts and 7

20 amperes, find the resistance,

JR.

on a

24-2. What 1 10-volt circuit?

current will flow in an electric lamp of 220

ohms

resistance

24-3. Find the drop in voltage in a five-mile trolley wire carrying a current of 20 amperes, if the resistance is 0.5 ohm per mile. If the power station supplies 550 volts, what is available for the trolley?

on or

24-4. Figure out a wiring diagram which will make it possible to turn off an electric lamp either at the head or foot of a flight of stairs, regardless of how the other switch stands.

24-5. Repeat problem 24-4 with three independent switches for the one

lamp.
10 19 free electrons in a cubic millimeter of a 24-6. If there are 8.5 the drift find speed of electrons in a wire of one square millicopper wire, meter cross section while carrying a current of ten amperes.
24-7. The resistance of a piece of wire varies directly as its length and inversely as the square of its diameter. If a copper wire 1 foot long and 0.001 inch in diameter (sometimes called a mil-foot) has a resistance of 10.4 ohms, find the resistance of 100 feet of copper wire 0.0403 inch in

diameter

(#18 A.W.G.)

24-8. The change in resistance of a copper wire with temperature follows the same type of law as change of length, that is

change
where

of resistance

= R

(0.00426)

is the resistance at 0C. and / is the centigrade temperature. piece of copper wire has the resistance of 15 ohms at 0C. What is its resistance at 30C.?

220
24-9.

ELECTRICITY IN

MOTION; HEATING EFFECT

resistance of 10 ohms the resistance which

32-volt

lamp has a

with a 110- volt with the lamp.

line.

Compute

and is to be connected must be used in series

24-10. Three pieces of apparatus of 20, 24, and 36 ohms respectively are connected in series across a 115-volt line. Compute (1) the current in, and (2) the voltage across, each piece. 24-11. Two rods are welded together by driving a current of 500 amperes through the contact in which most of the resistance is concentrated. If the resistance of the contact is 0.02 ohm, find the number of Calories developed in 8 seconds.

24-12. How much current is intended to flow through a lamp marked 60 watts, 110 volts? What is its resistance when in use? How many Calories are developed in it per second? Would its resistance be more or
less

when

cold?

24-13. A certain fuse wire has a resistance of 0.003 ohm, a mass of 0.005 gram, a specific heat of 0.04, and a temperature of 20C. It melts at 140C. If a current of 10 amperes is sent through it, how long will it take for the fuse to "blow"?

CHAPTER

25

Voltaic

Electrolytic Cells; Simple Circuits

and

Voltaic Cells. A strip of metallic zinc is made up of neutral zinc atoms together with a considerable number of zinc ions. The latter have each lost two electrons from the outermost shell; these detached electrons are also present in the strip. The zinc atoms are not soluble in water to any appreciable extent; on the other hand

25-1

the positively charged ions are quite readily soluble in water. The result is that when a strip of zinc is dipped into water, it is found that the water takes on a positive charge and the metallic zinc an equal negative charge. If at the same time a rod of carbon or

copper or some metal that is much less active than zinc is also placed in the same solution with the strip of zinc, the zinc will be negatively, and the other metal positively, charged. This means that the carbon will now contain too few electrons, because electrons have been attracted into the solution by the positive zinc ions, and the zinc contains an excess of electrons. Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity, therefore before any very practical use can be made of this arrangement, the conductivity of the water must be improved by dissolving in the water some cheap electrolyte, such as sal-

ammoniac.
negative zinc and positive carbon terminals are now connected with a wire or other electrical apparatus possessing more or less resistance, so as to form a closed circuit, there will be a flow of
If the

221

222

VOLTAIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

[25-2

electrons from the zinc through the wire to the carbon.

As

these

electrons arrive, they are also attracted through the carbon rod into the solution, where they neutralize positive zinc ions and positive hydrogen ions. Both the neutral zinc atoms and hydrogen atoms

thus formed become insoluble and tend to "plate out" on the carbon.

When this happens, the cell is said to be polarized. The polarization may be prevented by adding an oxidizing agent like manganese dioxide to the solution. When positively charged ions are neutralized
which arrive by way of the carbon, more zinc ions go into solution from the metallic zinc. Thus the cycle of events in the circuit is complete. The combination of two dissimilar metals in

by the

electrons

a conducting solution is called a voltaic cell after its discoverer, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827). 25-2. Dry Cells. In order to utilize the voltaic cell efficiently, it is convenient to use a zinc container as the negative electrode,

put a carbon rod down through the center as positive electrode; and
fill

in the intervening space

with a paste containing

ammonium

chloride, the depolarizing agent,

is

and manganese

dioxide. This paste

sealed in with pitch, a nonconductor which prevents evaporation of the paste. There is

not

much

lasts until

to get out of order in this cell; it enough zinc has gone into solution

to eat a hole in the container, after which the paste evaporates and the "dry cell," which heretofore has been dry only on the
outside,-

becomes dry inside as

well,

and

ceases to function.

25-3. Storage Batteries. Severalvolmay be used together, with the positive terminal of one connected directly
taic cells

to the negative terminal of the next and so on; the combination is called a battery. A

type commonly used in automobiles,

planes, trains, boats,
Figure 25-1.

air-

and

so on,

is

called a

storage battery because its action

may

be

reversed
is

backward. This process is known ready to be used all over again.

by forcing a current through it as charging', after this, the battery

The commonest type of storage battery is the lead accumulator. The negative electrode is metallic lead, put into a "spongy" condition to increase its surface. The positive electrode consists of lead

25-4]

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

223

dioxide, and the solution is dilute sulphuric acid of specific gravity about 1.250. When the battery delivers current to a circuit, the electrons leave the lead electrode and pass around through the

external circuit, arriving by the lead dioxide (positive electrode) at the solution. Here the electrons encounter positive hydrogen ions,

with which they join up, forming hydrogen atoms. The latter tend to pick off oxygen atoms from molecules of lead dioxide, forming lead monoxide and water. The lead monoxide combines with sulphuric acid to form insoluble lead sulphate. Likewise at the negative electrodes, as fast as double-charged lead ions go into solution, they combine with sulphate ions to form insoluble lead sulphate.

That is, the action of the battery is to make both electrodes alike and to dilute the solution with water. If this tendency goes anywhere near to completion, the battery is said to be run down, or
discharged.

But the utility of the lead storage battery lies in the fact that when an electric current is put through the battery backward, all
these changes take place in the reverse direction; the acid solution

becomes stronger, and the lead sulphate disappears from both electrodes, leaving them spongy lead and lead dioxide respectively, that is, if the battery has not been left discharged long enough to be-

come "sulphated." 25-4. Chemical Effect of the Electric Current.

paragraph of the preceding section
is

The

last

but one

illustration of a
is

phenomenon known
tration.

as electrolysis.

Electroplating

another

illus-

In any Electroplating always the is substance dissolved usually present in the inorganic solution, form of positive or negative ions. Since the solution as a whole is
neutral, there are just as many total negative charges present due to the negative ions as there are positive charges from the positive
ions.

entails the use of solutions.

Electroplating is done by passing an electric current through a solution of some compound of the metal involved. For example, silver plating may be accomplished by passing the current through a solution of silver nitrate which contains, in addition to water mole-

cules, positive silver ions and negative nitrate ions. The negative nitrate ions, while the current is passing, move through the solution

at a slow rate in the direction of the electron current.

silver ions

The

positive

move

still

direction. In fact, it two kinds of ions constitutes the

more slowly through the solution in the other may be said that the combined motion of these
whole
electric current in the solution.

The student should

contrast the situation in a wire, where the

224

VOLTAIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

[25-5

current is solely due to the motion of electrons, with the situation in a solution, where the current is wholly due to the combined

motions of positive and negative ions. When the positive silver ions land at the electrode where the electron current is entering the solution, the silver ions become silver atoms by absorbing one electron each and "plate out" on the electrode. The negative electrode upon which the silver plates out is called the cathode, and
the positive electrode is called the anode. The number of grams of an element plated out by the current is proportional to the number of coulombs allowed to pass through the circuit, because the number of atoms plated out is proportional to the number of electrons entering the solution. One coulomb will plate out 0.00111800

not only taken as the legal definition of the coulomb in this country, but it is also the international coulomb, and the legal definition of the ampere is then the same as

gram

of silver.

The

fact is

that given in section 24-1.

It has
is

been remarked facetiously that

it

the

number

just mentioned

easy to remember since

consists
(to say

of one decimal point, two zeros, three ones, nothing of the extra zeros at both ends).

and four twos

Electrolysis

and electroplating

dustry, not only in

a very extensive use in inextracting metals from their compounds that

find

occur in nature, but in the purification of unrefined grades of metals. For example, ordinary copper has too great a resistance for use in the electrical industries, but by using it as the anode of an electrolytic
cell, very pure "electrolytic copper" plates out at the cathode. This has a much lower resistance.

25-5. Hill Diagram.

In

order to visualize

the

potentials
in

around an

electric circuit, it is helpful to

make a graph

which

potentials are plotted as ordinates against position in the circuit as

-gVWW?

Figure 25-2.

purpose consider the circuit shown in figure 25-2. This consists of six storage cells in series with an ammeter, M\ a
abscissas.

For

this

25-5]

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

;

The

three-celled storage battery which is being charged and a resistance. circuit is slightly absurd because it is not customary to charge

one storage battery at the expense of another.

Points in the

Circuit

Figure 25-3.

Starting with A, the point at which the electrons have their highest concentration and which electricians speak of as a low potential we proceed along the copper wire, AB, to the point #,
,

which has almost as low a potential since the copper has so small a resistance; thus, in figures 25-3 and 25-4, the line AB is practically horizontal. BC in figure 25-2 is a resistance. There is a drop in potential from C to B equal to the product of the current /, by the resistance R, that is, an IR drop, or a rise from B to C as shown in
figures 25-3

and

25-4.

Again the wire

CD of figure

25-2 has so

little

nearly horizontal in figures 25-3 and 25-4. is the negative end of the three-celled storage battery that is In this battery, we is its positive terminal. being charged and
resistance that
is

CD

Figure 25-4.

meet three electromotive forces and three resistances.

We may think

of the seats of the electromotive forces as the surfaces separating

226

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

[25-6

the electrodes from the solutions; here there is an abrupt rise in potential of about two volts in going the slight distance necessary
to get from one side of this surface to the other. Therefore the electromotive forces are represented on figures 25-3 and 25-4 as vertical lines, while the 77? drops are again slant lines, and the
for these two reasons. It is necesis higher than at potential at sary to buck the back electromotive force of the three cells as well

as to push the electrons through the three resistances. The lines EF and G are again horizontal, and the line FG not far from hori-

has a very low resistance. is the zontal, since the ammeter it is where the electrons of the circuit in highest potential; point
are scarcest. In going from // to A we find six electromotive forces and six resistances. This time the effect of the electromotive forces

more and more from H to A, so same direction the electromotive We refer to them as direct electrodirection. other in the are forces motive forces. The voltage or potential drop between H and A is the sum of the electromotive forces of the six cells minus the IR drops of the cells. We are now back at A, where we started. It
is

to concentrate the electrons

whereas the

IR drops are still in

the

will readily

be seen that, counting the back electromotive forces

as negative, the sum of the electromotive forces in the entire circuit equals the sum of the IR drops. Or, since it is the same current

everywhere in the

circuit

_
The student
will find it

algebraic sum of e.m.f. sum of the resistances

convenient to think of electromotive forces

as vertical lines on a diagram like figure 25-4, tential drops as slant lines on such a diagram.

and voltages or po-

25-6. Illustrative Problem. Assume the following numerical values in the preceding section: resistance of BC, 2.9 ohms; resistance of each cell, 0.01 ohm; resistance of the wires, zero; resistance of the ammeter, 0.01 ohm; electromotive force of each cell, 2 volts. Find the current /, also the

potential drops AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, GH, and HA. Solving the equation at the end of the preceding section
6(2)
2.9

we have

3(2)

3(0.01)

0.01

6(0.01)

or /

2 amperes.

We

AB, CD, EF, and GH,

know at the outset that the potential drops across which we shall represent respectively as V AB VCDJ
,

VEF, and VGH, are all zero because these resistances are all taken as zero. VCB is purely an IR drop, therefore V B = (2) (2.9) or 5.8 volts, and V BC is 5.8 volts. That is, VBC is a potential rise and therefore a negative

25-7]

VOLTAIC

AND
is

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

rise

227
or 6 volts

potential drop.

VDE

another potential

made up

of 3(2

V
)

V?G 0.02 volt. V U A is made up of six e.m.f.'s of 2 volts each, 2(0.01) or or 12 volts together with 6 potential rises due to resistance. 6(2)(0.01) 0.12 = 11.88 volts. As a check, it will be seen 0.12 volt. VUA = 12 to A, 11.88 volts, is equal to the sum of the rises from that the drop from

of e.m.f. together with 3(2) (0.01) or 0.06 volt of potential rises 0.06 or 6.06 volts. 6 the three resistances. Thus VDE

through

to C, 5.8 volts;

from

to

6.06 volts;

and from F

to G, 0.02 volt.

25-7. Series

and Parallel

Circuits.
cuits.

All the circuits thus far

discussed have been series cir-

That
it

is,

the electrons

have found

necessary to flow

vWMr

-v/WVV

through a series of conductors, one after the other. In such a

circuit, the current is the

same

Figure 25-5.

everywhere the
;

total resistance
resist-

is

the

sum of the separate

ances and the voltages add algebraically. Figure 25-5 is also an example of a simple series circuit, where again the total resistance is
the sum of R' and R" If, on the other hand, the arrangement is such that the current can divide, part flowing through one resistance and part through another, and then come together again (see figure 25-6), the resistances are said to be in parallel. Here the combination
.

resistance

is

no longer the sum

of the two; in fact it is less than either one alone. It is now the
total

conductance that

is

the

sum
fined

of the individual conduct-

ances.

Conductance

may be de-

resistance.
is

as the reciprocal of the When the resistance

large,

the

conductance
versa.
It

is is

small,
it in

and vice

Figure 25-6.

quite customary to assign the letter G to conductance

and

to

measure

mhos.

(Mho

is

ohm

spelled
c*

backward.) Then

and the

relation

G=G

R G" becomes

1- JL+.L R'^ R" R

for resistances in parallel.

Furthermore
/

/'

/"

228

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

[25-8

is the same whether we think but the potential drop from A to of the upper resistance R' 9 the lower one R", or both together.

25-8. Cells in Parallel and in Series. If several cells placed in parallel, the electromotive force of the combination is same as the electromotive force of a single cell. This is because electromotive force of a cell does not depend upon its size,

are

the
the

but

simply upon the chemical substances of which it is composed. Putting several cells together in parallel is equivalent to manufacturing one large cell from the same materials. One would never put two different kinds of cells in parallel because the one with the greater electromotive force would force a current backward through
the weaker
cell

which would

result in "charging" the

weaker at the

expense of the stronger. But, as we have seen, when several cells are arranged in series with each other, the total electromotive force
is

the

sum
trie

of the individual electromotive forces.

25-9. Illustrative Problem.

Given the
cells

circuit

shown

in figure 25-7 in
in parallel

which

battery consists of eight

arranged with two rows

Figure 25-7.

and four

cells in scries in

each row, each

cell

with an e.m.f. of 1.5 volts and

negligible internal resistance.

The

BC

of 10

ohms,

in scries

with

12 ohms, #2 parallel with each other; RI The problem is to find the current /, in the
in each

rest of the circuit consists of a resistance a group of three resistances which are in

main

6 ohms, and ^3 = 4 ohms. circuit, also the currents

branch of the

circuit.

force of the battery, which is the electromotive force of 4 cells (not 8) or 6 volts, by the total resistance of the circuit. In order to find this resistance we must solve the equation

The current / may be found by dividing the electromotive

i.i+i +i ^6T 4 12 R
for R.

10

This gives R 2 ohms. The total resistance of the circuit then is 2 or 12 ohms and the total current is

25-9]

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

229

or 0.5 ampere. The current through each branch of the battery is half of The IR drop, V ED, across the parallel circuit is this, or 0.25 ampere. or 1 volt. Since the same voltage holds for all three resistances (0.5) (2)

between

E and

D, we have
7l

=
12

/2

=
6
/i

h=
=

by using the relation / amp., and /s = 0.250 amp.

= V/R,

This gives

0.0833 amp., 72

0.1667

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 25
Technical Terms Defined
Polarization.

The tendency
of

to reverse the electromotive force of a cell

cell

by the plating out

Electrode.

hydrogen on the carbon terminal within the

cell.

during the action of the

solid plate or

rod which conducts a current into or out of

cell of

a solution.
Electrolysis.

The formation at the electrodes of an electrolytic substances derived from the solution.
The
positive electrode.
It collects
t

Anode.
Cathode.

negative iomi during elec-

rolysis.

trolysis.

The negative electrode. It The electrons may be said

it

collects positive ions during electo enter a solution by the cathode

by the anode. Legal Coulomb. That quantity

grams
of silver.

and leave

of electricity

which when passed through

the cathode into a silver solution results in plating out 0.00111800

Legal Ampere. That steady current which when passed through the cathode into a silver solution plates out 0.00111800 grams of silver per second.

A circuit where all the electrons have to pass through Series Circuit. the various elements, one after the other.
Parallel Circuit.

all

A circuit in which the current divides, and part flows through each branch. Conductance. The reciprocal of resistance. It is measured in mhos.
PROBLEMS

25-1. One coulomb will plate out 0.000329 gram of copper from a solution of copper sulphate. With a current of 20 amperes, how long a time is needed to purily by electrolysis a pound of copper? 25-2. Silver was plated on a platinum electrode from a silver nitrate solution. The current was controlled so that an ammeter in the circuit read precisely 0.500 ampere for a time of 90.0 minutes. By carefully weighing the platinum electrode before and after this period, it was found

230

VOLTAIC

AND

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; SIMPLE CIRCUITS

that 3.025 grams of silver had been deposited.

By how much was

the

am-

meter in error?
25-3. Draw a hill diagram for a circiut consisting of a battery of 5 cells each of which has an e.m.f. of 1.4 volts and an internal resistance of O.OS ohm, all in series with a 3-ohm resistance. Find the current in this circuit. How would the hill diagram be changed if this circuit were opened somewhere?

25-4.
1

Draw

hill

diagram

for that part of a circuit consisting of a

10- volt source, a series resistance of 20 of negligible resistance being charged.

ohms, and a 12-volt storage battery

25-5.
nation.

Two

resistors of
(2)

(1) in series

and

What is the charging current? 20 and 30 ohms respectively are connected in parallel. Compute the resistance in each combi-

25-6. How many resistors, each of 20 ohms, will be needed to carry 23 amperes on a, 115-volt line? Will they be in series or in parallel? 25-7. Three fixed resistors of 20, 30, and 40 ohms respectively have a combined resistance of 43.3 ohms. How are the resistances arranged? 25-8. A 32-volt lamp has a resistance of 10 ohms and is to be connected with a 110-volt line. Compute the resistance that must be used in series

with the lamp.

25-9. Three pieces of apparatus of 20, 24, and 36 ohms respectively are connected in series across a 115-volt line. Compute (1) the current in, and (2) the voltage across, each piece.

25-10. Two resistors, A and J5, of 140 and 100 ohms respectively are connected in parallel and placed in series with a third resistor C, of 100 ohms. This combination is connected with a 110-volt line. Compute (1) the current through each resistor, (2) the resistance of the combination, and (3) the voltage across each resistor.

CHAPTER

26

Magnetism and the

Electric Current

26-1. Some of the Effects of an Electric Current Are Not Inside the Wire. Although the electrons do their moving within
the wire, some of the most important effects of the electric current exist in the region outside of the wire. In this respect, the analogy between water flowing in a pipe and the electron flow in a wire

breaks down. The effect just alluded to is magnetic and may readily be described in terms of the same type of lines of force as those mentioned in section 22-4. Furthermore, these magnetic fields are properties of space and exist in a vacuum as readily as in air or " other material mediums. At one time, the "electromagnetic ether was invented as a medium filling all space, endowed with properties
necessary to explain electric and magnetic forces. But this medium became more and more complicated and contradictory as additional
properties

had to be given

it,

until

it

finally

was discarded.

It is

very possible that the contradictory features of the ether are an indication of its polydimensional nature; if so our only hope of
handling it would be through pure mathematics, since we humans are unable to visualize more than three dimensions. We shall see later that the same thing has happened to light waves; indeed there is an intimate relation between electromagnetic fields and light. 26-2. Magnetic Fields Around a Current in a Wire. A single straight wire carrying a current is surrounded by a magnetic
field

represented

by

lines in the

shape of
231

circles,

the centers of which

232
lie

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

[26-3

All magnetic lines are closed curves; they act as if they repelled neighboring lines of force and they all tend to shorten. Therefore if the electrons cease their motion, first the inner lines

in the wire.

shrink to zero, after which the lines farther out are free to shrink. In order to remember the direction of the magnetic lines of force

surrounding a current, one may think of grasping the wire with the left hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of flow of the electrons, in which case the fingers would curl about the wire in the
direction of the lines of force.

26-3. The Electromagnet. If insulated wire is wound about a piece of soft iron, as in figure 26-1, and a current allowed to flow through the wire, one end of the iron bar will become a north pole and the other end a south pole. The left hand rule described in the

777////S
Figure 26-1.

preceding section may be used to determine which end is north. Or

the rule

may

be reversed with the

fingers of the left hand representing the direction of flow of the electrons

and the thumb the north pole

iron

of

the electromagnet. If the piece of is removed, the coil will still

flows, but the effect will be used for the "core," the current

behave

like a

magnet while the current

If

much

weaker.
is

hardened

steel is

and the steel will retain most of its magnetism; but used for the core, the magnetic effect will be present only while the current is flowing a very useful fact, since it makes possible the operation of lifting magnets, electric bells, the telegraph,

may
if

be shut

off

soft iron

telephone,

and so on.

26-4.

The

Electric Bell.

