CELTIC WRESTLING

THE JACKET STYLES

History of an old sport Techniques of Breton & Cornish wrestling Winners 1928-2006

Guy JAOUEN

, & M a t t h e w B e n n e t t NICHOLS
FILA

L/

CELTIC WRESTLING
THE JACKET STYLES

History of an old sport

&

Techniques of Cornu-Breton Wrestling Winners 1928-2006

GuyJAOUEN & Matthew Bennett NICHOLS

Summary Foreword by Raphael Martinetti, President of FILA Acknowledgments Introduction by Matthew Bennett Nichols, MPH

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PART I - HISTORY OF AN OLD SPORT by Guy jaouen, founder secretary of the FILC 1) jacket wrestling in America 2) jacket wrestling in Ireland 3) The development of wrestling In America 4) The Collar-and-Elbow and Side-Hold wrestling 5) The Cousin jack's connection 6) Celtic wrestling in the British Empire 7) The Cornu-Breton or Celtic connection 8) Cornu-Breton wrestling in the Middle Age 9) Wrestling, a martial art taught all over Europe 10) Birth of the modern Celtic jacket wrestling style 11) Wrestling as a sport and pastime 12) Wrestling in Cornwall in the 19'h century 13) Some statistics on wrestling around 1826 in Cornwall and Devon 14) The Couren in Brittany in the 7 9'" and beginning of 20lh centuries 7 0) The Cornu-Breton wrestling and the Inter Celtic Championships 71) The FILC, the International Federation of Celtic wrestling 12) A revival of traditional wrestling

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PART II - TECHNIQUES OF CORNU BRETON WRESTLING 1) Introduction 2) The techniques of Cornu-Breton wrestling

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PART III - 1928 2006 LIST OF WINNERS 1) The 1928 - 1980 Inter-Celtic championship list of winners 2) The 1985 - 2006 Celtic wrestling championship list of winners

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Bibliography

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CORSIER sur VEVEY - Switzerland March 8th, 2006, after the signing of the 1st agreement between the FILA and the FILC.

From left to right: Mr Raphael Martinetti, FILA President ; Mr William Baxter, FILC President; Mr Guy Jaouen, FILC International Convenor; Mr Michel Dusson, FILA General Secretary.

Foreword
When I received the solicitation from Mr. Guy Jaouen and Matthew Bennett Nichols to prepare the work that you have in your hands, on the Celtic Jacket Wrestling styles, I expected the usual exercise of congratulating people for their work in the plain terms that one typically finds in this kind of foreword. As I began to dive into the actual reading of the work, I was immersed not only in the roots of a particular type of wrestling, but in the general history of the world of wrestling and there I discovered the interdependence between all wrestling styles practiced in the world. If one refers to the old photographs and engraving reproduced in the work, every style of wrestling could appropriate them in claiming the origins of the modern fighting sports. This holds true for Free Style, Greco-Roman, Beach Wrestling, Sambo, Judo, Grappling, Pancrace; all of these sports draw their roots in the same fundamental needs found in every civilization. Since time immemorial individuals have struggled, in warrior jousts of course, but also more peacefully in order to determine the best combatant or the strongest man inside a clan, a tribe, a region or a nation -he who could protect the group or drive it forward. These competitions have been transformed into big popular demonstrations that marked all important events in the life of the societies. In the majority of the 160 countries affiliated with FILA, International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles, these types of wrestling perpetuate themselves in their ancestral forms, and the public, yet accustomed to other sports, still finds much pleasure in following the exploits of our gladiators of modern times. The historical research of the authors of this book throws the reader back centuries and tells the history of Celtic wrestling, and glorifies its prestigious wrestlers ; yet, the research doesn't ignore the interdependence between the historic roots of all of the wrestling styles practiced in the world. This book devours itself like a novel and makes the reader cross many centuries of a sport-wrestling history that has always existed and has produced famous personalities that will continue to exist in all its shapes, so much that courageous and passionate men and women will have at heart the knowledge of their roots and will do everything to prevent them from falling into oblivion. Raphael Martinetti FILA President

Acknowledgments
Authors thank William Baxter, president of the FILC and also the author of mimerons works on the history of wrestling, for his help. To Ted Dunglinson, our friend co-founder of the FILC, and to Doctor Charles Cotonnec and Tregonning Hooper, founding members of a Cornu-Breton committee in 1928. To our family.