Figure

26-2

is

diagrammatic

representation of an electric bell. When the push button closes the circuit, the electron current flows in the direction of the arrows,

producing a magnetic polarity as indicated. This pulls the iron armature, A, to the right and causes the hammer to strike the bell. But it also breaks the circuit at J3, and this results in the release of the armature by the electromagnet. A spring causes the armature to fly back and complete the circuit again, when the whole action is
repeated.

The

effect is therefore to
bell.

move

the

hammer

rapidly back

and forth and ring the

by

26-5. Comparison of Fields Produced by Currents and Magnet Poles. The magnetic field produced by an arrange-

26-5]

MAGNETISM AND THE

like that in figure 26-1

ELECTRIC CURRENT
air core

233

ment

but with an

may

be computed

by

the equation
//

** In

in

which 77 is the magnetic field strength at a point in the center of the core in millioersteds, which is the practical unit, / is the current in amperes,

is

the

number

of turns of wire,

and

the length of the coil in meters. It will be remembered that mag/

netic

fields
.

also

surround

magnets

(section 22-4) In this case the equation is

where

is

again the magnetic

field

at a

given point in millioersteds, p is the strength of the pole in practical pole

units,

km

10 7

newton-meters 2

per
ty

pole unit squared, d is the distance between the pole and the given point
in meters, and to unity for a
air.
p,

a pure number equal vacuum and 1.00026 for

/* is

is

called the permeability of the

medium.
Although these two methods of producing magnetic fields seem very difFigure 26-2. ferent, they are actually very similar. The lines of force could be drawn in figure 26-1 to look just about as they did in figure 22-1. The
figure 26-1
is

field in

caused by the circulation of electrons in the surrounding wire, whereas in figure 22-1, the field is due to "elementary magnets" which consist of certain electrons within the iron atoms,
spinning on their axes in the direction of the fingers of the left hand when the thumb points toward the north pole. The student will also remember still another application of this principle in which a
feeble magnetic field was produced by rotating rapidly a charged disk (section 23-3). Illustrative Problems. (1) Find the magnetic field strength at the center of a helical coil of 100 turns of wire half a meter long through which a current of 3 amperes is flowing. Solution: Such a coil is often called a solenoid. The value of the field at

234

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

[26-6

the center is independent of the radius of the helix, also independent of the material inside the coil, that is, whether it is air, or iron, or a vacuum, since the permeability, ju, does not occur in the equation. To find the field strength it is necessary to substitute into the first equation of section 26-5 the values 7 = 3 amperes, n = 100, and / = 0.5 meter and obtain

H=
or

4r(3)(100)

05

7,540 millioersteds, a rather feeble field. Find the numerical value of two opposite magnetic poles of like strength, which, when placed each 25 centimeters away from and on opposite sides of a given point, will produce a field strength, at the given
(2)

H is

point, of 7,540 milloersteds, in vacuo. Solution: This time we must substitute into the second equation of 107 newton-meters2 section 26-5 the values 3,770 millioersteds, k m

H=

1.000, per pole /z The other pole will produce a like

,

and d

0.25 meter

and solve for one of the poles, p. effect and thus account for the entire

field.

Thus
(1)(0.25)2

and p is 23.6 X pole units or 23.6 micropole units. 26-6. Flux Density. A technical term called flux density is obtained by dividing magnetic field strength by k m and multiplying by the permeability. Flux density is represented by the
10~6
letter

by

electrical engineers.

That

is

Thus, the two equations of section 26-5 become

Ikm

and The

B=

flux density in a solenoid depends very much on the permeability of the material involved. For example, the permeability of various samples of steel and iron can easily run from a few hundred

The unit of flux density in the practical systhe webcr per square meter. This is ten thousand times as great as the corresponding unit in the c.g.s. electromagnetic system, 2 4 the gauss, so that 1 weber/meter = 10 gauss. Flux density and
to several thousand.

tem

is

strength in electromagnetism are related to each other somewhat as strain and stress are related in elasticity, or as effect and
field

cause in
is

logic.

The

field

strength

is

the cause and the flux density

the effect.

26-7]

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

235

26-7. Flux.
density,
it is

also

and measured

expression, flux of of as the a thought density quantity called flux in webers. It is an unfortunate fact that flux is an-

As might be guessed from the

we speak of magnetic lines we mean flux lines more often than we do field lines. Which is meant can generally be inferred from the context. From now on we
shall

other entity visualized in terms of lines direction as the field lines. In fact when

drawn

in the

same general

always be

specific.
2
,

If

<i>

density in

webers/m
is

and

is

stands for flux in webers, B is flux area in square meters, the equation

connecting them

purpose we shall use fundamental entities: length, time, mass, and quantity of electricity. These we shall denote by the letters L, T, M, and Q respectively. For example, the dimensions of a velocity are those of length divided by time or L/l\ l From this we could infer that the unit is the meter usually written LT~ A linear acceleration has the dimensions LT~ 2 Since force second. per equals mass times acceleration by Newton's second law, the dimensions of force are LT~~ 2 M. Work or energy has the dimensions of force times
is

26-8. Dimensions. that some sort of classification a system which reduces them

$ = BA So many technical
desirable.
all

terms have now accumulated

For

this

to combinations of four

distance or

L?T~ 2 M.
.

Electrical potential
is

is

work per unit charge or

L?T~2 MQ~ l

Electric current

l l lombs per second. Electrical Magnetic field strength from the first equation of section 26-5 is current divided by length or Lr l T~ Q. From the fact that // is also force per unit l magnetic pole we can derive the dimensions of pole as F/H or L T~*M / Lr T~*Q
l

I^ 1 Q, measured fundamentally in couresistance is L 2 1^MQ- /T- Q or l?T-*MQ-*.

l l equations of section 26-6 the dimensions of B are T~ MQ~ while those of l l those of I? T~ same as the are flux, <t>, pole, namely, MQ~~ Finally, the dimensions of k e from Coulomb's law for electric charges are obtained like /z is a pure number. Thus the from Fed2 /gi<72, remembering that 2 dimensions of k. are LT~ 2 /Q2 or L*T~*MQ-*. The product of the dimensions of k e and k m are L?T-*MQr' 2 Lr l M~ lQ2 or L 2 T^~ 2 that is, a velocity squared. If we remember the numerical values we find that k e k m = 9 X 109 X 107 meters2 /sec. 2 or 9 X 10 16 meters2 /sec. 2 10 8 meters/second, which happens to be the speed This is the square of 3 with which radio, light, and other electromagnetic disturbances travel through free space. This is, of course, no accident. The dimensions of electric capacitance are obtained from C = Q/V or Q/L2 T~ 2 MQ~ l or
,
.

no dimensions, as L- 1 T~ 1 QL2 /L2 T~ 1 MQ- 1 or L~ 1 M~ 1Q2

or L 2 T~*MQ~ l From the second equation of section 26-5 we obtain the dimensions of k m remembering that permeability, /z, is a pure number with
.

From any

of the

ML

26-9. Effect of a Magnetic Field on a Current.

Figure

26-3 represents a square electric circuit in a vertical plane in which flows an electron current, 7, in a counterclockwise fashion as in-

236
dicated

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

[26-10

by the arrows. If a vertical wire carrying a current, 7', is 1 near the square circuit, the direction of I being downward, placed the result will be that current T will tend to move toward the left. This is because electrons moving in the
same
direction lose

some

of their repulsion,

while electrons moving in opposite directions repel each other more. A convenient way of

remembering the direction of the force on I' found to be as follows: observe first by means of the left hand rule of section 26-2
is

lines of force

that the square circuit produces magnetic which inside the square are
the observer; then using the left again as in figure 26-4, recite the

away from
hand

physical fact, "Current (1) in & field (2) produces motion (3)," putting into position in

thumb, forefinger, and middle That is, the thumb will represent the finger. the current, forefinger the field, and the
turn
the

Figure
is

26 " 3

'

toward the left. 26-10. Comparison of Forces Exerted by a Magnetic Field on Poles and Currents. A magnetic field, 77, exerts a force, F, on a magnetic pole, p, which is
middle linger the motion of the wire, which
given by the equation

F = Hp
where

is

in

newtons, II in

in pole millioersteds, units. The direction of the force

is

and p

the

same as the

direction of

the

field.

A magnetic field,
force, F,
igure
"
'

77, exerts

on a wire of length, /, a carrying current, 7, in a me/*,

dium

of permeability,

given by the equation

Comparing
seen that

this

with the

first

equation of section 26-6

311
2
,

it will

be

it is

simpler to say

F=

where F is in newtons,

B in webers/m

/ in amperes, and

in meters.

26-11]

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

237

The

force, the flux density, and the current are all at right angles to each other; the force in the direction of the middle finger of figure

26-4, the flux density the forefinger,

26-11. Illustrative Problems.
(1)

and the current the thumb.

of sec-

Check the second equation

tion 26-10 dimensionally. Solution: The usual notation for stating that the dimensions of L T~*M is to write the equation

are

Similarly

f/x]

[/]

[k m ]

= L = L-IM-*&

has a totally different meaning from that of p, = 1. first means that /* is a pure number while the second means that not only is it a pure number, but its numerical value is 1.000. Another way of = LPT^M^. Now to indicating that n is a pure number is to say [/z] check the relation [F] = [/z HIl/k m ] we have

The The

relation, [p]

1,

hand side does reduce to the left hand side, we can say that we have checked the equation dimensionally. It should be possible to check dimensionally any equation of physics.
Since the right
(2) Find the side push on a wire 20 centimeters long which carries a current of 2 amperes and lies in the armature of a motor in a field of 10,000

oersteds.

faces,

Assuming this wire to lie in the air gap between the pole We also have I = 0.2 meter, 7=2 amperes, // = 10,000,000 10 7 newton-meters2 /pole 2 Thus from the second millioersteds, and k m
Solution:

1.

equation of section 26-10

(1)(10,OQO,000)(2)(0.2)

10,000,000

This reduces to F = 0.4 newton. Since there are 4.45 newtons to the pound, this is about 0.09 pound or 1.44 ounces. But if there are, say, 200 of these conductors under the pole pieces of the motor at any one time, the total force would be about 18 pounds and would exert a satisfactory torque.

26-12.

Motors and Meters.

Figure 26-5

is

to

be thought

of as the cross section of a motor, the armature of which is free to rotate between the pole pieces (labeled and 5). Let us adopt the convention that represents the cross section of a wire in which

current

the electrons are moving toward us and away from us. In the former case,
in the latter case, the tail.

we

a wire with electron are seeing the tip of

an arrow and

We should first check to see

238
if

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

[26-12

the flow of current in the

field as

indicated

by the four arrows

would actually make the left hand north and the other south. Grasping the left hand pole with the left hand, with the fingers pointing in
the direction of the field current, does result in pointing the upward in the direction of the north pole. Next apply the

thumb thumb

Figure 26-5.

and two

finger rule to determine the direction of rotation of the

armature, again using the left hand. Current (1) in a field (2) produces motion (3). Concentrating on the air gap between the north
pole and the armature, we find wires with electrons coming toward us, so we point the thumb of the left hand toward us. The field

goes out of the north pole through the armature into the south pole, so we point the forefinger in that direction. The middle finger by

now

is pointing down, which is therefore the direction of rotation of that side of the armature. For practice the student should apply the rule again to convince himself that the other side of the arma-

ture rotates upward.

The motor

is

arranged with brushes to feed in the current to the

armature always in the same direction in spite of the rotation, so that the effect is continuous. If, on the other hand, an apparatus is constructed so that the tendency to rotate is counterbalanced by a spring, it is possible to move an indicator across a scale to an extent dependent on the strength of the current flowing. Such a "meter" is called a galvanometer. A galvanometer may be arranged
to measure either current (ammeter) or voltage (voltmeter). Inside

26-13]

MAGNETISM AND4HE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

239

Is a galvanometer in parallel with a low resistance. When the ammeter is put in heavy copper strap of series with the rest of the circuit, most of the current goes through the strap, but what little goes through the galvanometer is still proportional to the total current, and the scale may be graduated to give the reading of the total current. Inside the box housing of the voltmeter is a galvanometer in series with a considerable resistance. When the voltmeter is put in parallel with the apparatus whose voltage is desired, the small current through the voltmeter will be proportional to the potential drop across its terminals and again the scale of the instrument may be calibrated to give this

the box housing, the ammeter

reading in volts.

26-13. Induced Electromotive Force. Of the three comof producing an electromotive force, namely, the chemical method utilizing a voltaic or storage cell, the thermoelectric method, and the magnetic, the last is by far the most important commercially. We think of it as a process of "cutting lines of force" with a conductor, and the "induced electromotive force" in volts is numerically equal to the rate at which the lines of force

mon methods

are cut.

The
is

reason that electrons tend to

at right angles both to itself

move through a
and
to a field

wire while

it

moving

may

be seen by

considering a simple experiment. Imagine pushing a metallic wire, held parallel to the plane of the paper and perpendicular to the bar magnet, down into the paper just beyond the letter TV in figure 26-1.

The moving

electrons,

which constitute the

electric current in the

insulated wire of the electromagnet, must be thought of as coming up out of the paper at the top of the diagram and going down into

the paper on the under side. The free electrons in the metallic wire that we are pushing down through the field will thus find themselves

moving

in the

same

the paper. As we other lose some of their repulsion for each other. For this reason the free electrons in the moving wire will tend to move along the wire in

direction as the electrons that are going into have seen, electrons moving parallel with each

a direction toward the bottom of the page; if the wire is part of a closed circuit there will be an electron current in this direction. At

any rate there

will

be a redistribution of electrons constituting an

electromotive force.

This e.m.f. exists only during the relative motion of the wire and the field, and it makes no difference which one of the two does

240
the moving. If
of flux lines or

MAGNETISM AND

THE*- ELECTRIC

CURRENT

[26-14
is

E represents the e.m.f

in volts,

and $
/

the

number

webers cut by the wire in time,

seconds, then

equation checks dimensionally. Another equation closely resembling this is

The student

will notice that this

E=
where again

Blv
is

E is

e.m.f. in volts,

the length of the wire that is velocity of this wire in meters per second.

flux density in webers/ 2 / is cutting the field in meters, and v is the

,

26-14. Induction Coil; Transformer. We can easily arrange it so that a magnetic field moves or varies in the presence of a stationary wire. For example, in figure 26-1, assume an additional wire to be wound around the iron core with the two ends of the new
wire electrically connected. If, now, the original circuit is broken, the accompanying magnetic field will shrink to zero in the presence
of the new wire. The relative motion of the shrinking field and the wires will result in an electromotive force in both the old and the

new

wire in the same direction in which the original current was flowing. Since the circuit was broken in the original wire, no current
it,
it.

flows in
flows in
will

but since the new

When

circuit is closed, a momentary current the original battery circuit is again closed, there

be a momentary current in the new wire in the opposite direction, due to the increasing magnetic field in the presence of the wire.
If the

gard

circuit consists of several turns of wire, we the e.m.f. 's in each turn as in series with each other.

new

may

re-

We

shall

now

call

the primary,

the original windings and the new wind-

ings the secondary, circuit. An induction coil (see figure 26-6)

is

a device of this type.

circuit

The
of

a primary few turns of insulated wire on an iron core with connections that remind us of the principle
consists
of the electric bell.

Figure 26-6.

The hamforth, thus constantly interrupting current This causes the flux lines to shrink and grow

mer again
in the

flies

back and
circuit.

primary

regularly at a rapid rate.

The secondary

circuit consists of

many

26-15]

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

241

turns of fine wire also carefully insulated. Since these turns lie in the rapidly changing field, they will be the seat of an induced electro-

motive force and on account of the many turns, the total voltage will be very large, thousands of volts. A spark will thus jump between the terminals of the secondary circuit for a considerable distance.
Instead of interrupting the primary circuit mechanically, we may feed into it an alternating current (abbreviated to a.c.} in which the electrons reverse their direction of motion continuously. Thus
the flux lines constantly shrink to zero and expand in the other direction. Again there will be a voltage induced in the secondary. Such

an apparatus

is

known

as a transformer.

The

relation

between the

ax. voltage, PJ applied to the primary of the transformer and that induced in the secondary, E s is given by the equation
,

where n p is the number of turns of wire in the primary and n, the number of turns in the secondary circuit. In the transformer it is much more efficient to make the iron core more in the shape of a
torus (doughnut-shaped) so that the flux lines may exist in iron throughout their entire length. Transformers are used to "step up"

and "step down" voltages. For example, electric companies find it more economical to transmit their power at high voltages and low currents (hence small PR heat losses) to the places where it is to
be used, then step down the voltage to 110 volts by means of transformers located on poles at the point of delivery.
26-15. Inductance.

One more

technical term

must be defined

here for use in our coming discussion of alternating currents, namely inductance. Inductance plays just about the

same part
ratio

in electrical theory that

mass does

in mechanics.

Mass may be defined as the between a force and the resulting rate of change of velocity; similarly inductance may be defined as the ratio between an electromotive force and the resulting rate of change of current. Up to this time, we have considered our circuits after a steady state had been established, in which case the only effect of the impressed voltage was to maintain the constant current through the given resistance. But when the current is first turned on, it must grow from zero to its final value, and part of the voltage is used for this purpose.

242

MAGNETISM AND THE

if

ELECTRIC CURRENT
if

[26-15
it re-

Electrons behave as

they possessed inertia

they are at rest,

quires an electromotive force to start them moving, and once they are moving, they tend to continue in motion even if it means jumping the gap when the switch is opened. This electrical inertia is to
inertia

be identified with inductance just as we identified mechanical with mass. The equation connecting the quantities involved is

V =

(L) (rate of increase of current)

V represents a portion of the impressed voltage which is increasing the current and is measured in volts, and the rate of increase of
current
henry,
is

measured

in

amperes per second. The unit of L is the memory of Joseph Henry (1797-1878), an American
in

physicist.

Dimensionally, inductance

is

L MQ^ 2
2

We
sumed

are able to explain electrical inertia in terms of induced elec-

tromotive forces, whereas mechanical inertia must simply be asas a fact. At the instant when a voltage is first applied to a

piece of apparatus such as the electromagnet in figure 26-1, no current is flowing and no magnetic flux exists. When the current starts to flow and the magnetic flux lines begin to come into existence, they

cut across the wire in the electromagnet in such a direction as to induce an electromotive force opposing the impressed voltage.

Thus

at

any instant previous

to the establishment of the steady

state, part of the applied voltage is utilized in opposing this induced electromotive force and the rest in maintaining the current that

exists at the

moment. This

preceding paragraph

in the equation of the of this section is merely a portion of the total

is

why

the

impressed voltage.

When the switch is opened and the current begins

makes an arc

to shrink, the motion of the decreasing flux in cutting the wire is such as to induce a direct electromotive force which tends to keep the

current flowing and

across the switch.

The
written

kinetic energy of the electrons flowing in a circuit

may be

k.e.

just as mechanical translatory kinetic energy was \mp. In this in henries, and / in amperes. It is equation, k.e. is in joules, this energy which appears in the form of heat and light in the spark

or arc

when the switch

is

opened.

There are formulas for computing the inductances of various types of circuits. Only one of these will be given here, namely, that for an electromagnet like the one shown in figure 26-1. If / is the

26-16]

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

243
area in

length of the bar of iron in meters,

its cross-sectional

square meters, and

/JL

its

permeability, then

~
kj
Again L is in henries, n is the number of turns of wire, and k m is 10 newton-meters 2 per pole unit squared. By remembering the physical dimensions involved, it will be seen that k m may also be expressed as 10 7 coulomb 2 per kilogram per meter or as 10 7 meters per henry.
7

26-16. Illustrative Problems. (1) Find the inductance of the primary if the iron core is in the shape of a torus of mean circumference 0.7 meter, cross section 10 cm. 2 , and permeability 2,000, wound
of a transformer

with 200 turns of wire.

Solution: It is merely necessary to substitute into the last equation of O.OOlOw 2 /x = 2,000, the preceding section the values n = 200 turns, kw = 10 7 meters/henry, and / = 0.7 meter. Thus we have

A=

_
L =

47T

(200) (0.0010) (2,000)

UO

(0.7)

10~ henries. It is more customary to express this as 0.718 or 0.718 millihenry. (2) If the resistance of this electromagnet is half an ohm, find the rate at which the current is increasing a thousandth of a second after the switch has been closed in a 6-volt circuit; assume that the value of the current at this instant is 6.24 amperes. Solution: When the current is 6.24 amperes, 3.12 volts is necessary to make it flow on a 0.5-ohm circuit. Thus of the 6-volt total, 2.88 volts is still available to make the current grow. Substituting then in the first = 288 volts and L = 0.000718 equation of section 26-15 the values V henry, we can solve and find that the rate of increase of current at this instant is 2.88/0.000718 or 4,010 amperes per second. Since the final current in this circuit is to be 6/0.5 or 12 amperes and it is already 6.24 amit will take only 5.76/4,010 or 0.001436 second more to reach maximum value. As a matter of fact, the nearer the current gets to the 12-ampere mark the slower is the rate of increase, so that theoretically

peres, at this rate

it would require an infinite time; for all practical purposes, however, we consider the current steady after a few thousandths of a second. (3) How much energy will appear in the spark when this circuit, with

a 12-ampere current flowing, is broken? Solution: We need the second equation of section 26-15. henry, 7 is 12 amperes, therefore
k.e.

is

0.000718

} (0.000718) (12

Thus the energy

netic field but
joule.

This

is

of the circuit which was originally contained in the magwhich now appears in the spark at the switch is 0.0517 only about a hundred thousandth of a Calorie or about

0.00005 B.tu.

244

MAGNETISM AND THE

26-17. Lenz's Law.
it is

ELECTRIC CURRENT

[26-17

There is always some motor action in a and some generator generator action in a motor. This means that
very easy to turn a generator before the circuit has been is, while no current is flowing), the moment a current commences to flow, a side push (motor action) develops opposite to
while
closed (that

the direction of rotation. If the side push were in the same direction

and we should have perpetual motion. As a motor operates, the armature wires cut lines of magnetic force and an electromotive force is produced (generator action) opposite to the direction in which the current is flowing (we call it a back e.m.f.). If this back electroinstead of the opposite direction, the generator would run
itself

motive force were a direct electromotive force, we could use it to run the motor and have another case of perpetual motion. But we have just seen that perpetual motion is a violation of the law of
conservation of energy. Either of these statements, one for the generator and the other for the motor, may be considered a state-

ment

of Lenz's law. The statements may be reworded slightly so as to read (1) when a conductor moves in a magnetic field, a current tends to be produced, the side push on which is in the direction

opposite to the motion of the conductor, and (2) when a conductor carries a current in a magnetic field, motion tends to be produced,

the direction of which

is

such as to induce an electromotive force in

opposition to the current already existing in the conductor.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 26
Technical Terms Defined
Permeability.
in

in

The ratio between the force between two magnetic poles vacuo and the force between the same poles the same distance apart another medium is the permeability of this medium. The product of the magnetic field strength by the permeamedium and divided by the constant & w which is 107 new,

Flux Density.
bility of the

ton-metcrs 2 per pole unit squared, gives the flux density in practical units (webers per square meter).
Flux.

The magnetic

flux

through a given area

is

density by the area.

The

practical unit of flux

is

the product of the flux the weber.

Dimensions.

Dimensions of physical quantities are reductions of these quantities to the four fundamental quantities in physics, length, time, mass, and quantity of electricity. A few dimensions are as follows.

MAGNETISM AND THE

Physical term

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Symbol
I
t

245
Dimensions

Length

Time Mass
Quantity of
Velocity Acceleration
electricity

L T

m
q
v

M
Q

LT~ l LT~ Z

Force

F V
/

LT-M
tfT-M
L2 T~*MQ- 1
T-*Q

Energy
Potential

Current
Resistance

R
II

Magnetic field strength Magnetic pole Magnetic constant Flux density Flux
Electrostatic constant

p
k

B *
ke

T~
i:
2

MQ>2

T-

Mf (J- 1
(

Capacitance

1?T M() 2 Ir*I*M'' lp

Induced E.M.F.
flux

induced electromotive force is produced by cutting a conductor. The value of the induced electromotive by magnetic force in volts may be found by dividing the flux in webers by the time in seconds consumed in cutting it.

An

Inductance.

The inductance of a circuit is the ratio of that portion of the voltage employed in making the current increase by the rate of increase of the current. Its unit is the henry. Inductance in electricity corresponds to inertia in mechanics.
Laws, Rules, and Principles

Left

Rule. If the fist of the left hand be used with only the the thumb shows the direction of the magnetic flux if the closed fingers indicate the direction of flow of the electrons around an electromagnet. Or the thumb may indicate the direction of flow of the electrons along a wire and the fingers the magnetic flux around the

Hand Thumb

thumb extended,

wire.

Left

Hand Thumb and Two

Finger Rule.

If

the

thumb and

the

first

two

fingers of the left hand are extended in the most natural manner so that all three are at right angles to each other, they may be used to illustrate
(1)

For Side Push,

the
(2)

thumb

is

the relations involved in the statement (1) "A current (a) in a field (b) produces motion (c)" in which (a) and the next two fingers are (b) and (c) respectively, or
(2)

For Induced Electromotive Force.

"Motion

(a) in
(c) in

duces e.m.f.
(b),

a field (b) prowhich case (a),

and

(c) still refer to

the

thumb and two

Fields.

fingers respectively.

Two Methods
poles.

Producing Magnetic Equation

of

Method

(1),

by magnet

246

MAGNETISM AND THE

(2),

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Method

by an

electric current.

Equation

Two tnects of a Magnetic Field.

Effect (1), on a magnetic pole. Equation

F = mil
Effect (2), side push on a current.

Equation

Lenz's Law.

Both the induced electromotive force produced by cutting magnetic flux with a conductor and the side push exerted on a currentbearing conductor in a magnetic field arc in such a direction as to avoid a violation of the law of conservation of energy.

PROBLEMS
26-1. Draw a diagram of an electromagnet shaped like a horseshoe with poles labeled north and south respectively, showing the necessary
directions of the electron currents.

26-2. Find the current which must flow in a solenoid of 300 turns, one meter long, such that the magnetic field strength at its center may be

0.166 oersted.

If the axis of this solenoid is

placed in a horizontal position

at rigKt angles to the earth's magnetic field at a place where the latter is also 0.166 oersted, in what direction will a compass needle at its center point? Draw a diagram to illustrate.

26-3. A magnet, 25 centimeters between poles, has poles of strength 60 microunits. Find the strength of the magnetic field at a point 15 centimeters from one pole and 20 centimeters from the other.

26-4.

What

is

problem
26-5.

26-2, (1) with

the flux density through the center of the solenoid of an air core, and (2) with an iron core of permeaflux in a toroidal iron ring of permeability 2,000,

bility 1,500?

Find the total

mean circumference 90 centimeters, and it is wound with 300 turns of insulated

2

cross-sectional area 12 cm. 2 if wire which carries a current of

,

amperes.
26-6.

Newton's law

of gravitation is expressed

in

which the numerical value of k g is 6.66 X 10" 11 when F is in newtons, mi and W2 in kilograms, and d in meters. Find the dimensions of kg and assign units to its numerical value.
26-7. Magnetic moment is defined as the product of the length of a magnet by the strength of one of its poles. Find the dimensions of magnetic moment. A current of / amperes flowing in a circular wire of one
turn, such that the area of the circle magnet of moment
is

square meters,

is

equivalent to a

A In
km

Check

this relationship dimensionally.

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

247

26-8. Assume the lines of force in the earth's magnetic field to run from south to north and to dip below the horizontal at an angle of 74 degrees. The total intensity of this field is 0.59 oersted. If a rod two meters long that is part of a closed circuit is held at right angles to this field in a vertical plane and moved toward the west at the rate of 30 feet per second, what electromotive force will be induced and in what direction?
26-9. If the rod of the preceding problem is stationary, but carries a current of SO amperes, what force acts on it and in what direction?

oersted,

26-10. If the horizontal intensity of the earth's magnetic field is 0.166 what force does this field exert on one pole of a compass needle the pole strength of which is 0.001 of a micropole unit?

26-11. certain motor has 300 conductors under the pole pieces, each 0.3 meter long and carrying a current of 5 amperes. If the field through the air gap in which these conductors lie is 30,000 oersteds and the radius of
the armature
is

0.25 meter, find the torque acting on the armature.

26-12. As the armature of a motor rotates in the magnetic field supplied by the pole pieces, a back electromotive force of 1,105 volts is induced in the armature. This motor runs on 110 volts and the armature has a resistance of 0.2 ohm. What is the armature current? What power is much of this power goes into heat? Find supplied to the armature? the electrical efficiency of the armature.

How

26-13. A galvanometer has a resistance of 25 current of one milliampere to move its needle along

requires a one division. What resistance must be put in series with it inside the instrument case so that there will be one volt drop across the terminals of the instrument when the needle moves one division? Into what instrument has the galvanometer now been transformed? Draw a diagram showing how it could be used.
its scale

ohms and

26-14. A galvanometer has a resistance of 25 current of one milliampere to move its needle along

ohms and
its scale

requires a one division.

What resistance must be placed in parallel with it (shunted across it) inside the instrument case so that a combined current of one ampere will
go through both galvanometer and shunt when the needle moves one division? Into what instrument has the galvanometer now been transformed? Draw a diagram showing how it could be used.
26-15. If, instead of feeding the motor described in problem 26-11 a current, it is driven at the rate of 2,330 revolutions per minute, it becomes a generator. What electromotive force will then be induced in each of its

conductors?
26-16. A step down transformer is desired, the high side of which may be attached to a 110-volt 60-cycle line and the low side to furnish 4 volts with which to ring a bell. If there arc 1,000 turns of wire in the primary, how many turns must there be in the secondary?

26-17. Find the number of turns that must be wound on an iron core of permeability 1,600, length 80 centimeters, and cross-sectional area 20 square centimeters to make up an inductance of one henry.

26-18. Find the energy in joules residing in the magnetic field surrounding a current of 10 amperes as it flows through an inductance of 5 henries. What ultimately becomes of this energy?

248
26-19.

MAGNETISM AND THE

ELECTRIC CURRENT

certain circuit has a resistance of one ohm and an inductance One hundredth of a second after the switch is closed in this circuit, the current has risen to one thousandth of its full value. If 10 volts is impressed on this circuit, how fast is the current increasing at this instant? Ten seconds after closing the switch, the current has risen to 63.3 per cent of its full value. How fast is the current now increasing? One minute after closing the switch, the current has reached 99.75 per cent of its full value. How fast is the current now increasing?
of 10 henries.

CHAPTER

27

Alternating Currents

27-1. Qualitative Description of an Alternating Current. The simplest type of alternating current is that in which the electrons oscillate in the manner described in chapter 15, that is, in simple harmonic motion. Thus there is a certain instant in each cycle when they are approximately at rest, a quarter of a cycle later they

moving with maximum velocity in one direction, and half a cycle after this, they are moving with maximum velocity in the other
are
direction.
If the velocity of the electrons is

we obtain a diagram like the curve ADF in figure 27-2, which is the well known sine wave. The accompanying magnetic field also goes through a similar cycle, increasing from zero to a maximum, shrinking to zero, building up to a negative maximum, and again becoming zero. The common length of a cycle is one sixtieth of a second,
although other values are occasionally used, such as 25 cycles per second or 500 cycles per second. It is thus seen that in a discussion
of alternating currents, several more variables are involved than in direct current theory. These will not only include such items as

graphed against time,

and resistance, but, since the current is continually inductance will become important; also frequency and varying, will enter into the calculations. capacitance 27-2. Mechanical Analogies. There is a close parallelism between the behavior of an electric condenser and the phenomenon
voltage, current,
of elasticity in mechanics. It
is

easy to take the

first

electron out of

249

250

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

[27-3

the conductor on one side of a condenser and put it in the other side. In order to take the second electron away from the now positive plate, we must oppose the attraction between the opposite charges,
to put the electron on the the repulsion of like charges.

and

now And

negative plate, we must oppose the more charge the condenser

already has, the more voltage is necessary to produce any further charge, just as the more an elastic rod is bent, the more force is required to do any more bending, by Hooke's law. In the latter
case,

we have F = kx
see that
is

while in the electrical case

we have V = ~^Q
Some"com-

and we
times

1/C corresponds

to "stiffness" in mechanics.

it

said that

in electrical theory corresponds to

pliance" in mechanics. We have already seen that inductance in electricity corresponds to mass or inertia in mechanics.

furthermore true that electrical resistance corresponds which is proportional to the velocity with which an object moves through the resisting fluid medium. Thus E = RI corresponds to F R'v where F is the mechanical force
It
is

closely to fluid friction,

necessary to make the object move through the fluid with velocity, and the proportionality factor, R is the mechanical resistance. z;,
1

',

The behavior
motion

of electrons forced to execute simple harmonic with frequency, n, in a circuit containing resistance, R, in-

ductance, L, and capacitance, C, is then quite analogous to the behavior of a fairly heavy pendulum bob attached to a spring of medium stiffness and forced to move through a viscous liquid in

accordance with the requirements of simple harmonic motion.

will

It

pay us to consider these three effects separately. 27-3. Effect of Resistance Alone. In order

to

eliminate

inductance (electrical inertia) we shall make the pendulum bob very light, say of balsa wood. By removing the spring, we are freed of capacitance effects. We may imagine the viscous fluid to be molasses. Due to Archimedes' principle, it will be necessary to exert a downward force on the balsa wood merely to hold it under the surface, but this force is constant and need not be conthe effect of
sidered further. Since

we

are interested in the relationship between

voltage and

current, the relations between force and velocity in the mechanical analogy are to be considered.

We are starting with the simplest case. It is merely necessary with viscous friction to exert a large force at the same time that we wish a large velocity; therefore we say that the force varies har-

27-4]

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

251

monically in phase with the harmonic variation of the velocity. This means that when the velocity is zero, the force is zero; when the velocity has reached its maximum value in one direction (at the
direction.

center of the motion), the force is also a maximum in that same Ohm's law therefore holds for this case with no amend-

ments
R

- IR

Here as usual

ER is in volts,

I in amperes, and

R in ohms.

27-4. Effect of Inductance Alone.

the effect of inertia alone, the

In order to determime

pendulum bob must be made massive, 20 of it must move in a frictionless medium, air, lead; pounds say or better yet, in a vacuum; furthermore there must be no restoring force of a capacitance-like nature. This means that the supporting cord must be very long.
Suppose we start at A in figure 15-3 with zero velocity. Due to Newton's second law, if we wish an acceleration (which at this point is to be a maximum acceleration) we must apply a corresponding
force.

By the time our lead weight has reached the point O, this force
to zero,

must have diminished

but the velocity

will

then be a maxipoint with zero force),

mum. The weight will "coast" through the central maximum velocity and zero acceleration (which implies

but beyond a small force must be applied in the negative direction. This negative force increases to a maximum while the velocity shrinks to zero and then picks up a negative value. If the cycle is
divided into quarters and the quantities described respectively at A, O By O, and A, the forces at these points are respectively positive
y

maximum; zero; negative maximum; zero; positive maximum,, while the velocities are respectively zero; positive maximum; zero;
negative maximum; and zero. It will be noticed that the velocities are a quarter cycle behind the forces. In the electrical analogy, we

say that the current lags ninety degrees behind the voltage. voltage and current in this case are related by the equation

The

EL =
where

2-irnLI

EL is in

volts,

in cycles per second,

in henries,

and 7

in

amperes.

27-5. Effect of Capacitance Alone. The mechanical analogy in this case is obtained by replacing the lead pendulum bob with balsa wood again, retaining the nonviscous medium, but using a spring in such a way that the equilibrium position of the bob will be

252
at 0.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
9

[27-6

Then the force will be a negative maximum value at A where the velocity is again zero. This time the successive values of the forces at A, O, j5, O, and A are negative maximum; zero; positive maximum; zero; negative maximum, while the velocities are as
before zero; positive

maximum;

zero; negative
is

maximum; and

zero.

This time

it

will

be noticed that the velocities are a quarter cycle

also leading the voltage

ahead of the forces and the current 90 degrees. The equation is

by

where

Ec

is

in volts,

in

amperes, n in cycles per second, and

C in

farads.

Joint Effect of Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance. Returning now to the heavy lead pendulum bob with spring attached and moving in molasses, the resultant force will be the vector sum of three forces two of which are 180 degrees out of phase with each other and the third 90 degrees out of phase with each of the others. Likewise in the electrical case, the total
27-6.
is related to the three component electromotive forces voltage by the equation

The

This

may

be seen by a reference to figure 27-1.

He
Figure 27-1.

Since the current

is

between / and

E as between E R and
0'B
f

always in phase with E R we have the same angle 1 E. Thus if O' A of figure 27-2
will represent /.

represents E, then

27-7. The Rotating Vector Diagram. Figure 27-2 serves show how a "sine wave" may be depicted by a vector rotating counterclockwise. The arrow Of A may be imagined to rotate uniformly and its projection at any instant on the axis of ordinates
to
9

27-7]
will give the points

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

253
1

on the sinusoid. A is the projection of 0* A at zero time, after A' has rotated counterclockwise through 90 O m degrees, D at 180 degrees and F at 360 degrees. The dashed sinusoid represents the current in a similar fashion; the current lags behind
1

Figure 27-2.

the voltage in this diagram. It will be seen that the rotating vector diagram is the full equivalent of the data shovn by. the two sinusoids

and

is

much more compact.

If

E L happens to be smaller than

c , figure

27-1 will be replaced

by

figure 27-3.

Figure 27-3.

In this case figure 27-2 is replaced the current leads the voltage.

by

figure 27-4

and we say that

Figure 27-4.

254
27-8.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

[27-8

The Alternating Current Equation.

Putting together

the equations of sections 27-3, 27-4, 27-5, arid 27-6 gives

which when solved

for

I gives

If

we

let

X stand for 2wnL

/=

---, this becomes

E
I

V%
in

X is called
By

reactance and

is

measured

ohms.

definition

XL =
Xc =

XL

is

called inductive reactance

and

X c capacitive reactance.

If

stands for

V& + x*
7

we have

Z
measured
in

is

called

impedance and

is

likewise

ohms. Thus

Z=

p
A

circuit consists of an alternating cur27-9. Illustrative Problem. rent generator of electromotive force 120 volts, frequency 60 cycles, and negligible impedance, in series with a resistance of 10 ohms, a coil of

Figure 27-5.
negligible resistance

but of 0.1 henry inductance, and a condenser of 100 microfarads capacitance. Find the current, the phase relation between current and voltage, and also the voltages across each part of the circuit.

27-9]
Solution:

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

255

The diagram representing such a circuit is shown in figure condenser represents a break in the circuit through which a direct current will not pass, but in the case of an alternating current, the electrons first pile up on one side of it, at the same time draining out of the other side, then drain out of the first side and pile up in the second side, repeating this at each cycle. The higher the frequency of an alternating current, the less is the reactance of a condenser, and the greater the reactance of an inductance; on the other hand, condensers offer more reactance to low frequency alternating currents and inductances very little reactance.
27-5.

In our problem the inductance has a reactance, XL, of 27r(60)(0.1)

37.7

ohms and

the capacitance a reactance,

_
,

Xc

of

or 26.5

ohms

27r(60)10-4

Then
The impedance,
and by the next

X = XL - X c =

37.7

is

26.5

11.2

ohms
2 ==

Z, of this circuit then

VlO2

(11.2)

15.01 ohms,

to the last equation of section 27-8

.

= E"
Z

120

15XH

= 700 7 '"

amperCS

same current

Since in this circuit everything is in series with everything else, the is flowing at each instant in all parts of the circuit, hence 7.99 amperes is the first result we seek.

By the equation of section 27-3, R which is the voltage across AB, is 79.9 volts. This is the horizontal vector of figure 27-1. (7.99)(10) By the equation of section 27-4, L which is the voltage across BC, is 301 volts, which is greater than the impressed voltage (120 (37.7)(7.99)
,

volts) on the entire circuit. It is thus more dangerous accidentally to get across the points EC with the fingers than across AF. This voltage is represented by the vector in figure 27-1 which points upward.

By

the equation of section 27-5,

(7. 99) (26.5)

which

is

the voltage across

CD,

is

212 volts, which

is

again greater than the impressed voltage.

This is shown in figure 27-1 by the downward vector. In figure 27-1, the vector labeled E L - E c is equal to 301 212 or 89 volts. This is the voltage across of figure 27-5. 2 or 119.6 As a check, E should be V(79.9) 2 volts, which (89.0) rounds off to 120 volts. The sine of the angle between / R and E in figure 27-1 is 89/120 or 0.742. This corresponds to an angle of 47.9 degrees. See appendix 7. Therefore the phase relation between the current and the voltage in this circuit is that the current lags 47.9 degrees behind the impressed voltage.

ED

However, although the current in the circuit is everywhere the same at any given instant, the voltages are different, although they are such as to add vectorially to 120 volts. Thus in the resistance AB the current is in phase with the voltage. In the pure inductance, EC, the current lags
,

90 degrees behind the voltage, while in the pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

CD,

the

256

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

[27-10

Actually there is no such thing as an inductance without resistance nor a resistance without inductance. When it is desired to wind a resistance "noninductively," the middle point of the wire is found; the wire is then bent back on itself and wound double, so that everywhere in the circuit, wherever the current is flowing in a given direction in one wire, there is a wire adjacent to it containing the same current in the opposite direction. Therefore the magnetic fluxes nearly cancel out.

27-10. Resonance. In the illustrative problem just solved, E L and E c were both larger than E, but added vectorially (also in this case algebraically) to something less than R. If E L and E c should be numerically alike and thus add to zero the condition of the circuit is described as that of "series resonance." Thus we have resonance
is numerically equal to the capacitive In this case the reactance, X, of the circuit reduces to zero and the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance.

when

the inductive reactance

reactance.

Representing this situation by one equation

2irnL

we have

If

we

solve this equation for n,

we

obtain
1

n
It

frequency for which the circuit will be in resonance. We shall see that tuning a circuit to resonance becomes important in radio. This is because at the resonant frequency the current is very much larger for a given impressed voltage than at any other frequency.
is

therefore possible in

any given

circuit to find a

27-11. Power. One of the power equations that we met in the discussion of direct current circuits still holds in alternating current theory; the other one does not.
Power
still

= PR

represents the rate of heating in watts if I is in amperes and ohms. In fact, we could use this equation to give us a picture of the alternating current ampere. Put into words, we have the
is

in

will generate

statement that an alternating current ampere is so chosen that it heat in a given resistance at the same rate as one
direct current.
all

ampere of

In figure 27-6, we have three similar triangles, the same acute angle, 6.

containing
first

The second

is

obtained by multiplying each side of the

by the

27-12]

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

257

current, 7, and the third by multiplying each side of the second by the current. Thus the hypotenuse of the second triangle is IZ or the impressed voltage, and in the third triangle, the horizontal side
is

PR or

the power P.

Since the cosine of an angle

is

the ratio of

the leg of a right triangle adjacent to the angle to the hypotenuse (see appendix 6) we have from the third triangle of figure 27-6

P =

EfcosO

which is more complicated than our similar direct current relation. Cos is called the power factor of the circuit. Its value varies between zero for a pure reactance, either inductive or capacitive, and unity for a pure resistance. That is, no power would be consumed in a pure inductance or a pure capacitance, if there were such things.
27-12. Alternating Current Meters.
In
the

usual

direct

current ammeter, the side push on a wire that carries a current in a magnetic field is utilized. Since a "permanent magnet" is employed,
is nearly proportional to the first power of the current. an alternating current is put through this type of meter, the needle merely attempts to oscillate about the zero position with a frequency of n cycles per second. Therefore the permanent magnet is replaced by an electromagnet, and since this reverses at the same frequency with which the current reverses, a deflection of the needle is obtained which is now proportional to the square of the current.

the deflection

If

But it is possible to calibrate the scale directly in amperes by placing, for example, a 5 where 25 should be, a 4 where 16 should be, and so on. This results in compressing the low end of the scale in comparison with the upper end. The deflection of the needle
is

actually proportional to the

average (or mean) of the square of the current, and by the device of calibrating the scale as we do, we read directly the square root of abbreviate this to root-mean-square the mean squared current.