Credits
Wrestling performers in technical photos: A. Lagadec, P. Le Berre, G. Leroux, . Pichn, P. Tanguy, F. Maze, P. Le Mem, R. Allain, J-P. Leroy, P. Dissez, H. Douet, S. Gueguen, J.P. Menou and G. Jaouen. Wrestling photographers : J-P. Jaouen and G. Jaouen. Photos and pictures are from the authors archives, except when a specific mention is made. Maps: creation G.J.

Contacts for practical information

http://www.cornishwrestling.co.uk/ secretary^cornishwrestling.co.uk http://www.gouren.com/ federationCg'gouren.com http://celtic-wrestling.tripod.com/ mnicholsla^earthlink.net

Introduction
I first met Guy Jaouen at a train station in Brest, Brittany, in July of 2003. This was the beginning of a long, and long awaited, journey. He had, courtesy of FILC (International Federation of Celtic Wrestling), invited me to the European Championships that were to be held in Sardinia later that month. I had several objectives on this journey. First, of course, I greatly desired to experience the European Championships, a dream come true for me. Second, Guy and I had long discussed the development of Celtic Jacket Wrestling in America; this book, which is now before you, is the very first step. We needed to meet one another, to put our minds together, and to produce new conditions to give possibilities for people to reconnect to their old physical culture, what Guy would later refer to as the cultural "cathedral that we are rebuilding"! Third, and also of great significance, an examination was scheduled for me by the Federation of Gouren - such that I could become a certified instructor of the old Breton art. At the end of this fantastic journey, all objectives were achieved beyond my wildest expectations. After I shook Guy's hand at the train station, I was confident that some of our tasks, such as this book before you, would actually come to life in the near future. I live in New Orleans, Louisiana - the "Old France" of America. We began our collaborative research and writing in 2004-2005. Then, on August 29'" of 2005, hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans and much of Louisiana. I stayed in New Orleans for the storm and spent much of my time during the last few days of August ensuring that my library, in particular my wrestling library, was secure and on high ground. Luckily, my books and manuscripts survived intact, even though the majority of the city was flooded with water and misery. From this experience, having almost lost everything material, I was confronted with the realization of what really is important in life. The Spirit and the Spirit of Culture can overcome any great storm or tribulation. When a man is robbed of everything material, he still has his greatest wealth: his Culture. This is a demonstration of the primacy of Culture. No man is poor who is culturally rich. What is the significance of Celtic Jacket Wrestling? First of all, I am not of 'Celtic' origin. My ancestors were from Sweden and Greece, but there was something about Gouren and Cornish wrestling that seized me by the sleeves

when I saw my very first booklet on the subject. There are many millions of people of 'Celtic' descent in America, Canada, and Australia, and there is an ever-growing hunger and thirst, especially among this new generation, to learn the traditions of their forefathers. This book will enable those with the desire to learn and practice, to live, this precious art of their forefathers. I am not exactly sure what it was that appealed to me about Celtic Jacket Wrestling. It was beyond mere sport. There was something deeper I gleaned, perhaps in the realm of the spiritual - resonating from the photographs and text contained in the little booklet: Celtic Wrestling, Our Culture! I received this little, but significant, booklet while researching traditional wrestling in Iceland in the summer of 1995 (The Icelandic wrestling union, I came to learn, was also a member of the FILC). Without the gift of this little booklet, I would almost certainly not be the co-author of this book, and probably this book would not exist at all in its present form or scope. I guess it is fair to say that this is a small example of the force of Destiny, which cannot be predicted, but is often the primary determinant in the making of history. This little booklet opened my eyes to several styles of wrestling that I was totally unaware of. This is also when I first learned of Guy Jaouen and his work in promoting Gouren, or La Lutte Bretonne, traditional wrestling in general, as well as his passion for traditional games and sports as a way of life - in harmony with the regional cultures. Guy Jaouen began writing on wrestling at age 18, in 1972, the year of my birth. As I was sleeping in a cradle, Guy was laying the foundation for this work as a young man. Our objective here is not simply to produce a book; rather, our primary objective is to re-introduce Celtic Jacket Wrestling to countries where it once flourished, as well as to introduce it to countries where historically it did not exist. The practitioners of Cornish and Breton wrestling today are the bearers of an ancestral torch - a torch that we hope will illuminate the skies like the aurora borealis. The book before you is unique. It is not merely an historical treatise. It is not solely a technical manual, nor merely a book on the Inter-Celtic championships spanning more than 75 years. It is all of the above, but it is still much more! This book describes a particular cultural movement that reinvigorated, and structuralized - most probably saving for future generations, and with a renewed strength and purpose - two forms of Celtic Jacket Wrestling: Cornish wrestling and Gouren. But this movement, which produced a model of diplomacy, also embraced and helped reinvigorate traditional wrestling styles from other distant countries in Europe. And this model should, and will, assist other diverse cultural groups from around the world to embrace and reinvigorate their respective traditional wrestling styles. This has been the greatest success of FILC. Why should there exist such a book, in the English language, on these two esoteric forms of Celtic Jacket Wrestling? The answer is contained precisely in