We

Similarly root-mean-square voltages are read from voltmeters. In the case of a sinusoid, such as those in figures 27-2 and
current.
27-4, the root-mean-square values are 0.707 of the

maximum values.

258
It is thus immaterial

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

[27-13

whether we use as vectors

diagrams the

maximum

in our rotating vector values as in figures 27-2 and 27-4 or the

root-mean-square values as in figures 27-1 and 27-3, since one is directly proportional to the other. In general the root-mean-square
values are the more convenient,

little

27-13. Parallel Circuits. In this book we shall say very about parallel alternating current circuits other than to point

out that in this case the voltage is the same across the various elements that are in parallel, but the several currents now add
vectorially to give the total current. The equations of sections 27-3, 27-4, and 27-5 still hold for the respective portions of the circuit.

an inductance and a capacitance are in parallel and the frewe say we have a case of antiL quency is such that resonance. This is often referred to as a "tank circuit." The comIf

(:

bination presents a high impedance at this particular frequency. 27-14. Illustrative Problem. Find the power consumed in the circuit
of section 27-9.

Solution:

We may

consumed

in either

do this in either of two ways. Since no power is a pure inductance or a pure capacitance, it is only

necessary to use the relation

P=

I 2 R for the resistance.

Thus

p =
cos 47.9 degrees which
is

(7.99)2(10)

638 watts
EIcosO.
In this case cos0
is

It is also possible to use the relation

P=

0.670.

Thus

P =

(120)(7.99)(0.670)

or 642 watts which checks 638 watts to the degree of precision to we are working.

which

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 27
Technical Terms Defined

Root-Mean-Square Value.

The square root of the average of the squared instantaneous values of the current or voltage. For a sine wave, it is 0.707 of the maximum value. It is the current (or voltage) read by an alternating current ammeter (or voltmeter).

Inductive Reactance. The ratio of the root-mean-square voltage to the root-mean-square current in a pure inductance measured, in ohms* It is> equal to the product of 2?r by the frequency by the inductance.
Capacitive Reactance. The ratio of the r.m.s. voltage to the r.m.s. current in a pure capacitance. Measured in ohms. It is equal to the reciprocal of the product of 2?r by the frequency by the capacitance in farads.

Reactance. in ohms.

Inductive reactance, minus capacitive reactance.

Measured,

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
Impedance.

259
and the
r.m.s. current

The

ratio

between the

r.m.s. voltage

in a circuit containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Measured in ohms. Is equal to the square root of resistance squared plus

reactance squared.

Phase Angle.
diagram.

Angle between voltage and current on a rotating vector

Resonance.

The condition of an alternating current circuit capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive reactance.

when

the

Power

Factor. The ratio between the power and the product of r.m.s. voltage by r.m.s. current. It is the cosine of the phase angle.

PROBLEMS
27-1. What is the current through a resistance of 10 ohms, an inductance of 7 henries, and a capacitance of 1 microfarad when connected in series on a 115-volt line at 60 cycles? How much is the current out of phase with the voltage?
27-2. If one ampere, 60 cycles is flowing through the circuit of the preceding problem, find the a.c. voltage across each part of the circuit as well as the voltage across the entire circuit. 27-3. Solve problem 27-2 for 120 cycles instead of 60 cycles.

27-4. At what frequency will an inductance of 5 henries and a capacitance of 2 microfarads be in resonance?
27-5.

110- volt

a.c. line

sends a current of 5.50 amperes through a

series circuit the resistance of

which is 17 ohms. Compute the impedance power factor. 27-6. A watt meter indicates that the input to a motor is 1,900 watts when connected to a 115-volt line. The ammeter shows that a current of 20 amperes is flowing. What is the power factor, the resistance, and the
of the line, also the

reactance?
27-7. When a coil is connected with a 120-volt d.c. line, 12 amperes flow through the coil. But when it is connected with a 60-cycle line of the same voltage, only two thirds of the original current flows. Calculate (1) the resistance of the coil, (2) its reactance, and (3) the capacitance needed to increase the current to its original value.

CHAPTER

28

Radio; Radar
28-1.

Speed of Transmission of a Telephone Message Versus Speed of Sound. Sound travels in air at the speed of about 1,100 feet per second. But a man in Boston can carry on a telephone

conversation with a friend in California and perceive no delay due to distance in the replies to his questions. If the telephone line were

long enough to go around the world, there would still be a delay of than a second in the transmission of a message. In the telephone, the sound at the transmitter makes a diaphragm vibrate;
less

these vibrations modify the resistance of an electric circuit; the consequent variations in the direct electric current make an electro-

magnet vary
adjacent

this in turn sets

in strength in the receiver at the other end of the line; up vibrations in a disk, and consequently in the

one

air, closely similar to those in the transmitter. Thus, when listens at the telephone, he ordinarily hears the words slightly sooner than someone in the same room with the who is

speaker

dependent on the speed of sound waves in air. 28-2. Electromagnetic Waves. When the current is turned on in an electromagnet, the magnetic field thus created theoretically extends to an infinite distance, but it is not all created at the same
instant.
It takes 1/60 of a second to establish the

magnetic

field

260

28-3]

RADIO; RADAR

261

3,100 miles away, and one whole second for the effect to reach a point 186,000 miles from the electromagnet. If the current is continually reversed in the electromagnet, as

happens when an

alter-

nating current

used, then the magnetic field in the surrounding is also space subject to reversals. In the case of a 60-cycle alternating will be points in space 3,100 miles apart, where the there current,
is

magnetic fields are in the same direction at the same time; thus we can say that electromagnetic waves are created by the alternating electromagnet, with a "wave length" of 3,100 miles (or 5,000 kilometers). If the frequency were 60 kilocycles per second (60,000 cycles per second), the resulting "wave length" would be five kilometers (5,000 meters). The equation is (see section 16-4)
n\

= V

There

very close connection between these alternating electromagnetic fields and light waves, enough to warrant us in including
is

same category of "electromagnetic radiation," radio waves, infrared, ordinary, and ultraviolet light, X rays, gamma rays, and secondary cosmic rays which result from charged particles entering our atmosphere at enormous speeds from outer space.
in the

28-3. Four Reasons Why Radio at One Time Seemed Impossible. For a long time, it was supposed that the varying magnetic fields thus produced by oscillating currents would be too feeble to be detected at distances more than a few feet from the source. A second difficulty lay in the fact that, in order to radiate a reasonable fraction of the total power, more rapid oscillations were required than could be produced by mechanical means. The

was how to modify these waves, assuming they could be produced, so as to reproduce music and voices. Fourth, the details of a telephone receiver are such that the rapid alternations of the radio wave will produce in it an average effect of zero; the receiver, however, responds to a varying direct current, so that some
third problem

necessary to rectify the alternating impulses. It is a remarkable fact that the solution of all four of these difficulties came with the invention of a single device, the radio tube. The four
device
is

applications of it just suggested will be discussed separately under the headings amplification, oscillation, modulation, and rectification.

28-4. Amplification

By Means

of the

Radio Tube.

The

radio tube (see schematic representation in figure 28-1) consists essentially of an evacuated glass tube with wires sealed in, con-

nected to a filament, a grid, and a plate within the tube. The termi-

262

RADIO; RADAR

[28-5

nals of the filament are connected to a low voltage from a battery or transformer which causes a current called the filament current to

heat the filament so that

free electrons are

it

glows.

When

a metallic wire

is

heated,

evaporated out of the wire and hover around in of the wire. If now, a large positive voltage is outside the space just
applied to the plate, it will attract the negative electrons, resulting in a flow of electrons from the filament to the
plate, called the plate current.

controlled in three ways:

current,
(2)

(1)

The plate current may be by changing the filament

by changing the positive voltage on the plate, and (3) by varying the voltage on the grid, which lies between the filament and the plate. If the grid is made negative, it repels the electrons which are trying to pass from the filament to the plate, and thus
decreases the plate current. If the grid is made positive, it increases the flow. A slight change in the grid voltage

has the same effect as a very large change in the plate ,, Tr r ^ Al_ voltage. If a fairly large resistance is inserted into the plate circuit, the IR drop across it is a reasonably large
-

Figure 28-1.

fraction of the plate voltage. If several tubes are used in such a way that the IR drop of each plate resistor is applied to the grid of the next tube, an extremely small variation in voltage in the first grid

produces a large effect on the plate voltage of the last tube. We say in this case that we have employed several stages of amplification.

Thus, an extremely small impulse at the microphone may be amplified to several hundred kilowatts at the antennae; also at the receiving end, a signal broadcast thousands of miles away may be picked up and amplified enough to be heard for several blocks.
frequency oscillatory current

A high be created by means of batteries, a radio tube, a condenser, and two inductances. In figure 28-2, the
28-5. Oscillation

Produced By the Radio Tube.

may

A -battery serves to heat the filament. The filament, grid, and plate are all inclosed in one glass tube as in figure 28-1. The .S-battery through L P charges the plate positively. As the plate current builds
the negative charges on the grid furnished by the the C-battery) increasing magnetic field in L P induces a voltage in LG which makes the grid increasingly negative. As stated in the

up

(in spite of

preceding section, this has the effect of decreasing the plate current. As the plate current shrinks, the decreasing magnetic field in LP in-

duces a voltage in

LG

which

this

time makes the grid

less negative,

28-6]

RADIO; RADAR

263

in turn increases the plate current. The cycle now repeats itself again and again, and the oscillations continue as long as the

which

circuit is

kept closed and the batteries

hold out.

The frequency, n, of

the oscil-

lations can easily be controlled since it depends on the capacitance, C, of the

condenser and the inductance

is

LP

If

and

in cycles per second, L P in henries, C in farads, the equation (see section 27-10) is

Frequencies from one per second to 60,000,000 per second may be obtained
in this

may

way. Much higher frequencies be obtained efficiently by means

of the

modern "cavity magnetron."

(1)

28-6. Illustrative Problems.

Find

Figure 28-2.

the frequency at which a condenser consisting of a glass plate 0.3 cm. thick with sheets of aluminum foil on each side of the
coil of 1,000 turns of wire
,

inductance made up of a

plate, of area 16 square centimeters, and an on a core of permeability

2 and length 20 cm., will oscillate 2,000, cross-sectional area of 5 cm. connected into a circuit with a suitable means of excitation.

when

tric constant,

Solution: Using the equation of section 23-6, c, of glass to be 8, we have A

and assuming the 0.0016w 2 k e = 9

,

dielec-

10 9 ,

0.003 meters, and

(8)(0.0016)

4(3.14)(9)(10 )(0.003)

3.77

X
=

f ara ds

Using the last equation of section 26- 15, we have n

2,000, k m

10 7

1,000,

,4

O.OOOSw3

0.20 meters,

and

, _ L "

4(3.14)(1,000)2(0.0005)(2,000)

_ ~

6>

lenries

(100(0.20)

Now using the equation of section 27-10,

n

with

L and C as just computed,

10,350 oscillations per second

W(6.28)(3.77)(10-U)
This would ordinarily be expressed as 10.35 kilocycles.

264
(2)
If

RADIO; RADAR

[28-7

a high rate of oscillation is desired, both the inductance and the capacitance must be as small as possible. Assuming that the inductance, Lp, in figure 28-2 is two microhenries, find the value of the capacitance,
C, so thaj the frequency will be

60 megacycles.
Solution: In the equation of
section 28-5,

LP =

n = 60,000,000 and 0.000002 henries. Thus we

have
60,000,000

1
f

2*V(().()(XX)()2)C

B is:

we obtain C= 3. 52X 1 (H 2 This would commonly be expressed as 3.52 micromicroSolving,

farads.

farads.

28-7. Modulation Produced by the Radio Tube.

Figure
28-3
illustrates

one

method

of arranging a circuit so that the sound vibrations at

Figure 28-3.

the microphone, Af, can be made to modify the amplitude of the radio wave.
original radio

First consider the

wave shown

in figure 28-4,

assuming silence at

M.

After a steady state is established, the situation is as follows: between the antenna and the ground there is a capacitance, CAJ (not represented in figure 28-3) which, together with the antenna in-

ductance,

L AJ

determines the frequency of the tube oscillations and

consequently the frequency of the emitted "carrier wave."

Figure 28-4.

induced voltage in L A is caused by the transformer effect from L P and in turn induces a voltage in LG which by means of the grid controls the plate current in the tube and thus maintains

An

the oscillations in
of the ^-battery.

LP

as depicted in figure 28-4, all at the expense If, now, a sound wave of the form shown in

28-8]

RADIO; RADAR

265

figure 28-5 is created at the microphone, fluctuations will be introduced in the resistance of the microphone circuit, and the micro-

phone current

will vary.

The transformer

action from LI to

Z, 2 will

Figure 28-5.

Figure 28-6.

Figure 28-7.

superimpose on the grid current the form of the sound wave, and the result of the modification, or "modulation" as it is called, will be the wave shown in figure 28-6, which represents the final shape of the radio wave broadcast at the antenna. Tf the same sound wave were sent out by another station with a greater wave length,
it

would appear as

in figure 28-7.

28-8. Rectification Produced by the Radio Tube. We have described the method of producing oscillations of sufficiently
high frequency to broadcast efficiently; the method of controlling (modulating) the amplitude of these oscillations so as to represent

music and speech; and the process of amplifying the

signals,

both

know that electromagat the sending and at the receiving end. netic radiation represents a varying magnetic field and will therefore
produce an alternating voltage in any conductor it encounters, such as the receiving antenna. It now remains to show how the alternating currents due to these alternating voltages may be rectified so as to be detected by a telephone receiver, an instrument which responds not to alternating but to a fluctuating direct current. Figure 28-8 shows a

We

266

RADIO; RADAR

[28-8

simple receiving circuit, with the tube used now as a detector, or rectifier. It is to be understood that the plate, grid, and filament are all contained in the tube as in the previous figures. We have
seen that heating the filament will evaporate out electrons; the plate, however, is not heated and hence cannot be made to serve as a
source of electrons. Hence, if an effort is made to reverse the direction of the current, after sweeping all the electrons in the tube back
into the filament, the action ceases for lack of electrons, that is, the current becomes zero. thus have in the radio tube a device

We

permit a current to pass in one direction but not in the " other. Such an apparatus is said to "rectify the alternating current. If, therefore, the telephone receiver is placed in the plate
will

which

shall obtain a reproduction of the original sound waves originating at the microphone of the sending apparatus. It will be noticed that in figure 28-8 there is an -battery to heat the filament,
circuit,

we

a .6-battery to make the plate positive, but no C-battery to give the "negative bias" to the grid necessary to control the plate current as described in section 28-4. The operation of the circuit in figure
28-8 may be described as follows: an alternating induced electromotive force is set up in the antenna with the frequency of the

broadcasting station. By varying the capacitance of the condenser, " represented with the arrow, the circuit may be tuned" to correspond to the frequency of the broadcasting station, since the relations involved are those of the equation in section 28-5. Until
this is done, the circuit will

not oscillate at the required frequency.

Figure 28-8.

the connection described in figure 28-8 as a "grid leak" were omitted, the grid would be connected with the rest of the apIf

28-9]

RADIO; RADAR

267

paratus only through the grid condenser, and would be described

as "floating." Under these conditions, electrons that happen to land on the grid on their way from the filament to the plate would have no way of escaping. Thus the grid would accumulate enough
of a negative bias to cut off entirely the flow of electrons through the tube. The grid leak represents a resistance just large enough,

say 3,000,000 ohms, so that sufficient of these electrons have a chance to escape through it from the grid to maintain the correct
bias for proper operation of the circuit. The fluctuations in the voltage of the grid due to the incoming radiation control the fluc-

tuations in the plate current which are detected in the telephone receiver, or which are amplified so as to operate a loud speaker. 28-9. Alternating Current Radio Sets. It has been simpler

throughout this discussion to speak of A-, B-, and C-batteries, which indeed are used in sets where no electrical power is available.

However,
source of

it is

possible

now

to use 110- volt electric

is

power

as the

all

the voltage required. If this

direct
*'
;

current, suitable resistances will make the correct voltages available at the proper points. Radio sets are even designed to utilize alter-

nating current power. Alternating current will heat the filament as well as direct current. In
the portions of the circuit where we desire direct current, it may be obtained from alternating
,

r
,

current,
rectifiers.

since

radio

tubes

may

be used as

(^ *

.
L

replace

Thus transformers almost completely batteries in the modern electric radio.

28-10. Electronics. During recent years, there has grown up an enormous industry now comparable in size with the automobile industry which is based on multifarious uses of radio tubes. This
is at present no apparent growth and expansion. Effects which have been known for many years, but which seemed too feeble for practical use, may now be utilized freely through the magic of the amplifying properties of radio tubes. Thus, light-sensitive photoelectric cells may be set to work in talking motion pictures, automatic door openers, burglar alarms, controls for automatic machinery, television, and thousands of other appliances. "Geiger counters" with made so sensitive and be so equipped many stages of ammay when electron enters that a an ionization plification single chamber, a click of any degree of loudness may be produced.

new

science

is

called electronics; there

limit to its future

268

RADIO; RADAR

[28-11

man-years during World War II went into the development of a system for radio direction finding
28-11. Radar.

Thousands

of

and ranging now expressed by the coined word radar. The principle dates back to the bat, which while flying emits a series of squeaks both high pitched and supersonic (above the audible range) and becomes aware of his surroundings by the way these sounds are reflected back to him. Figure 28-9 is an example of the blockdiagram in electronics and serves to show the fundamental principles of radar. Each rectangle represents a complicated set of electrical connections. We begin with the modulator, the function of which

Figure 28-9.

is

a second), turn

to turn on the oscillator for about a microsecond (a millionth of it off abruptly, and wait a millisecond (a thousandth

of a second) or so until time to turn it on again. The job of the radiofrequency oscillator is to deliver at the rate of millions of watts

electromagnetic radiation of about v3,000 megacycles (wave length 0.1 meter) to the antenna. Prior to the development of the so-called

"cavity magnetron/' obtaining this amount of power at this frequency was a sheer impossibility. The antenna must serve for both

sending and receiving purposes. It must be highly directional as well as capable of more or less rotation in order to "scan" the reflecting object. Its physical dimensions must be large in relation

wave lengths utilized. After the radiation has been reflected back from the object of interest, the task is to receive the impulse and, by the superheteroto the

which beats with the an intermediate incoming signal, prepare frequency (15 megacycles or so) signal for the indicator. It is important that the delicate receiver be turned off while the violent bursts of energy are being emitted by the oscillator, then turned on instantly afterward to receive the echo from an object sometimes only a few yards away. The indicator is usually a cathode-ray oscilloscope which contains a fluorescent screen. A line, which is straight up to the point where

dyne principle

of generating a local oscillation

28-12]

RADIO; RADAR
is

269

thrown on this screen. The position of the kink in this straight line is a measure of the time consumed in the to-andfro trip of the radio signal. Another device called the plan position indicator literally draws a map on a fluorescent screen of the region
the echo appears,

being scanned.

28-12. Radar in War.

Since radar impulses penetrate dark-

ness, fog, smoke, and rain, it may easily be seen how useful it was in both defense and offense during World War II. Combined with a device for distinguishing friend from foe, it enabled England to survive the German air attacks; it won the war against the sub-

marines in the Atlantic;

enabled the Pacific fleet to sink Japanese warships miles away at night; it vastly improved the performance of antiaircraft guns; and it was an invaluable adjunct to the bomber.
it

center," an enclosed room on the ship in which the radar indicators were located, was a much more likely place to find the commodore of the destroyer force than up on the bridge with the captain.

The "combat information

28-13. Radar in Peace. Radar will likewise be useful in both air and sea navigation and piloting in times of peace. Just as a plane may be spotted from ground by radar, so ground or mountain

peak or skyscraper

may

be detected by radar from a plane.

In-

directly, too, radar will have a great influence on peacetime electronic industry by reason of the vast amount of research that it has

already stimulated, and the large number of technicians trained in the field of electronics during the war. Even in the field of purely
theoretical research, uses for radar will be found.

When

it

was an-

nounced,
it

picked up by radar, immediately became obvious that the Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887, which ultimately resulted in the theory of relativity,
could

early in 1946, that the

moon had been

now be

possibility of checking the dimensions of

repeated on a colossal scale, to say nothing of the one of our convenient

astronomical yardsticks, the distance from earth to moon. It was even of interest to know that a radar beam could penetrate those
layers of ions in the earth's upper atmosphere, called collectively the ionosphere, from which low frequency radio waves are reflected

This meant that from this point on, it was physically possible to direct a V-2 rocket to the moon by radio control. Possibly, some day we shall have a photograph of that farther side

back

to earth.

of the

moon which man

has never yet seen!

270

RADIO; RADAR

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 28
Technical Terms Defined
Electromagnetic Radiation.

A term including radio, infrared, ordinary, ultraviolet light, rays, gamma rays, and secondary cosmic rays, all of which travel through space with the speed of 300,000,000 meters
and

per second. A tube made of glass or metal, either exhausted or Electronic Tube. filled with a gas at low pressure containing two or more electrodes. Diodes, triodes, tetrodes, pentodes, and so on.
Amplification.

which has the

Oscillation.

effect of

function of electronic tubes with three or more electrodes permitting a very feeble voltage to direct the

flow of a comparatively large amount of energy. A function of circuit containing one or

more

electronic tubes,

condensers, and inductances which results in the production of a wide range of electric oscillations without involving any moving parts. Modulation. The superposition of electrical oscillations of audio frequencies upon carrier waves of radio frequencies. Conversion of an alternating electrical voltage or current Rectification.
into one that
is

an

electrical valve

pulsating but unidirectional. This is accomplished by which permits the flow of electrons in one direction

but not the other.

Electronics.
ditions either in a

The study of the behavior of electrons under vacuum or in a gas at low pressure.

various con-

Radar.

device for finding the direction and the distance of an object by reflecting high frequency radiation from it.

PROBLEMS
28-1.

What

is

the

wave length corresponding

to a frequency of 550

kilocycles? 28-2. What is the frequency of a short-wave radiation with a length (1) of two meters; (2) of one centimeter?

wave

28-3. Two flat metal discs, 20 centimeters in diameter and 0.5 centimeter apart, have a capacitance of 0.0000555 microfarad. Find the dielectric

constant of the intervening medium.

28-4. Find the capacitance of an air condenser, the plates of which have an area of one square centimeter each and are separated by a distance of one centimeter.
28-5. It is desired to design a step down transformer which will take the place of the A -battery in an ax. radio set. Find two integers that will represent the number of windings in the primary and secondary of a transformer which will step the voltage down from 110 volts to 4.89 volts. 28-6. If, in the previous problem, the inductance of the primary is two henries, find the inductance of the secondary.

28-7. In order to tune to a frequency of 550 kilocycles, assuming the inductance to be fixed at 0.0485 millihenry, at what capacitance must the dial be set? 28-8. If the oscillator of a radar delivers a million watts for a microsecond, then rests for a millisecond, what is its average output?

CHAPTER

29

Photometry;
Reflection

and Refraction

of Light

29-1. Brief History of the Theory of Light. Christian Huygens (1629-1695) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727) were contemporaries and both were familiar with the same experimental data, yet Huygens argued strenuously for a wave theory of light and Newton for a projectile theory. Newton won at the time, and so great was his prestige that for a hundred years after his death,
physicists
still held to his projectile theory of light. Largely through the efforts of Fresnel (1788-1827), a brilliant young French physicist, the wave theory was again enthroned and held undisputed sway until 1887. In the meantime, Maxwell (1831-1879) had shown that electromagnetic waves were of the same nature as light, but of longer

wave

In 1887, the photoelectric effect was discovered by Hertz (1857-1894), a physical fact which completely contradicted the wave theory. In accordance with the photoelectric effect, feeble light from a distant star will knock out what we now know to be electrons from a sheet of zinc. With the same speed and wave
length.

length, the
electrons,

most powerful electric arc available will expel more but each electron will have the same kinetic energy as

was

those produced by the starlight. also incompatible with the

discovery of Planck's, in 1900,

physicists used first convenient for the purpose at hand.

29-2.
is

wave theory, yet for a period, one theory and then the other, whichever was
of the Nature of Light.

one more form of energy.

is

made

Light continuous energy, but up of discrete portions called photons. This was Planck's contriIt does not represent

The "Wave Mechanics" Theory

271

272

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

[29-2

bution. Each photon is created as such by being flung off from an electron or other atomic constituent while the latter is revising its status in the atom. We describe the process by saying that the electron has dropped from a certain energy level in the atom to a lower energy level, and that
reversible.

the photon represents the energy lost by the electron. The process is also But progress in explaining light and atomic structure seemed to be blocked until a theory was adopted in 1925 to the effect that the be-

probability laws.

havior of both photons and electrons is indeterminate and subject only to This indeterminacy therefore appears to be a basic assumption and is justified because the conclusions derived from the theory check marvelously with experimental results. The probability functions which describe the behavior of ultimate particles are factored into so-called psi-functions (^-functions), and due to the fact that there is a strong resemblance between these mathematical functions and the equations that
is

represent physical waves, the theory call the functions psi-waves.

called wave mechanics,

and we

shall

The only phase of the theory which interests us in this chapter is the point of view that is now being adopted in regard to radiation, and more particularly to that special type of radiation known as visible light. It is
convenient to speak of psi-waves as exerting a certain type of control over photons. For example, if we find that the probability that a photon is at a certain point is zero, it amounts to saying that we shall never find a photon at that point. In field-free space, if such a place could exist anywhere in the universe, a psi-f unction would be shaped like a transverse wave, and would move through space with what we are used to calling "the speed of light"; in fact, it will do very nearly this in space that is not quite free of fields. By fields we mean not only magnetic fields, but electric and gravitational as well. Psi-waves are found to obey a certain definite group of mathematical laws. For example, they may be added together, so that it is proper to speak of the "resultant" psi-wave. If the medium is not a perfect
velocities for different wave lengths are different, so that the resultant psi-waves will travel at an apparent rate which is called the group velocity. The most likely thing for a photon, once under the arch of

vacuum, the

the resultant psi-wave, is to stay there and be carried along with the group velocity of the waves. Thus the velocity of the photon may be very different from the velocity of any of the component psi-waves.

Hence, from one point of view, we might as well continue to think of a wave motion, since the position of the photon comes so near to being described by these wave functions. But the waves themselves are mathematical and not physical; they carry no energy. For example, probability is a mathematical and not a physical quantity. As an alternative, in some quarters, the possibility is toyed with that psi-waves exist in a multidimensional space, such that our three-dimensional space is. a cross section of the whole. But even in this case we should be obliged to classify the waves as mathematical and not physical. The wave patterns may exist without any photons, but in this case we have no light, no radiation. The modern theory of light is therefore a curious combination
light as

of projectile

and wave theory.

29-3]

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

273

29-3.

Meaning

Photon Theory.

"Frequency" and "Wave Length" in Although physical light has now become an asof

semblage of photons, it is still possible to find an almost physical meaning for the terms "frequency" and "wave length." The "frequency" is now regarded as the energy of the photon divided by a

number, known as Planck's constant, represented by the letter and equal numerically to 6.60 X 10~ 34 joule-seconds. That is
the energy of a photon

h,

hn

method, we may also think of it as the actual frequency of the psi-wave. Moreover, the photon is thought of as having momentum when the photon strikes an object, it exerts a pressure on it. The "wave length," on the basis

Having determined the "frequency" by

this

new theory, is the quotient of h divided by the momentum of the photon. This may also be thought of as the actual wave length of the psi-wave. The product of the "frequency" by the "wave
of the

therefore equal to the energy of the photon divided by also equal to the velocity of the psi-wave. shall continue therefore to use these two terms in the remainder of

length"
its

is

momentum, and

We

the book, but to remind the student of their

somewhat

artificial

meaning
29-4.

in

modern theory we

shall inclose

them

in quotation marks.

of Light. The speed of light in a vacuum, although great (186,000 miles per second or 300,000,000 meters per 10 8 m./sec.), has been measured by second, usually written several distinctly different methods with results that check very

Speed

3X

closely.

Photons of

all energies,

as well as their psi-waves, travel

with the same speed in a stances, as has just been is less than the figure given substances but, in a given
ferent

in other transparent subthe mentioned, speed of the psi-waves

vacuum, but

above, and not only different in different

transparent substance, different for
dif-

"wave lengths." The statements we are now making about the psi-waves are the same as were formerly made about light itself.
29-5. Electromagnetic Radiation. Not all light is visible. this reason, the larger term, electromagnetic radiation, will be used to include both visible and invisible photons together with

For

their psi-waves. The longest electromagnetic "waves" are those used in radio broadcasting; their "wave lengths" are such as to be

expressed conveniently in meters.

in the previous paragraph.

Their speed
shortest

The

is that mentioned "waves" which can be

detected

by

electrical

methods have a "wave length" of about 0.001

274

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

5

[29-5

meter (one millimeter). At this "wave length/ the same photons can also be detected by sensitive thermometric devices such as radiometers, radiomicrometers, or thermopiles which will detect a rise in temperature of as little as a millionth of a degree Fahrenheit. In fact, the tremendous bursts of short-wave radiation used in radar may be felt distinctly as heat by intercepting the rays with the hand. From a "wave length" of a millimeter down to that of
0.00079 millimeter (0.79 micron) the radiation is called infrared light. In this region, photography becomes possible. At 0.79 micron, the photons just begin to become visible to us as red light.

As the "wave lengths" decrease

orange, yellow, green, blue,

still

more, the colors change to

and

violet; the extreme edge of the violet

represents about 0.39 micron (3,900 Angstroms) in "wave length." Throughout the visible region, the radiation will still slightly raise

the temperature of whatever object it falls upon (conversion of light energy into heat energy) so that the thermopile may be used;

an available experimental tool. Below 3,900 Angstroms, light again becomes invisible, but can be photographed more readily than ever, and can still be detected
moreover, photography o
is still

by

the thermopile.

third

method

make
comes

In this region, it is called ultraviolet light. of detecting the existence of ultraviolet light is to use of the fact that when it passes through air, the air be-

ionized, that is, the air becomes temporarily a conductor of electricity. All "wave lengths" shorter than those we have just

described can be detected by both the photographic and the ionization method. When the "wave lengths" become as short as about

50 Angstroms, the same radiation

violet

is

referred to as short ultra-

X rays

rays; it is also customary to refer to long as "soft" X-radiation, and as the "wave lengths" become The shortest shorter, we speak of them as becoming "harder."

"waves" or long

rays (or Roentgen rays) have a "wave length" of about 0.05 Angstroms (50 X-units); below that "wave length" we have gamma rays (50 X-units to 5 X-units), which are given off by radioactive
materials.
Still

shorter

"wave lengths" or higher "frequencies"

are

to be found in the secondary cosmic radiation which is present in the earth's upper atmosphere and to a somewhat lesser extent at sea level.

radio

There are no regions missing in this entire range from the wave to the secondary cosmic ray; all are alike in nature
all

and

travel with the

same speed

in

empty

space.

29-6]

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

,. "wave length" 6
..
.

c Since
.

m./sec. ^rr^ "frequency"

10 8

275

and
* r

,,.

since

,,

"frequency" n

= =
(3

it

follows that "wave length"

.

11

4-

i.,

,, "wave length"

6.60

energy * 6J of photon L X 10~ 34 joule-sec.

:

10-34) -

X -

f u , energy of photon

10 8 )(6,60

1.98

10~ 25- meter- J joule

energy of photon

therefore possible to translate either "frequency" or "wave length" directly into the energy of the accompanying photon.
It
is

any time, we shall continue to use the language of the wave theory and therefore avail ourselves of all of its advantages. The only limitation is that we cannot comSince
this transition at

we can make

pute the energy of light as if it were a wave; the energy pressible only in terms of photons.

is

ex-

29-6. Units of Length. It may be of interest to list in one place the enormous range of units used by the physicist.
1,000 X-units o
1,000 microns

=
1 1

1
1

Angstrom
micron
millimeter

10,000 Angstroms

=
=

1 1

1,000 millimeters
1,000 meters

meter
kilometer
light-second
light-year

=
= = = =

1 1

300,000 kilometers
31,560,000 light-seconds
3.258 light-years
1,000,000 parsecs
3.08

1 1

parsec

1 1

megaparsec
megaparsec.

1035 X-units

The number of light-seconds in a light-year is obtained by multiplying the number of days in a year by the number of seconds in a day. The light-year is the distance light will travel in a year. The present estimate of the radius of the universe is about 400
megaparsecs.

29-7. Photometry. As in the case of sound, it is also true of light that the intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the 'distance from the source. See section 17-5. This fact furnishes the
basis of photometry, which is the determination of the relative strengths of light sources. The amount of light falling on a surface

square feet, coming from a source of C candlepower, d feet from A y the dimensions of both C and A being small comof area

276

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

d,

[29-7

pared with

and the

direction of
is

d making an angle of

with the

normal to

(see figure 29-1),

given by
COS
I

the following equation

T = CA L jr 2

See appendix 6 for a discussion of the cosine. The amount of light, L, comes out in lumens, which may be considered as defined by the equation. The angle i is called the angle of incidence]
in this equation
will

be noticed that when the light is zero, cos i will be A could have been expressed unity. in square meters, in which case d would be in meters, the other units remaining the same.
it

falls directly

upon the surface

so that this angle

The definition of the lumen just referred to, when put into words, is as follows: the lumen is the amount
of light which,

coming from a oncFigure 29-1.

candlepower source of small dimensions, will fall upon unit area, unit distance from the source, with
is

zero angle of incidence. If the area curved so that i is zero at every point, the area need not be small.

is

If

Illumination is the amount of light falling upon unit area, and measured in lumens per square foot, or lumens per square meter. we let I stand for illumination, then / = L/A therefore
;

and we

cases the conditions are so arranged that the light falls squarely upon the illuminated surface, so that i is zero and cos i is one. Unfortunately, it is also customary to use the
shall find that in

many

illogical units foot-candle

and meter-candle as units

of illumination.

the same as the lumen per square foot, and the The meter-candle the same as lumens per square meter. Throughout
foot-candle
is

physics,

we have been

able to predict a
it.

new

unit

algebraic processes that led to

Thus,

feet divided

by noting the by seconds

give feet/second and feet multiplied by pounds give foot-pounds. But here candles divided by feet squared give unexpectedly footcandles!

But fortunately

there are practically

no other

cases of

this type.

29-8]

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

277

In photometry, it is often the candlepower of the source which desired to measure. Suppose, for example, that we have two electric light bulbs, the candlepower of one known, and of the other unknown. The procedure would be to mount the two bulbs at opposite ends of a three-meter bench and to place a screen at such a point between them as to receive equal illumination from each bulb.
it is

Various devices are employed for determining when the two illuminations are equal, the simplest being the so-called grease-spot photometer, the essential feature of which is a sheet of paper containing a translucent grease-spot. If the illumination on the rear
greater than that on the front, then the grease-spot appears brighter than its surroundings, and if less, vice versa. Two mirrors so placed as to enable the observer to see both sides of the
of the screen
is

screen at once help in judging the equality of the illumination. 2 Since i is zero in each case, one illumination, /, is C/d and the
other, /',
is

C/d'\ and when /

~~
</

d'*

sheet of paper, 8.5 by 11 inches, by a 100-candlepower lamp on the ceiling, six feet above the table top and eight feet to one side. How many lumens does the sheet receive, and what is its illumination in foot-candles? From figure 29-2 we sec that cos i is 0.6. We have therefore C = 100,
lies

29-8. Illustrative Problems. (1) on a table which is illuminated

Figure 29-2.

A =

which gives us
foot2 or 0.6

0.65 square foot, and d = 10 feet. Thus L (100) (0.65) (0.6)/100 L = 0.390 lumen. The illumination is OJ90 lumen/0.65

lumen per square

foot which

The

illumination

the formula C cos i/rf2 that is, / = This would be considered very poor illumination; about
;

may

also be obtained directly

the same as 0.6 foot-candle. from the original data from (100)(0.6)/100; or 0.6 foot-candle.
is

five foot-candles

is

considered a

minimum

for ordinary reading.

278
(2)

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

[29-9

lamp has been certified by the Bureau of Standards as When this lamp is placed at one end of a three-meter optical bench and an electric lamp of unknown candlepower at the other end, it is found that the photometer must be placed one meter from the standard lamp to make the illumination equal. Find the unknown candle2 2 power. One illumination is 25/1 and the other is C/2 Setting these = = we have or 25 100 candles. C C/4, equal,
certain

giving 25 candles.

29-9. Reflection of Light. If light strikes an optically smooth surface, the reflected light follows the law enunciated in section 16-5
(see also figure 16-6). In figure 29-3, the angle of incidence is i and the angle

of reflection

is r\

to simply equates

the law just referred i to r. On a surface

not optically smooth, such as a sheet of paper, the light would be reflected
in all directions; this
reflection. It is this

we

call diffuse

Figure 29-3.

property of diffuse reflection that enables us to see the objects about us. If we could make a

perfect mirror that would reflect 100 of the incident cent light upon it, we should be able to see the per objects reflected in it, but we should be unable to see the mirror

A chemically deposited silver surface will reflect about 92 of the incident light. cent per
itself.

29-10. Images. The eye is accustomed to assume that the light entering it has followed a straight line from its starting point. For example, in figure 29-4, the eye assumes
that the light entering it comes from the point / rather than

the point 0. It sees an image just as far back of the mirror

as the object, 0, is in front of the mirror. As a matter of fact,
Figure 29-4.

nothing behind the mirror which the naked eye can see from this point, so that we refer to this type of image as a virtual image rather than a real image. On the other hand, if we should focus the rays of the sun by means of a concave mirror, such as the parabolic mirror in figure 29-5, upon the head of a match, and thus start it blazing, we should be entitled to say that the concave mirror
however, there
is

29-11]

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

279

real image at the head of the match (point F in figure make the general statement that virtual images are can 29-5). always behind a mirror, and real images always in front. We shall

had formed a

We

see that the reverse

is

true of lenses.

29-11. Curved Mirrors. The only type of curved mirror of practical importance, not counting freak mirrors at
paraparabolic. bolic mirror (figure 29-5) has the property of reflecting a group of parallel rays
parks,

amusement

is

/X\

through a single point called the focus.

The
on

largest telescopes are constructed this principle. Also, if a source of

yy V

light is placed at the point F, the rays, after striking the mirror, will be reflected

along parallel lines. This of the searchlight.

is

the principle

Figure 29-5.

29-12. Refraction of Light. Refraction, while not very imin the case of light. In portant in sound, has many applications as the ratio of the is defined refraction of index the section 16-6,

two mediums. Referring to figure 29-6, when i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, the index of refraction being denoted by /*, we have

wave

velocities in

= VI V" =

sin i/sin r

This assumes that

the angle
is i

is

and V"

in the other

the velocity of light in the medium where medium. With reference to light,

the index of refraction of a sub-

stance

is

the ratio of the velocity of

light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in that substance. Since

measurements of the velocity of light are somewhat inconvenient,

very fortunate that we also have the relationship between the sines of the angles as well. In figure 29-6, the ray CE may be
it is

Figure 29-6.

in some thought of as traveling in a vacuum, and the ray other medium, such as glass. The reflected ray is omitted in figure 29-6 for the sake of simplicity. The velocity of light in air is nearly (99.7 per cent) as great as in a vacuum, so that for our purposes

EH

280

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

[29-13

substances suraccuracy) we need not consider our rounded by a vacuum. If a ray of light passes through a plate of glass with parallel surfaces (figure 29-7), it will come out parallel to
(slide-rule

Figure 29-7.

the original ray, but displaced laterally. If, however, as in figure 29-8, the light is made to go through a glass prism, it will not come

out parallel to the incident direction.

point

If the

in figure 29-8, and looks in the direction of G, it will see the points and /, but will appear to be along at and objects an extension of the line IIG. This fact is the basis for the construc-

eye

is

placed at the

tion of lenses, one of the important applications of the study of light. 29-13. Illustrative Problem. Consider the angles of the triangular If the prism in figure 29-8 all to be 60 degrees, and the angle i 45 degrees. index of refraction of the glass is 1.414, find angles r, r' and i'.
9

Figure 29-8.

Using the equation n = sin i/sin r, where /z = 1.414, and i = 45 de= 0.707/sin r. Solving, we have sin r = 0.500 and grees, we have 1.414 r = 30 degrees by appendix 7. If r 30 degrees, then the ray makes an angle of 60 degrees with the side of the prism and is therefore parallel with the base of the prism. It immediately follows that i 1 is also 30 degrees. To

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

find
1

281

r',

we

1.414
r

sin r'/0-500

substitute into the equation /z = sin r'/sin i'. This gives us from which we obtain sin r' = 0.707, and therefore

45 degrees.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 29
Technical Terms Defined
Light "Waves." Light "waves" obey all the properties of waves in general with the exception of those having to do with energy. For example, the energy of a sound wave or a water wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude, whereas the energy of light is instead proportional to the first power of the frequency. Removing the energy from a light wave
virtually matics.

removes

it

from physics and puts

it

into the field of mathe-

Photons.

Light as a physical entity is now considered to consist of discrete particles called photons. The energy of a photon of a given color In is proportional to the "frequency" of the accompanying "wave."
free space

photons travel with a speed of 300,000,000 meters per second.

Electromagnetic Radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a term rather more general than light. It includes radio, infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light, as well as X rays, gamma rays, and secondary cosmic
radiation.

The photons

of these

types of electromagnetic radiation in-

crease progressively in energy from radio to secondary cosmic radiation.

Photometry.

The measurement
of light

of intensity of light sources.

Lumen.

which, coming from a one-candlepower source of small dimensions, will fall upon a unit area curved so that the angle of incidence is everywhere zero, unit distance from the source. For example, if a one-candlepower source were placed at the center of a hollow sphere, 47r lumens would be delivered to the inner surface of the
sphere.

The amount

Illumination.

The number
One
foot.

of

lumens
is

falling

on unit area

of a surface.

Foot-Candle.

foot-candle

the

same as an illumination
the

of

one

lumen per square

Meter-Candle. One meter-candle one lumen per square meter.

is

same as an illumination

of

A point from which light appears to diverge after suffering Virtual Image. reflection or refraction.
Real Image.

point toward which light converges after suffering relight in

flection or refraction.

Index of Refraction of Light. The ratio between the velocity of vacuo and that in some other medium.

Law

of Refraction.

The index

of refraction is the ratio

between the

sines

of the angles of incidence

and

refraction.

282

PHOTOMETRY; REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

PROBLEMS
long does it take light to make the trip from the sun to the earth, 92,000,000 miles? How long does it take for a radar beam to travel from the earth to the moon, 240,000 miles? How long does it take a radio wave to go around the earth once?

29-1.

How

29-2. If the dimensions in figure 29-2 are changed from 6, 8, and 10 feet and 13 feet respectively, find how strong a lamp will be needed to produce 5 foot-candles at the given point on the table.
to 12, 5,

29-3. Two electric lamps give 25 and 40 candlepower respectively. they are placed at opposite ends of a 3-meter optical bench, where must a screen be placed between them to receive equal illumination from each? 29-4. Using the last equation of section 29-5 together with the table of length units found in section 29-6, find the energies of photons correto "wave lengths" of (1) 0.001 meter, (2) 0.79 micron, (3) 3,900 sponding
If

Angstroms, (4) 5 X-units. 29-5. Prove that if a candle could give tions, it would emit 4?r lumens.
29-6.
it will

off light

uniformly in

all direc-

How
From

tall

a mirror will be needed so that

when placed

vertically

show a

six-foot

man

his full length?

29-7.

29-8. In figure 29-9, find the values of angles

data in section 29-12, find the index of refraction of air. assume that the index of refraction is 1.150, and and MDG. See appendix 7.

KCH

29-9. In the preceding problem, assume instead that the index of refraction is 1.414 and recompute the values of the same two angles. See

appendix

7.

Figure 29-9.

CHAPTER

30

Lenses; Miscellaneous Properties of Light

30-1. Lenses. We have seen that light rays, emerging from a prism, are not parallel to those entering the prism. If we join together parts of several prisms, as in figure 30-1, we obtain a lensshaped figure. We should therefore also expect light to come out of a lens in a direction different from that of the incident ray. Lenses are classified as
converging and diverging. As in figure 29-8, the rays are always bent toward the thicker

part of the prism or lens, so that when the lens is thicker at the center than at the rim, the rays are all bent toward the axis of the lens, that is, they converge, whereas the rays are bent away from the axis (diverge) when
the center
is

Figure 30-1.

thinner than the rim. There are

thus three types of converging lenses (figure 30-2). Converging lenses are often called positive and diverging lenses negative lenses.

30-2. Formation of a Real Image by a Converging Lens. In figure 30-4 we have a converging lens, and regardless of whether the curvature of one side of the lens is the same as that of the other
side, there will

be two points (F) called foci (the singular is focus) at equal distances from the center of the lens. If light enters the
283

284

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

[30-2

lens in a direction parallel to the axis of the lens, it will, after passing through the lens, go through a focus. It is also true that if a ray of
light passes

through a focus before entering the

lens, it will

emerge

V7

Converging

or Positive

Lenses

Diverging

or

Negative

Leases

Figure 30-2.

Figure 30-3.

in a direction parallel to the axis of the lens. But at the center of the lens, the opposite sides of the lens are so nearly parallel to each

other that a ray passing through the center of the lens will come out in a direction parallel to the incident ray, but displaced laterally a
little,

as in figure 29-7.

Let O'O in figure 30-4 be called the

object.

Figure 30-4.

and consider a group

of rays going out in all directions from the toward the lens. Three of these rays are shown in the figure, point the same three which have just been described. Tt will be seen that these three rays meet again at the point 7. In fact, any ray that enters the lens from the point will, after leaving the lens, pass the 7. through point Similarly, any ray that enters the lens from

the point 0' will also pass through the point T'. We therefore speak of 7' 7 as being the real image of the object O'O. It will be noticed

that 7' 7 is inverted; real images are always inverted with respect to the object. There are two ways in which the eye can see this image. The normal eye is supposed to see things best when they

30-3]

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

is

OF

LIGHT

285

are about ten inches from the eye; this

distinct vision."

called the "distance of

about method. It

Therefore, in figure 30-4, the eye could be placed ten inches beyond / to see the image. But this is not the usual
is

more customary to place a screen at 7 and view the Thus we are looking at a series of real image by images on the moving picture screen; and the film must be run through the machine upside down.
reflected light.

30-3. Algebraic Relationships.

that the triangle size of the image

O'OC
is

It is clear from figure 30-4 similar to the triangle 7'/C, therefore the to the size of the object as q is to p. p is called
is

the object distance (O'C in the diagram) and q the image distance f (CI in the figure). That is

VI
O'O

P
is

Another relation that

is

approximately true for lenses

P^
where/
is

=
q

the focal length of the lens

(CF

in the figure).

All three

of these quantities are positive in figure 30-4. / is positive for any lens that is thicker in the center than at the edges, that is, for converging lenses;/ is likewise negative for diverging lenses. When q is
in its natural position (on the opposite side of the lens from the object), it is positive; when it is on the same side as the object, q is

negative.

Figure 30-5.

illustrate the

30-4. Formation of Virtual Images. Figures 30-5 and 30-6 formation of negative or virliial images with both conand diverging lenses. It will be noticed that in figure 30-6 verging the lens has no real focus, but that when the ray is parallel to the

286
axis

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF LIGHT

[30-5

on one side of the lens, it diverges from the axis on the other had come from the virtual focus, F', on the first side. If, in figure 30-5, the distance p were ten inches and the distance q were
as
if it

of

tive focal

\ingkj

Figure 30-6.

minus thirty

inches, the lens

would be

ideal for the so-called faris

sighted person whose distance of distinct vision He would be able to hold his book ten inches away while what he saw would appear to be
thirty inches away. On the other hand, the lens in figure 30-6 would be convenient for a

thirty inches.

near-sighted person, whose distance of distinct vision is, say, four inches. In this case p is ten inches and q is minus four inches. The

equations of section 30-3 are sometimes called

thin lens formulas because they ignore the fact that the lens actually has a finite thickness instead of being infinitely thin. Likewise in
this illustration of the eye-glasses, the distance

between the glasses

is

and the eye

30 inches.
Ff

is

ignored.

30-5. Illustrative Problem.

The

focal length of a converging lens

an object 10 inches high is placed 50 inches from the lens, find the size and position of the image. In this case, / = 30 inches, p = 50 inches, and O'O = 10 inches. Subsituting in the equation I// = 1/p 1/g, we have

J.-JL+L ^ 30 50
"

Multiply both sides of the equation by 150g and get

5q
Solving, q

3?

150

Substituting

now

75 inches, the image distance. 1 in the equation, I 1 /O'O = q/p, gives us

ri "
10
Therefore, /'/

75

50

15 inches, the height of the image.

30-6]

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

287

30-6. Dispersion by Refraction. In section 29-4 the statement was made that although in a vacuum all "wave lengths" (still having in mind the psi- waves) travel with the same speed, they not only travel with less speed in a medium like glass, but each "wave length," that is, each color travels with a speed of its own. We must therefore think of figure 29-8 as representing a ray of some one color. A ray of light is the path of a succession of photons as more or less determined by the psi-waves. The psi-functions have about the same degree of control over a photon as the banks of a brook have

over the course of a drop of water in the brook; they determine its general path but not every last detail of its motion. If, on the other hand, the original ray consisted of white light, which is a mixture of all colors, each color would come out of the

prism in a different direction. It will be noticed that since a given color represents a
given "wave length," it therefore also designates the energy of each photon in a ray of that color. (See end of section 29-5.) The direction of two of these rays can be seen in
figure 30-7.

We

refer to this splitting of white light into colors as

dispersion.

should expect some color effect in a lens, but as a matter of fact the color effect is not very great, especially in a thin lens. But

We

a thick lens, or in a situation where precision is demanded, the color effect, or chromatic aberration as it is called, is troublesome enough so that it is customary to use two or more lenses together,
in

of different shapes and of different kinds of glass, so that the colors produced by one lens will neutralize those produced by the other.

This

is

called

bination of lenses;

an achromatic comit is not unusual

for a good microscope to contain over a dozen lenses. It is simpler, however, to think of both telescopes

and microscopes as two sets of lens; the

sets,

consisting of first of these

Figure 30-7.

real

called the objective, forms a image (inverted) of the object,

and the second set, or eyepiece, forms a virtual image of this real image. 30-7. Diffraction and Interference. Figure 30-8 contains an illustration of both diffraction and interference of light. 5 is a

288

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

[30-7

point source of light of some one color, say yellow. If 5 lies at the focus of lens L, the rays will be parallel with one another emerging from the lens. G represents a screen containing a series of parallel
slits,

A,

C, and so on.

Each

slit is

narrow enough so that on the

is,

other side

we

get complete diffraction, that

the light goes in

all

Figure 30-8.

directions from each of the points A, B, C, and so on. (See section let us consider three rays, AE, BF, and C77, which 16-8).

Now

parallel with one another, but which make an the direction CA such that when the perpendicular angle with is dropped to the line AE, the distance comes out just one

happen not only to be

BD

AD

"wave length." Let the angle ABD be called 6. CA represents a "wave front" (see section 16-6) which has emerged from the lens Z,, so that the vibrations at any given instant at A and B are alike. If D is just one "wave length" from A, then at any given instant, D is also in phase with A and B, so that BD may also be considered a "wave-front", and likewise CMN. If the rays AE, BF, and CI1
will

now

pass through the lens L', the photons constituting these rays converge at the point P, which is the focus of //. If L' happens

to be the crystalline lens of the eye, P is some point on the retina of the eye and will receive photons, the energies of which are characteristic of yellow light. The manner in which these psi-waves rein-

one another serves as an excellent example of constructive interference. If, however, the angle were slightly larger or smaller than the one we have chosen, would be larger or smaller than a "wave length"; no "wave fronts" would be formed for that particular color, therefore no photons of that energy would be guided
force

AD

30-8]

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

289

in the

new

direction.

This would be an example of destructive

interference.

30-8. Dispersion by Diffraction. If in figure 30-8 we had started with white light instead of light of some one color, then no matter what the angle ABD, there would always be some "wave
length" present equal to AD, and that color would be the one brought to a focus at P. In other words, the eye, by looking in different directions, would see different colors, a situation similar
to that of figure 30-7. The screen, G, of figure 30-8, containing a set of equidistant parallel slits, is called a diffraction grating. One

way

of

making a
practice.

diffraction grating

is

to rule scratches

of glass with a

diamond point; 15,000 scratches

on a piece to the inch is

common

The apparatus 30-9. Measurement of "Wave Lengths." which is diagrammed in figure 30-8 consists of a turntable upon which the grating is mounted, and two telescope tubes arranged to rotate about a vertical axis which is also the axis of the turntable.
telescope is called the collimator and contains the slit, 5, and the collimuting lens, L. The other telescope, the observing telescope, 1 contains the lens, L

One

The
of

simplest

way
is

of using the instrument for the

measurement

to set the axis of the collimator at right angles to the grating, as in figure 30-8, and then measure the angle between the normal to the grating and the observing telescope when
is

"wave lengths"

focused upon the desired spectrum line. We talk about what we see in the observing telescope "spectrum is a series of colored images of the slit, and the slit is a long narrow
the latter
lines" because

opening shaped

like

a "line." Scales are provided for the accurate

measurement
telescopes.

of the angular positions of the turntable and both The angle between the normal to the grating and the

observing telescope is equal to the angle 6. If we know how lines have been ruled to the inch in our grating, then we also

many know

is therefore given by the be may readily verified that all through the discussion of figure 30-8 N\ could have been substituted for X, where is any integer. is called the order of the spectrum. The equation therefore becomes

AB. The "wave length," = (AB) sin 6. equation, X

X,

which

is

AD,

It

30-10. Illustrative Problem. 21,561 lines to the inch. Find the necessary angle between the normal to the grating and the observing

= (AB)sm6 A grating has

290
telescope,

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

[30-1

assuming the collimator to be normal to the grating, to get the

5,890.2

sodium

D line, X =

in the first order.

It will be convenient to find

how many

lines there are to the centimeter

"wave length" has been expressed in Angstroms, the customary 21,561/2.5400 = 8,488.6 lines per centimeter. The "wave length" expressed in centimeters is 0.000058902 cm. Since we are in the first order, equals 1,00000. Substituting in the equation at the end of section 30-9 gives us
since the
unit:

0.000058902
Solving,

(1/8488. 6) (sin0)

Looking this up in a five-place table 2959' is 0.49975, and the sine of 300' is 0.50000. (The latter value may also be found in appendix 7). Our value is so much closer to an even 30 degrees than it is to 2959', that we shall submit 300'.0 as our result.
obtain sin 6
0.49999.
of sines,

we we

find that the sine of

30-11. Spectra.
:

We

have now met two devices,

different in

principle, capable of dispersing white light into its various constituent colors the prism and the grating. The array of colors prowhite-hot solid or white-hot liquid will duced is called a spectrum.

each produce a spectrum containing all the colors of the rainbow, and one could not tell by examining the spectrum what substance constituted the source of light. On the other hand, if it is a gas emitting the light, a limited number of "wave lengths" will be present in the spectrum with empty spaces between the spectral
lines. The arrangement of "wave lengths" in the spectrum is typical of the gas emitting the spectrum so that the gas may be identified by means of its spectrum. This process is called spectroscopic analysis.

30-12. Polarization of Light.

The statement was made

in

section 16-2 that the psi- waves of light are transverse waves, and the reason for our thinking that the waves are transverse is that

they can be polarized (see section 16-10). When these psi- waves pass through certain crystals, all vibrations are absorbed except those parallel to some given plane. Tourmaline, for example, behaves in this way. By rotating the piece of tourmaline, the plane

emerging polarized waves is also rotated. It is possible, with two pieces of tourmaline, to arrange them so that what light gets through one of them also goes through the other. If, however, the second piece of tourmaline is now rotated 90 degrees, the light that passes through the first crystal will not be able to go through the second. Solutions of certain carbon compounds, such as sugar, as well as certain transparent solids under strain, such as celluloid, have the property of rotating the plane of polarization. This fact is made
of the

use of in the analysis of sugar solutions.

The principle is also

applied

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF

LIGHT

291

by making models

of such things as dirigibles out of celluloid and the ect on eff observing polarized light when various stresses are applied.

Polaroid is now available; this has the same properties as tourmaline. One of the many uses for a material of this kind is in the headlights and windshields of automobiles to

A commercial material called

prevent the glare experienced in night driving.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 30
Technical Terms Defined
Dispersion. The separation of the frequencies of white light into those of the constituent colors. This is usually accomplished either by a prism or a grating.

The spreading experienced by light after passing through a small opening. The combining of crests and troughs of one wave train Interference. with those of another, which has the effect of neutralizing the wave motion in some cases and intensifying it in others.
Diffraction.

Grating.

A piece of metal or glass ruled with many parallel lines, several thousand to the inch, and used either to reflect or transmit light. Its
white light into
its

effect is to separate

constituent colors.

array of colored images of a slit, characteristic of the inSpectrum. candescent gas which is serving as source. The removal from a beam of transverse waves all except Polarization. those vibrating in planes parallel to a given plane.

An

PROBLEMS
30-1. A converging lens is being used in such a way that the object and image are on the same side of the lens. (See figure 30-5). If the object is ten and the image thirty inches from the lens, find the focal length. 30-2. The object is ten, and the image four inches from a diverging lens. Find the focal length of the lens. 30-3. A picture on a lantern slide has dimensions of two by three inches. Find the focal length of a lens which will project an image of this picture two by three yards in size, on a screen thirty feet from the slide. 30-4. It is possible to observe the same object simultaneously with one eye unaided and the other eye provided with a small telescope, and by comparing the apparent sizes of the object, it is possible to determine the magnification of the telescope. Give reasons why the same procedure could or could not be employed successfully to obtain the magnification of a
single converging lens.

30-5. If a pin an inch long is placed three inches from a converging lens with a focal length of four inches, find the position and size of the image. Will the image be real or virtual? Where will the eye have to be to see the image?

292

LENSES; MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

OF LIGHT

30-6. Given a converging lens with the object at infinity, that is, an away, where is the image? Describe the successive positions of the image as the object is moved in toward the lens, finally arriving at the lens.
infinite distance

30-7. Repeat problem 30-6, except that the converging lens

is

replaced

principal methods of producing colored light from white light are (1) passing the light through an object which is transparent to certain colors and opaque to others, such as blue glass, (2) utilizing refraction, as in the case of the prism, and (3) utilizing interference, as in the case of the grating. Decide whether the following belong under one or another of these three cases or under other cases not listed: (a) the color of copper sulphate, which looks blue both by reflected and by transmitted light, (1)) very thin gold leaf which looks yellowish by reflected light and greenibh by transmitted light, (c) a rainbow, (d) the beveled edge of a mirror, (e) a soap bubble, and (f) a thin film of oil on a puddle of water.

by a diverging lens. 30-8. The three

desired to measure the "wave length" of one of the so-called by using the second order spectrum produced by a transmission grating ruled with 20,000 lines to the inch. The angle between the normal to the grating and the observing telescope is 6812.4', the sine of which is 0.92853. Find the "wave length." How many significant figures is it proper to keep in your answer?

30-9. It

is

sodium

lines

APPENDIX

Common

Physical Constants

and Conversion Factors

physical constant consists of a number with or without (but usually with) a more or less complicated unit. Some of the more common physical constants used in this book are given here in

both English and metric units.

Units

Metric

Unih

Normal height

of

barometer

30 inches
14.7 Ib /in."

76
3
1

centimeters

Atmospheric pressure Density of water Specific gravity of water

Acceleration of gravity
IT

1,033

62.4 Ib./f t

grams/cm. 2 00 gram/cm. 8

100
32 2 ft./sec. 2
3.14

100
9 80 m./sec. 2
3.14

Heat Heat

of fusion of water
of vaporization of water

144 H.t.u./lb. 972 TU.u /Ib

80 Cal /kgm. 540 Cal./kgm.

Specific heat of water Coefficients of linear expansion

100
See section 20-2
1,087 ft /sec 186,000 miles/sec.

100
331 meters/sec. 3 X 108 ./sec.

Speed of sound Speed of light, radio waves,

etc.

conversion factor always consists of a number together with a unit. Furthermore, the unit of a conversion factor always consists of a numerator and a denominator, both of which represent the same kind of physical quantity. All conversion factors may be equated to unity; it is thus possible to multiply or divide any
physical quantity by a conversion factor without changing the value of the original quantity. Consider the equation, 3 feet = 1
yard.

As

it

stands

it is

correct; without the units

it is,

of course,

Now divide both sides of the equation by the unit "yard." The result is 3 feet/yard = 1. Unity on the right-hand side of the
incorrect.

equation

is

now

a pure number, that

is,

it

has no units, and

3 feet/yard is a conversion factor Try the effect of multiplying 4 yards by 3 feet/yard. The result is 12 feet; the yards cancel each

293

294

COMMON

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

AND CONVERSION FACTORS

other;

may

and 12 feet is the same as 4 yards. Similarly the student obtain conversion factors from any of the following equations.
9.80 newtons
4.45 newtons
1
1

kilogram

newton-mcter
erg

= =

pound
joule

1
1

980 ergs 42,800 gm.-cm.

10,000,000 ergs 4,190 joules 0.252 Calories
=

1
1 1

dyne-centimeter gram-centimeter
Calorie

joule 1 Calorie
1 British
1

watt-second
(B.t.u.)

=
=s

3,600 joules 1,000 watt-hours 3,410 B.t.u. 0.746 kilowatt-hours

thermal unit watt-hour

1
1 1

550 foot-pounds
3,600 hp.-scconds 0.738 foot-pounds 778 foot-pounds

980 ergs/second
10,000,000 ergs/second 1,000 watts

746 watts 550 ft.-lb./second

33,000 ft.-lb./niinute 96,500 coulombs

980 dynes 454 grams 2.20 pounds 32.2 pounds

60 seconds 60 minutes
(")

57.3 degrees

90 degrees 360 degrees

2ir

= = = = = = = = = ~ = = = = = = = = =
=*

kilowatt-hour (Kw.-hr.) Kw.-hr.

1 1 1
1 1
1

horsepower-hour (hp.-hr.) horsepower- second

hp.-hr.

joule
B.t.u.

gram-centimeter/second watt = 1 joule/second

kilowatt

1
1

1
1

horsepower horsepower horsepower faraday

1
1

gram pound
kilogram
slug

1
1

minute
degree radian

(')

()

1
1

quadrant
revolution

radians

1,000 X-units

10,000 Angstroms
1,000 microns 10 millimeters

~ ~ =

revolution

1
1

Angstrom
micron
millimeter

=* 1

100 centimeters 1,000 meters

300,000 kilometers 31,560,000 light-seconds 3.258 light-years
1,000,000 parsecs 2.54 centimeters

= =
=

1
I

centimeter

meter
kilometer
light-second
light-year

1
1

= = = =

1
1

parsec

megaparsec
inch

APPENDIX

Significant Figures and Computation Rules

In general, a physical quantity involves both a number and a unit, of in nearly every case as either the direct or the indirect result of a measurement. Thus, 3 meters is a physical quantity where 3 is the number and meters is the unit. Moreover, the physicist makes a distinction between 3 meters, 3.0 meters, and 3.00 meters. The first means that he has merely estimated the first figure, 3, and has no idea whether the tenths figure is a 0, 1, or even a 4. If he has any idea of what the next figure is, he puts it down, even though it be a zero. Thus the last significant figure in the statement of a physical quantity is understood to be the best estimate for that position the figures that precede it are known to be exact. In the illustration just used, 3 meters is referred to as a

and must be thought

number

one significant figure and represents only an estimate, whereas the 3.00 meters is said to have three significant figures, the last of which is an estimate. In counting the number of significant figures, the position of the decimal point is not considered. For instance, 30.0 millimeters and 3.00 centimeters each have three significant figures, and in fact represent the same measurement. We can also have insignificant figures. When a figure can not possibly be the result of measurement, or is merely used to occupy space between the decimal point and the figures that are significant, we say that it is insignificant. For instance, in the statement that the population of the United States is 140,000,001, the last 1 is
of
insignificant (and therefore absurd) for the first reason, and several of the zeros are insignificant for the second reason. Insignificant zeros put in for the second reason are of course excusable and in

fact necessary.
insignificant,

But zero is the only figure that can legitimately be and then only for the purpose of occupying space to
Thus, the 3.00 centimeters in the previous be expressed as 0.0300 meters and still have but
295

the decimal point.

paragraph

may

three significant figures, since the zero before the 3 merely occupies

296

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

AND COMPUTATION

RULES

The

space between the decimal point and the first significant figure. zero in front of the decimal point is purely optional.

There are certain

figures to

rules for the proper

If it is

number

of significant

keep

in a

computation.

a matter of multiplication

or division, keep

no more significant figures in the product or in the numbers started with. And the numbers than quotient started with should both have the same number of significant figures in the first place. There is one exception to this rule. When a number begins with the digit 1, it is customary to keep one more significant figure than the above rule prescribes. This is because

of a practice that grew out of the structure of the slide rule. Numbers like 999 and 1,001 each represent measurements to the same degree of precision, yet it requires one more digit in the second

case than in the

first

to express the quantity.

this

Unless otherwise
limit ourselves to

specified, in solving

problems in

book,

we

a one, when

three significant figures, unless the number happens to begin with we allow ourselves the luxury of four significant figures.

The only

occasions

when

the decimal point influences the

number

of

significant figures to be used are in addition and subtraction. The rule then is to round off the numbers to be added or subtracted so

that they have the

that
tion

same number of decimal places, and then keep number of decimal places in the answer. Thus in multiplicaand division, it is the total number of significant figures that

interest us, regardless of the position of the decimal point, while in addition and subtraction, it is the number of decimal figures that

are important, regardless of the total

number

of figures in the

number. As an

required to add the following 5.01, 0.1429, 0.00737, 0.000927, all in centimeters, it understood as usual that the last digit in each number is being
illustration,

suppose

it is

distances:

only an estimate.
Incorrect

Correct
5.01

5.01

0.1429 0.00737 0.000927

0.14 0.01 0.00

5.16

5.161197

On

stood that

account of the uncertainty of the hundredths places, it is underit is equally reasonable that the sum should be 5.18 or
string of digits, out of place in the result.

5.15 centimeters,

and the

1197, are absolutely

meaningless and

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

AND COMPUTATION

RULES

297

In rounding off a number, we increase the last digit retained by one unit if the next digit (the first rejected digit) is more than a 5. This accounts for the replacement of 0.00737 by 0.01 in the previous
paragraph. On the other hand, 0.1429 is replaced by 0.14. If we drop a 5, the origin of which we know to be either slightly more or slightly less than a 5, we know whether or not to increase the last
digit retained. If the figure rejected is exactly 5, we might as well toss up a penny to decide whether to raise the previous digit by one or to leave it as it is. Trained computers follow some rule in
this instance

which

will insure half of this

type of

5's

being treated
is

in each

way
is

in the long run.

whatever

necessary to

One such rule, for instance, leave the number even.

computation
rules,

to

do

suppose that it is desired to determine the area of a rectangle 12.343 meters long and 3.47 meters wide. In the length we have an estimate to the fifth figure, but in the width to the third only. A strict adherence
to the rules

As another

illustration of the

would require rounding

off the first

number

to 12.3

meters; but, remembering the exception to the rule, since it begins with a 1, we are allowed to keep four figures, namely, 12.34 meters.

The

multiplication could be carried out

of "long multiplication":
3.47 12.34

by

either of the following

two methods

3.47

12.34

347

694
1041 1388
42.8|198

The second

is preferable because it gives us the most important of the product first, but both are open to a criticism which will part be obviated in the third section of the appendix. In the original

we are sure of the 3 and the 4, but the 7 is estimate. Another estimate of the third digit might have an only made it an 8. If we had multiplied 3.48 by 12.34 we should have
statement of the width,
obtained 42.9432.
Obviously, in the product we are sure only of the 42 and the best estimate of the next figure is an 8 or possibly
9.

But

for all
If

we know

the area

may

be 42.6 or even 43.0 square

meters.

follow the rules for significant figures to be retained in a multiplication, we shall round off our answer to three

we

figures

and have 42.8 square meters for our result, thus expressing the value with two significant figures, the correctness of which we

298

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

AND COMPUTATION

RULES

are sure, and a third significant figure, which represents the best estimate for that position. This means that the figures to the right of the vertical line are all superfluous; at best they influence merely

the uncertain 8.

APPENDIX

Abbreviated Multiplication

and Division
series of multiplications and divisions that could be performed in sixty seconds with the slide rule would require about three minutes

with logarithms (see appendix

8), five

minutes by the abbreviated

in this section, and seven minutes by ordinary long multiplication and division. One does not always have a logarithm table or slide rule conveniently at hand, whereas he can

methods described

always throw out the figures that play no part in the final result. Consider these two modifications of the second multiplication in

appendix

2.

3.47

3.47

12.34

12.34

347 70 9
42.6

347 694
105 12
42.81

In the

We
the

are

modification, we multiply the 347 by 1 and put down 347. now through with the 1 of the multiplier, also with the 7 of multiplicand, since the latter simply gives us digits from now
first

on to the right

of the vertical line above.

So cross out the

of the
is

multiplier, also the 7 of the multiplicand, but since the latter

more than 5, increase the 4 by 1. Next we multiply the 35 by 2, which gives us 70. We are now through with the 2 in the multiplier and with the 5 in the multiplicand, therefore we cross them both out. This time we do not increase the 3 by unity, since the 47 which has been crossed out was less than 50. We now multiply 3 by 3 which

We are not disturbed that the sum is 42.6 instead of 42.8 because the third figure is merely an estimate anyway. The second method is the same as the first except that we do not begin crossing out digits of the multiplicand quite so soon, thus the third figure
gives 9.
is

more

reliable.

The

result should, of course,

be rounded

off to

42.8 square meters.

299

300

ABBREVIATED MULTIPLICATION

AND

DIVISION

Suppose now that

it is

desired to divide 42.8

are two methods, the long division

3.468
12.34|42.80 000

by 12.34. Here and the abbreviated division.

3.472
12.34J42.80

3702
5 78

493
84 40 74 04
10 360

3702 578 492

86 84_
2

872

488

In either case the result should be rounded off to 3.47.

Again the

figures to the right of the vertical lines are superfluous. In the right hand method, after the 3,702 has been subtracted from the

4,280, instead of bringing down a fictitious zero, we cross out the 4 of the divisor. Since 4 is less than 5 we do not increase the 3 by

unity.
forth.

Each

123 goes into 578 four times. Four times 123 is 492. And so time, instead of bringing down a zero from the dividend,

cross out a digit of the divisor. By so doing (1) it is no longer necessary to handle so many insignificant figures, (2) the process

we

becomes more and more simple as it progresses, and (3) the third advantage of the method is that when we get the proper number of figures in our quotient we have to stop! There is no more divisor left with which to continue. If we use a slide rule for multiplication and division, we shall also automatically obtain the correct

number

of significant figures in our results, set of regulations.

without recourse to a

APPENDIX

Summary

of Essentials of Algebra

This appendix naturally will not take the place of a course in algebra, but will merely serve to emphasize the portion most important for our purpose, namely, the handling of equations. The fundamental fact is that if we start with an equation, which is a statement that two things are equal to each other, then whatever we do to one side of this equation we must also do to the other side of the equation. The operations that we carry out most often on the two sides of the
equation are addition, subtraction (which is merely the addition of a negative quantity), multiplication, division, squaring, and extracting the square root.

Addition and subtraction are represented by plus and minus

signs as in arithmetic.

Thus

5+
If 7

10

-2-7
-2 =
is

we add

7 to
7,

both sides of the equation we have

5+10

-7

or

5+
The
result
it

10

is

simply to

shift the 7 to the other side of the

equation
7.

the opposite sign. This letters instead of figures we have

x

and give

called transposing the

With

+a=
=
b

Transposing the a we have

x

represented by merely placing the quantities next to each other, preferably surrounded by parentheses. Example: = 42; ab = c, or (a) (b) = c\ (a b] c = d. The last is read: (6) (7)
Multiplication
is

the product of a b and c is equal to d. Division is represented by of the use fact that in a fraction the numerator is divided making

by the denominator. Thus 42 divided by 21 would be written

42/21
~3
is

2 or

|j

2 9.

the same as

>

an<^

both are equal to

xa

If

we

start with

301

302

SUMMARY OF
sides

ESSENTIALS

OF ALGEBRA

and divide both

by

a,

we
x

shall

have

=
a

-,

which

is

the same

b/a

x
Let us start with the equation

~{~

fc,

and

let

the task be to

perform enough of the above operations on both sides of this equation to result in leaving x alone on the left hand side. First multiply both
/y*
I

/7

sides of the equation

by

c,

giving
x

c
o
be

be,

or

+a=
=
be

Now

transpose the a and get

x
a

which

is

the required result.

solved in the previous paragraph is known as solving an equation for x. In this book, the equations are furnished large number of the problems amount by the facts of physics.

The problem

simply to furnishing numerical values for all but one of the quantities in an equation and asking the student to solve for the un-

known

quantity.

proportionality constant is a number used to change a proportion into an equation. Suppose A to be proportional to B. For example, suppose that when A is 1, B is 3; when A is 2, B is 6;

when
by

portional to

B is 15; and so on. Instead of saying that A is proB the situation could have been equally well expressed = kB, the consaying that A is equal to B times a constant. A
A
is 5,
9

stant, k, in this case being 1/3. proportionality constant.

If

This kind of a constant

is

called a

same ratio to D that A has to B, we say A is to B as C is to Z>" and write it A:B = C:Z), or better, A/B = C/D. This is nothing more than the equating of the two fractions, A/B and C/D. A and D are called the extremes of this proportion and B and C the means. The product of the means of a proportion is = BC. equal to the product of the extremes; that is, AD The only case of factoring involved in this text is based on the

C has

the

((

fact that
(x

y) (x

y)

= &of

y*

This

is

read, the product of the

sum

x and y by the difference of

SUMMARY OF

ESSENTIALS

OF ALGEBRA
y.

303

x and y is equal to the difference of the squares of x and may be checked with numerical values as follows
(7

This

5) (7

5)

72

_ -

5 2 or (12) (2)

49

25

24

Another way of checking

(7

this is as follows
(7

5) (7 )

5) (5 )

72

52

or
(7) (7)

(5) (7)

(7) (5)

(5) (5)

= 72-52
,

small compared with unity, then # 2 r3 and so on, neglected and we have the following approximate equation
If

is

may be

(1

*)

nx

where n
ax
2

may

be either positive or negative, integral or fractional.

for
is

The formula

the

solution

of

the
4ac

bx

+c

quadratic

equation

Vb 2 -

APPENDIX

Geometrical Propositions
Essential to This Book

1.

If

one straight

line intersects another, the opposite

angles

(vertical angles) at the vertex are equal.

2.

Given two angles;

if

tively to the sides of the other angle, the

the sides of one angle are parallel respectwo angles are equal or

supplementary.
3.

Given two angles;

if

respectively to the sides of the other angle, the

the sides of one angle are perpendicular two angles are equal

or supplementary.
4.
5.

The sum of the three angles of a triangle equals 180 degrees. The sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral equals 360

degrees.
6. Two triangles are equal if (1) the three sides of one are equal to the three sides of the other, (2) if two sides and the included

angle of one are equal to two sides and the included angle of the other, and (3) if two angles and the included side of one are equal to two angles and the included side of the other.

one triangle equal the angles of another triangle, the corresponding sides are proportional. 8. In a parallelogram, the opposite sides are equal.
7.

Tf the angles of

9.

The sum

of the squares of the

two

legs of a right triangle

is

equal to the square of the hypotenuse.

10.
11.
12.

An

angle inscribed in a semicircle

area of a triangle
is

13.

The The The

a right angle. half the base times the altitude.

is
is

area of a parallelogram area of a trapezoid

is

the base times the altitude.

the average of the two bases

times the altitude.

14. 15.

The area of a circle is Trr 2 or 7r/) 2/4. The volume of a sphere is 47ir 3/3 or
304

7rZ> /6.

APPENDIX

Definition of Sine and Cosine; Sine Law, Cosine Law

The usual mathematical method

struct

of measuring an angle is to conan arc with center at the vertex the angle (in radians) is then equal to the ratio of the portion of the arc intercepted between the sides of the angle to the radius of the arc. It is often more convenient to obtain a measure of the angle in terms of ratios between
;

straight lines as follows.

an angle drop a perpendicular P@ to the other side OQ. This forms a right triangle two sides of which are adjacent to the given angle. The shorter of these sides, O(),
side of

From any point P in one

divided

by the

longer,

OP,

is

called the cosine of the angle a. The value of the cosine determines the

angle and the value of the angle determines the cosine. Since we always divide the shorter by the
longer, the cosine of an angle is always less than one. If the angle

obtuse, the perpendicular will land on a side of the angle produced and the cosine is then considered
is

negative.
side

The

ratio

between the

PQ, opposite to the angle a, to the hypotenuse OP, is called the

is is

sine of the angle a. The sine also always less than one. The sine

considered

positive

whether

the

angle is acute or obtuse. summarize these two statements by the equations

We may

= OQ
Numerical values of these ratios
will

= PQ
be given
in the

next appendix.

305

306

DEFINITION

OF

SINE

AND

COSINE; SINE LAW, COSINE

LAW
6 opre-

In any triangle,
posite angle lations hold:
J5,

A BC, where side a is opposite angle A, side

side c opposite angle C, the following

and

two

Sine law: Cosine law:

(sin
2

J2
C2

A)/a = (sin E)/b = (sin = $ + <? 2bc cos A = C2 + a 2 _ 2ca cos B = a2 + tf - 2ab cos C

C)/c

APPENDIX

Table of Sines and Cosines

sin

sin 180
sin 175

85 = 80 sin 170 =. sin 165 =* 75 =70 =sin 20 - sin 160 = 65 = sin 25 sin 155 60 = sin 30 = sin 150 = sin 35 *= sin 145 = cos 55 =sin 40 = sin 140 = cos 50 = sin 45 = sin 135 = cos 45 = sin 50 = sin 130 = cos 40 = sin 55 = sin 125 = cos 35 sin 60 - sin 120 - cos 30 sin 115 cos 25 sin 65 cos 20 sin 70 sin 110 cos 15 = sin 75 sin 105 cos 10 = sin 80 sin 100 sin 85 sin 95 - cos 5 sin 90 - sin 90 - cos
5 sin 10 sin 15
sin

cos cos cos cos cos cos cos

90

0.0000 0.0872 cos 100 =* 0.1736 0.259 cos 105 cos 110 = 0.342 cos 115 =- 0.423 cos 120 = 0.500 cos 125 =* 0.574 cos 130 0.643 cos 135 = 0.707 cos 140 0.766 cos 145 = 0.819 cos 150 = 0.866 cos 155 - 0.906 cos 160 = 0.940 0.966 cos 165 0.985 cos 170 cos 175 - 0.996 cos 180 - 1.000
cos cos
=-

90 95

307

APPENDIX

Three-Place Logarithm Table

may also be written log 200 = 2.301, log 300 = = = 0.301. It will be observed that 20 2.477, log 1.301, and log 2 in stating the value of the logarithm, the integral portion of the logarithm (called the characteristic of the logarithm) is always one less than the number of digits to the left of the decimal point in the
These relations
not necessary to include the characteristic in the logarithm tables, but only the mantissas or decimal portion of the logarithm. Let us look in the table on page 309 in the row numbered "8" under the column numbered "6" and find the mantissa 934. We could now write log 8,600 = 3.934, log 86 = 1.934,
itself.
it is

the logarithm of 100, written 2.000 = log 100. Also 3.000 = = log 10,000. Numbers between integral log 1,000 and 4.000 powers of 10 may be expressed as fractional exponents of 10. For 2301 = 2477 = 1 301 = 301 = 2. 200, 10 20, and 10 300, 10 example, 10
fore 2
is
-

Logarithms are exponents of

10.

For example, 100

10 2

there-

number

Thus

9.934 log 8.6 0.934, log 0.86 and so on. Similarly we may look

10,

log 0.086
of 8,650

8.934

10,

obtain log 8,700

up the logarithm

of 8,700
is

and

3.940.

The logarithm

3.937, just

halfway between 3.934 and 3.940. It is always possible to estimate the values of logarithms between the ones in the table in this

manner; the process is called interpolation. The use of the logaX x+y That is, rithms follows from the fact that (10 ) (10y ) = 10 when we multiply the numbers, we merely add the exponents. = log 6. Checking from the table, we find Therefore log 2 log 3
.

0.301

+ + 0.477 = 0.778.

Division

is

similarly converted into sub-

traction.

Let the student solve the following problem from the table above and then check it with the work below.
(0.234) (1.478) (92.7) (0.0439)
(0.567) (0.0872) (3.14) (15.79)

308

+J

a
+j

3
8

.2 ^3

s
u
w w w

ed

.a

I
rH -H 8-^OOOl>

O-fO H CM
-(

309

310
Solution:
log 0.234 log 1.478

THREE-PLACE LOGARITHM TABLE

log 92.7 log 0.0439

= = = =

9.369 0.169
1.967 8.642

10

log 0.567 log 0.0872 log 3.14 log 15.79

10

= = = =

9.754 8.941 0.497 1.199

10 10

20.147

20

or

20.391 10.391

20 10

Subtracting
20.147 10.391 9.756

20
10 10

9.756

10,

from the

rule gives for this

problem the

table, is the logarithm of 0.570. The slide result, 0.574. The third place is

necessarily uncertain when a three-place table is used. The value 20 was changed to 10.391 10 so that after subtracting, 20.391

some multiple
the table are

the remainder would be represented by a positive number minus of 10. This is convenient because the mantissas in
all positive.

APPENDIX

The Two Fundamental Theories of Physics

i

The same element

in

our make-up that

stories, puzzles,

is

responsible for our en-

and mysteries, results in an interest in physical theories. As examples of some of these enigmas we could ask, for example, in what respects is the space surrounding a magnet different from that surrounding an unmagnetized bar of iron, or the space surrounding an electric current unlike the same space with the current turned off. And why does light have all the properties of a wave in a rigid solid along with several other properties that no wave could possibly have? Why does the planet Mercury have many tons more mass when traveling rapidly through
joyment of detective
the part of its orbit nearest the sun than while moving leisurely through the more distant parts? Why do the same physical laws, which work so well for the engineer and the astronomer, fail utterly to give correct results within the atom? How is it that physical
scale obey nothing but probability a on while scale, everything seems quite determinate larger laws, and predictable? The answers to these and similar questions lie in

phenomena on a very small

the region of physical theory.

Most

of the present-day physical

theory is embodied in two well-known theories, one propounded by Einstein in 1916, called "general relativity theory" and the other developed by several men practically simultaneously in 1925 and

1926 and called "quantum mechanics." General relativity theory is a new type of geometry not confined to three dimensions, and based on a set of axioms and postulates a little different from those of Euclid. The quantities in this geometry have an exact parallelism with the quantities of physics. The result has all the advantages of being a closely knit, highly deductive branch of mathematics, yet is at the same time a description
of large scale physics. Several rather startling predictions made by this theory have been verified experimentally. Some of these were variation of mass with speed and the possibility of annihilating

matter with the attending creation of vast quantities of heat, as in the atomic bomb.
311

312

APPENDIX 9

considered to be based logically on of Heisenberg's principle indeterminacy which makes an entity 2 1 called "action" (dimensions L T~ M) fundamental both in physics

Quantum mechanics may be

Two physical quantities whose dimensions and give the dimensions of action (such as energy and time, or momentum and distance) possess a small
and
in

atomic physics.

will multiply together

scale indeterminacy of such a nature that it is useless to try to

measure quantities of each so small that their product has an order of magnitude less than Planck's "quantum of action." This 34 quantum is represented by h and is numerically equal to 6.6 X 10~
joule-second. The result of this theory is that in dealing with such things as the electrons within the atom and other entities like

neutrons, positrons, protons, and so on, it is necessary to use a type of probability theory which has grown up into a beautifully consistent, logical system. The net result is that while we have to
recognize the fact that Newton's laws of motion, also classical electromagnetic theory, do not hold for such small scale events as those

quantum of action, yet on a larger scale, the probabilities involved become so extremely near to unity that we may confidently regard them as certainties. Thus there is no contradiction between quantum mechanics and engineering physics; the
within the
expression
latter.
is

often used that the former "extrapolates" into the

APPENDIX
List of

10

Symbols Used

in This

Book

A
a

area
acceleration

B C

D
d

E
e

B bulk modulus, blackness (0 1), flux density candle power, capacitance, conductivity, heat capacity per unit mass density, diameter distance electromotive force, voltage, effort
linear expansion, elongation

<

<

F
/

force
focal length

G
g

conductance
acceleration of gravity

U
h

heat
height, Planck's constant current, moment of inertia, illumination

/
1

K
k

L
/

angle of incidence coefficient of cubical expansion coefficient of linear expansion, any constant latent heat, torque, lumens, inductance length

mass
order of spectrum frequency, number of turns of wire power, pressure object distance, pitch of screw, magnet pole image distance, electrical quantity
resistance
radius, amplitude

N
n

P
p
q

R
r

S
s

shear modulus
distance absolute temperature, period temperature, time
initi.il

T
/

velocity, velocity of observer

V
*

W
w

volume, velocity of wave change in volume, final velocity, velocity of source of wave weight width of slit
reactance
abscissa

X
x

F
y

Young's modulus
ordinatc

Z
2
<I>

impedance summation magnetic flux

angular acceleration angle wave length
coefficient of friction, index of refraction, permeability
initial

a
$

H
coo

final

angular velocity angular velocity

313

Index
Attraction, 8 gravitational, 10, 11

Aberration, chromatic, 287 Abscissa, 224

Atwood, George, 93 Atwood's machine, 93

Automobiles, 222
Axle, 26, 31

Absorbers, perfect, 176 Acceleration, 73, 81, 83 average, 76, 81 centripetal, 86, 88
definition of, 73, 81 dimensions of, 235, 245 equations for, 76, 77, 81 of gravity, 78, 91, 96 problems illustrating, 79 radial, 126 tangential, 107 uniform, 74, 81 units of, 73

B
Bat, 268 Battery: A-, 262, 266, 267 B-, 264, 266, 267 C~, 262, 266, 267

Action, 9, 311 Adhesion, 186

Airplanes, 222 Alarms, burglar, 267 Algebra, summary of, 301

charging of, 222 discharged, 223 lead accumulator, 222 storage, 222 Beams, bending of, 50, 51 Beats, 156 Bel, 150 Bell, electric, 232, 240
Bernoulli's principle, 41, 42, 43 Bicycle, 24, 25, 27 Biology, 1, 2, 3

Alpha, 106 Alternating current, 198, 241, 249 equation, 254 radio, 267 Ammeter, 238 hot wire, 216 Ammonium chloride, 222 Ampere, 97 legal definition, 229 Amplification, 261, 270 Amplitude, 129, 136, 141, 150 of radio wave, 264 Analogy, mechanical, 249
Angle:
of incidence, 276, 278, of reflection, 278 of refraction, 279

Boats, 222 Boyle's law, 36, 43 Brahe, Tycho, 11

British thermal unit, 20, 171, 184

Browniaii movement, 162

Calorie, 20, 26, 171, 185

Calorimetry, 185 Capacitance, 205, 208, 249, 251 252, 257,

263, 264, 266 dimensions of, 264 Carbon, 16, 221 dioxide, 217 Cartesian divers, 37 Cathode, 224, 229 Cause, 234 Cavity magnetron, 268
Cell:

279

Anode, 224, 229 Antenna, 264, 268

Antinode, 145, 156 Antircsonance, 258 Archimedes' principle, 39, 41, 43, 250 Aristotle, 6 Armature, 232 of motor, 238 Astronomy, 1, 2, 3 Atom, 6, 17, 161, 202, 208, 221, 272

dry, 222
in parallel, 228 in series, 228

photoelectric, 267 polarized, 222 voltaic, 212, 221, 222 Celluloid, 291

Atomic bombs, 17, 123, 311 number, 202

:

physics, 311

Center, instantaneous, 115 Centimeter, 97 Charging storage battery, 222 Chemistry, 1, 2, 3

315

316
Circuits:
parallel, 272, 229 parallel a.c., 258
series, 227,

INDEX

229

De Haas, 165 Demagnetization, 198 Density, 36, 37, 42, 149 flux, 234
linear, 158 Derrick, 27

Cohesion, 186
Coil, induction,

240

Collimator, 289

Compass, 199 Compliance, 250 Components, 83

of forces, 56, 59, 62

Detective stories, 311 Detector, 266 Diamagnclic substance, 199, 200

Diaphragm, 260
Dielectric, 206 constcint, 204, 206, 208 Diffraction, 144, 146

rectangular, 62 Compressibility, 48, 50, 51 Compression, 8

member, oO Crmputation rules, 295

Condenser, 205, 208, 249 Conductance, 227, 229 Conduction, 170, 1/0
Conductivity, 171 table of, 172 Conductor, 203, 208 water as, 221 Conservation la\\s, 119 Constant: dimensions of electrostatic, 235, 245 dimensions of magnetic, 235, 245 physical, 29$ Planck's, 273 Convection, 170, 173, 176 Conversion factors, 293 Copper, electrolytic, 224 Core (of electromagnet), 232 Cosine, 257, 276, 305 law, 306 table of, 307 Coulomb, 204 micro-, 204

dispersion by, 289 grating 289 of light, 287, 291 of sound, 155 Dimensions, 235, 245 atomic, 6 Dipping needle, 194 Dispersion, 291
diffraction, 289 refraction, 287 Displacement, 24, 54, 129, 136, 141

by by

Distance, 4, 8, 12, 14, 15, 24 astronomical, 6 of distinct vision, 285 Division, method of, 300 Door opener, 267 Doppler effect, 152, 159 illustration of, 152

Dyne, 97

Earth, 10, 11 Echo, 153 Effect, 234

photoelectric, 271 Efficiency, 23, 24, 25, 30, 33 of heat engine, 167

Coulomb, Charles A 195 Coulomb's electrostatic law, 204, 208 Coulomb's law, 200
,

legal definition of, 224,

229

thermal, 168
Effort, 8, 24, 27, 28, 31, 33

Critical point, 188 pressure, 191

temperature, 189, 191

Croquet

ball, 7

arm, 27 displacement, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34 Einstein, 311
Elastic limit, 50, 51 Elasticity, 45, 51, 149, 249

Current, 249
alternating, 198, 240, 249 at resonance, 256

modulus
Electric:
arc,
bell,

of,

47

conventional, 210

dimensions of electric, 235, 245 effect of magnetic field on, 235, 236 electric, 210, 260 electron, 210, 223, 232, 235 grid, 265 in parallel circuit, 227 in series circuit, 227 microphone, 264 plate, 262

217 232

current, 218

power, 217
Electric current, effect of:

chemical, 223 magnetic, 231

Electricity, 2, 4, 194
frictional,

204

negative, 202
positive, 202
of, 4 203 Electrode, 229

Day:

theory

mean

solar,

96

static,

solar,

Decibel, 150 Degrees, 103

Electrolysis, 223,

229

Electrolyte, 221

INDEX
Electromagnet, 232, 242, 260 Electromagnetic: ether, 231
radiation, 261, 265, 268, 270, 273, 281 waves, 261, 271 Electromotive force, 211, 213, 218 back, 226, 244 direct, 226, 244 induced, 239, 242, 245

317

Field (cent.): electromagnetic, 231 equation for (magnetic), 233 gravitational, 272 magnetic, 231, 260, 272

problem

illustrating,

233

strength, 233 Figures:

insignificant, 295 significant, 295

methods

Electron, 271, 272 current, 210

free,

of producing, 239 122, 202, 208, 210,

221,

242,

Filament:
current, 262
in radio tube, 261, 262,

266

262

Electronics, 267, 270 Electroplating, 223 Electrostatic effects, 207

tungsten, 217 Finger-board, 158

Fluid, 36, 37, 42 Flux, 235, 244 density, 234, 244 dimensions of, 235, 245 dimensions of density, 235, 245

Elevator, 92

Energy,

2, 3, 16,

21

chemical, 17 conservation

of, 9, 16, 21, 123, 136,

166

dimensions
electrical,
1

of, 7

235, 245

heat, 16, 17, 23, 274 illustrations of, 16

kinetic, 17, 18, 29, 41, 94, 97, 100, 114, 242, 271
light,

equation for, 235 magnetic, 242 Focus, 279, 283 Foot, 4, 96

candle, 276, 281 Force, 4, 7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 24, 95, 250 buoyant, 39, 41
centrifugal, 100 centripetal, 09 dimensions of, 235, 245 lines of, 194, 231 moment of, 65, 71 negative, 14, 15

275 mechanical, 17
motion, 17 photon, 273
position, 17 rotation, 113

negative, 15
of of of of

normal, 25, 34
of friction, 15, 25 positive, 14, 15

potential, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, 41, 97 pressure, 32, 34, 41 radiant, 123 table of units of, 20 Engineering, 2 Engineers, list of, 2

unbalanced, 91
Forces: addition
of, 57,

58

English system

(of units),

Entropy, 167 Equilibrium, 66, 71

conditions for, 71

natural, 2 resolution of, 56, 57 Fourier, 152

Frequency, 129, 136, 141, 149, 249, 261 262, 264, 273, 274
Fresnel, 271 Friction, 7, 8, 14, 15, 16, 25, 28, 30, 31 coefficient of, 25, 34, 75
fluid,

terms of acceleration, 81 illustrating, 68 rules for solving problems, 67

in

problem

thermal, 176, 177 Euclid, 311 Evaporation, 187

250

kinetic coefficient of, 26, 34 static coefficient of, 26, 34

Expansion:
coefficient of cubical, 180, 182 coefficient of linear, 1 78, 182
linear, 178

viscous, 250 Fulcrum, 27

volume, 179, 181

Eyepiece, 287

Galileo, 6, 78

Gilvanomcter, 238

G is,

36, 42

law, 181, 182

Facts, 4 physical, 3, 4 Fahrenheit, 164

thermometer, 162 Ferromagnetic (substance), 199

Field:

Gauss, 234 Gciger counter, 267 Generator action, 244 Geology, 1 Geometry, 4

summary
Gram, 97

of,

304

dimensions of (magnetic), 235, 245 electric, 272

Grating, 290, 291

318
Gravitation,
7,

INDEX
13
of, 10, 11

Newton's law
Gravity, 10

acceleration of, 78 center of, 67, 68, 70, 71 Grid, 261, 262, 266

condenser, 267
leak, 266

Interference (cont.)i of light, 287, 291 lonization chamber, 267 Ionosphere, 269 Ions, 194, 221, 269 negative, 203 positive, 203 IR drop, 214, 225, 262

Gyrocompass, 109
Gyroscope, 108, 109

Gyros tatic

stabilizer,

109

Jackscrew, 29, 30

H
Harmonics, 151, 158 Heat, 2, 26, 29, 30, 161, 163, 168, 184, 242
capacity, 184, 185, 190 electric current, 215 insulation, 175 of fusion, 190, 191 of vaporization, 189, 191 transfer of, 170 units of, 26 Heisenber^'s principle, 311 Helix, 30, 233

problem

illustrating,

30

Joule, 15, 19, 97 Joule's law, 219 Jupiter, 126

from

K-shell, 202

Kepler, Johann, 11 Kepler's law, 11 Kilogram, 4, 5, 18

force,

96

Henry, 242 Henry, Joseph, 242

Hertz, 271
Hill diagram, 224

mass, 96 standard, 96 Kilowatt, 19

Kundt's tube, 156

History,

Hooke's law, 47, 48, 51, 130, 250 Horsepower, 19 Humidity, 154 Huygens, Christian, 271 Hydraulic press, 26, 32, 33, 37 Hydrogen, 16
ions, 221
I

L-shell, 202

Language, Laws:

Lead

physical, 3, 311 probability, 311

:

Illumination, 276, 281

Image, 278
distance, 285

283 285 Impedance, 254, 256, 259 Impulse, 119, 124 angular, 122 Incidence, angle of, 276, 279 Indicator, 268 plan position, 269 Inductance, 241, 245, 249, 251, 252, 257,
real, 279, 281,

virtual, 278, 281,

262, 264 dimensions of, 242

coil,

problem
Induction

illustrating,

243

240
135

Inertia, 8, 12, 94, 100, 139, 250

electrical,

242

moment

of, 111, 116,

Influence machine, 207 Input, 23, 24, 33 Insulator, 203, 208 Intelligence, 3 Intensity, 142, 150 Interference, 144, 155 constructive, 288 destructive, 289

accumulator, 222 dioxide, 223 monoxide, 223 sulphate, 223 Left hand rule, 232 Length, 95, 235, 245 focal, 285 table of units of, 275 Lens formula, thin, 286 Lenses, 280, 283 achromatic, 287 converging, 283, 284, 285 diverging, 283, 285 negative, 283 objective, 287 positive, 283 Lenz's law, 244, 246 Lever, 26, 27, 32 Leyden jar, 207 Light, 2, 4, 145, 261 electric, 217 infrared, 261, 274 reflection of, 278 refraction of, 279 -second, 275 speed of, 273 theories of, 271 ultraviolet, 261, 274
visible, 272,

274

INDEX
Light (cont.): waves, 281 -year, 275 Lines of force:
direction of, 232 magnetic- 194, 199, 232 Liquid, 36, 42

319

Millioersted, 196

Mirror: concave, 278 freak, 279

parabolic, 278, 279 Modulation, 261, 264, 270 Modulator, 268

Logarithm:
characteristic of, 309 interpolation, 309

Modulus:
bulk, 48, 49, 51 of elasticity, 47 rigidity, 50 shear, 49, 50, 51 Young's, 47, 48, 50, 51

mantissa of, 309 table, 308 Logic, 234 Loudness, 149, 158 Lumen, 276, 281

Molecule, 16, 161

Moment

of inertia, 116

M
M-shell, 203 Machines, 23
26, 27, 33 perpetual motion, 16, 23 simple, 26, 27, 33

compound,
Magnet:

of of of of of of

areas, 113 cylinder, 112, 116 flywheel, 112, 116 hollow cylinder, 112, 116 rod, 113, 116 sphere, 112, 116 units of, 11 }

Momentum,

earth as, 193

257 elementary, 193, 198 lifting, 232 permanent, 197, 198

electro-, 198,

119, 122, 124 angular, 122, 124 conservation of, 121 conservation of angular, 122
of

photon, 273

Moon, 269
Motion:
causes
of,

Magnetic:
effects, 207,
field,

246

65

195, 196, 236, 260 field strength, 196, 199

damped harmonic, 130

direction of, 2
pictures, 267 rate of, 18

methods of producing, 245 Magnetism, 2, 192, 199 Manganese dioxide, 222 Mass, 3, 4, 8, 90, 94, 100, 122, 124, 241, 250
fields,

rotatory, 64, 71, 103, 104 translatory, 64, 71, 94

dimensions of, 235, 245 law of conservation of, 123 of gas, 36 Mathematics, 1, 2 Matter, 2, 3, 17 states of, 186 Maxwell, 271 Mechanical advantage, 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33 actual, 25, 34 ideal, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 34 of compound machine, 27 Mechanics, 2, 249 Newtonian, 6 quantum, 6, 311 Megaparsec, 275 Mercury, 122, 311 Meter, 4, 5, 237 alternating current, 257 -candle, 276, 281
standard, 196

Motor, 237 action, 244

Multiplication, methods Mysteries, 311
of,

297, 299

N
Neptunium, 203
Neutrons,
17, 202,

208

mass of, 202 Newton, 4, 5, 18, 97

-meter, 97

Newton, Sir Isaac, 6, 9, Newton's laws, 6, 312

first

10, 11, 271

law,

7, 13,

14

of gravitation, 10, 11, 13 second law, 8, 13. 90, 92, 94, 100, 111, 120 third law, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 33, 68, 92

Nitrogen, 217 Node, 145, 156

Number,

pure, 23, 24, 25, 37, 46

Metric system, 4 Mho, 227 Michelson-Morley experiment, 269 Micro, 196 Microphone, 262, 264 Microscope, 287
electron, 2 optical, 2 Mil, 103, 109

Object distance, 285 Objective, 287 Oersted, 196 Ohm, 97, 213

Ohm's law, 213, Omega, 106

Ordinate, 224

219, 251

320
Origin, 54 Oscillation

INDEX
Pound
:

(cont.)

center of, 134, 137 in radio tube, 261, 262, 264, 270
Oscillator, 268 Oscilloscope, cathode-ray, Osmium, 11

mass, 96 standard, 4

268

United States, 96 Poundal, 96 Power, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 256 factor, 257, 259
units of, table, 21 Press, hydraulic, 26, 32, 33, 37 Pressure, 32, 34, 45 energy, 32, 34 gage, 36, 181

Output, 23, 24, 33 Overtone, 157, 158 Oxygen, 16

hydrostatic* 37

Paramagnetic (substance), 199, 200 Pascal's principle, 37, 43

of gas,
total,

36 36
circuit,

Pendulum compound,

Primary

240

134, 137 physical, 134, 137

Principle, 3

seconds, i32 simple, 131, 136 Percussion, center of, 134, 137 Period, 129, 136, 141, 146 Permeability, 233, 234, 236, 244 Phase, 141, 145, 151 angle, 129, 136, 259 Philosophy, 1 Photoelectric cffert, 271 Photometer, grease spot, 277 Photometry, 277, 2SI Photon, 271, 273, 281, 287, 288 Physics, 1, 2, 4 Pipes, organ, 157 closed, 157 open, 157 Pitch, 222 of jackscrew, 29, 30 of sound, 149, 158

superheterodyne, 268 Prism, 280, 290 Projectile, 83, 99 theoiy of light, 271 Proton, 202, 208, 210 mass, 202
Psi.

function, 141, 272 waves, 272, 273, 287, 290

Psychology,
Pull, 8

Pulley, 24, 26, 28

Push, 8
side,

237

Puzzles, 311

Quadrant, 103
Quality, 149, 158

Planck, 271,312 Plane: inclined, 26, 28

Quantity

of electricity, 235,

245

problem

illustrating, 29

Planets, 23 Plate, 262, 266

circuit,

262

current, 262

Radar, 268, 270, 274 in peace, 269 in war, 269 Radian, 103, 109
Radiation, 170, 173, 176 electromagnetic, 261, 273, 281 short wave, 274 Radio. impossibility of, 261 tube, 261 wave, 264 Radioactivity, 17 Radiometer, 274 Radio micro meter, 274 Ray, 142 gamma, 261 of light, 287
parallel,

Plutonium, 203
Polarization, 145, 146, 229 of light, 290, 291 Polaroid, 291 Pole, 195

265,

268,

270,

dimensions of magnetic, 235, 245 magnetic, 199, 236 North, 192, 232 pieces, 237 South, 192, 232 unit, 195, 199
Potential:
difference, 206, 218 dimensions of electric, 235, 245 drop, 214, 226 high, 210, 226 in electric circuit, 224 low, 210, 225

Pound,

4, 5

British, 96 force, 96

279 Roentgen, 274 secondary cosmic, 261, 274 Reactance, 254, 256, 257, 258 capacitive, 254, 256, 258 inductive, 254, 256, 258
Reaction, 9

INDEX
Receiver, 260, 265 Rectification, 261, 265, 270
Rectifier,

321
2, 141, 145, 148, 158, 260 as energy, 154 diffraction of, 155 interference of, 155 reflection of, 153 speed of, 148

Sound,

266 278

Reflection, 142, 146

angle

of,

diffuse, 143, 278 of light, 278 of sound, 153

wave, 264

Sound shadow, 155

Sounding, 154 Space, 3, 231 Sparrows, 10 Speaker, loud, 267
Specific.

Reflectors, perfect, 176 Refraction, 143, 146 angle, 279 dispersion by, 287 index of, 144, 146, 279, 281

281 of light, 279 Repulsion, 8, 192

of,

law

gravity, 36, 40, 41, 42, 223 heat, 184, 185, 190

Resistance, arm, 27

7, 8,

24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 33,

250

dimensions of electric, 235, 245 displacement, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34 effect of, in a c 250, 252 in parallel circuit, 227 in series circuit, 227 Resistivity, 214, 218 Resonance, 256, 259 scries, 256 Resultant, 54, 55, 58, 61 Reverberation, time of, 154, 159 Revolution, 103 Rocket, V-2, 269
,

Spectroscope, 2 Spec troscopir analysis, 290 Spectrum, 290, 291 lines, 289 order of, 289

Speed, 18, 53, 73, 74, 75, 76, 123 angular, 104, 109 drift, 211 of light, 211, 273 of sound, 200 of transmission of message, 260
of

wave, 142

signal, 211 Stiffness, 250 Stove pipe, 113 Strain, 46, 51, 234

Rods:
twisting of, 50, 51 weightless, 111 Root-mean-square value, 257, 258 Rope stretchers, 54

shearing, 46
tensile, 46 volume, 46

Strength, ultimate, 50, 51

Stress, 32,45, 51,

234

Rule:
left

shearing, 45

hand, 232, 236, 245

finger, 237, 238,

thumb and two

245

Salammoniac, 221 Sawdust, 139

Scalar, 53, 61

tensile, 45 Sublimation, 190 Sublime, 188 Sugar, 290 Sulphuric acid, 223 Sun, 10, 11 Supersonic, 268

Screw, 26
Searchlight, 279

Symbols used, table of, 313 Systems of units, 4, 95 cgs., 97

electrical, 97

Second,

4, 5,

96
240 295

Secondary

circuit,

Significant figures, Silver nitrate, 223

Simple harmonic motion, 126, 136, 249 acceleration in, 128 energy in, 136
force in, 129 velocity in, 127 Sine, 305 law, 306 table of, 307

English absolute, 96 English engineering, 96 metric engineering, 96 M.K S 97

,

wave, 252
Sinusoid, 253 Sleeping top, 104 Slug, 96 metric, 96 Sociology, 1 Solenoid, 233

Telegraph, 232 Telephone, 232, 260 Telescope, 2, 279, 287 observing, 289 Television, 267 Temperature, 2, 162, 163, 164, 168, 184
absolute, 168, 181 of gas, 36 of sun, 175

Temperature

scales, 164 centigrade, 164, 165 centigrade absolute, 165

322
Temperature
scales (cont.)
:

INDEX
Velocity, 17, 53, 73, 83 angular, 105, 109 dimensions of, 235, 245

Fahrenheit, 164, 165 Fahrenheit absolute, 164, 165 Kelvin, 165 Tension, 8

group, 272 of psi-wave, 273

Vibrations, 260 Violin string, 158
Volt, 97, 206 Volta, Alessandro, 222 Voltage, 206, 208, 214, 226, 249

member, 60
of string, 158 Theories, physical, 3, 311

Theory,

4 of light, 271
2,

of relativity, 269, 311

induced, 264
in parallel circuit, 227 in series circuit, 227

wave mechanics, 271

Thermocouple, 217

Thermodynamics
first

Voltmeter, 238

law of, 166, 168 second law of, 166, 168 Thermoelectricity, 217, 219 Thermopiles, 274
bottle, 175 Theta, 106 Thrust, 8

Volume

of gas, 36

W
Watt,
19,

Thermos

97

Wave,
245

Time, 3, 4, 8, 12, Tongs, 25 Torques, 65, 111 clockwise, 66

18, 95, 235,

139, 146 carrier, 264

counterclockwise, 66 of, 117 Torus, 241

sum

compressional, 141, 146 electromagnetic, 260, 271 -front, 143, 146, 288 light, 231, 261 longitudinal, 141, 145, 146

mathematical, 272
radio, 261, 264
sine, 252 sound, 265 standing, 156

Tourmaline, 290 Trains, 222 Transformer, 240, 267 step down, 241 step up, 241 Transmitter, 260
Triangles: properties of, 57 reference, 57 Triple point, 187, 190 Truss, problem involving, 60

stationary, 145, 146, 157

theory of

light,

271

transverse, 139, 146, 290 Wave length, 141, 146, 261, 273, 287, 288

measurement of, 289 Weber, 234, 235 Wedge, 27

Weight, 8, Wheel, 26
11, 13

Tube:
electronic, 270

evacuated, 261 radio, 261

Tungsten filament, 217

problem illustrating, 31 Whiz-bang, 153 Wood, balsa, 250

Work,

14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 28,

of,

29

dimensions

235

u
Units, 4 absolute, 95 engineering, 95 of angle, 103 of energy, table of, 20 of heat, table of, 26 of power, table of, 21 physical, 4, 5, 15

negative, 15 of rotation, 113 positive, 15

Worm,

10

X-rays, 261 hard, 274

soft,

274

systems

0^95

Vacuum,

3,

231

Vector, 53, 61

parallelogram method of adding, 54, 61

Yard, 4, 5 standard, 4 Young's modulus, 47, 48, 50, 51

polygon method of adding, 54, 61 rotating, diagram, 252, 258 sum, 54, 61 triangle method of adding, 54, 61

Zinc, 221