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the question: because these two ancient styles are esoteric forms of wrestling, originating from the cultural roots that many of us have in the New World. Even today in England and France, many people have not heard of these styles, or perhaps only with respect to their antiquity. These are very living arts, and not the subject of mere archaeology. Traditional wrestling is a part of the cultural expression, like dancing, drama, etc. Our goal is to reintroduce Celtic Jacket Wrestling to the New World, specifically to America and Canada. There have been significant advances in Australia, which lead us to believe that we are on the cusp of a global resurgence or revival. It has already been proposed that, in the next three years (by 2010), there will be held, in Mineral Point, Wisconsin, the first Cornish wrestling championship of North America for this new millennium! This, again, was the product of Destiny. This book is divided into three parts: 1. Historical, 2. Technical, and 3. The list of winners of the Celtic wrestling championships for the years 1928-2006. The historical section is the result of the lifelong work, the culmination of more than three decades of research into Celtic Jacket Wrestling. The literature cited in this research spans more than 500 years of European literary history. Therefore, the writing of such a book is nothing new. The book before you is merely a part, and a continuation, of this tradition. This book is merely the newest, and perhaps the most comprehensive to date. What may, at first, seem strange to the reader is that the historical section begins in the New World, in America. Currently very few Americans know that these aforementioned styles of wrestling were present during the birth of their country, or at the very least shortly thereafter. The Cornish miner was a frontiersman in America, and brought his beloved wrestling style with him, pickaxe in hand, from the east coast of America to Mineral Point, Wisconsin, to as far as Grass Valley, Nevada, and even further west. So, in terms of American identity, Cornish wrestling is a part of its history, and should be not viewed as foreign in nature. The Collar and Elbow style of Ireland, although it is now extinct, formed a significant part of what we can refer to as early American wrestling. Culture ebbs and flows like the waves of the sea, receding, and returning, in a cyclical fashion. From the New World the historical section soon traces back to the Old World, to its original soil and sod. This treatment covers wrestling in Ireland, England, and Brittany, from modern times back to the medieval period of Europe. As time is a continuum, the historical section reflects this, and does not follow the standard linear progression. It is with such an historical method that we, of the modern world, can now see that we are not so different from our forefathers. We are not so removed from the world of the ancients. Wrestling is a testament to this fact. This is why I, in an earlier book on traditional wrestling, wrote that wrestling is "the most human of all sports." Through wrestling we can witness and achieve an important part of the human experience.

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The technical section of the book treats the two cousin styles, Cornish wrestling and Gouren, as styles with common roots, and this section can be used to learn both styles'. Indeed one may have gleaned this perspective from the earlier historical section of this book. The Breton jacket, or tunic ("roched"), is used in all of the photos - but the contemporary Cornish jacket could easily have been substituted. The techniques contained in this book constitute only the core techniques found in Cornu-Breton wrestling. By no means is this technical section meant to be an exhaustive manual of all techniques: some techniques are not included (or purposely excluded), some have been perhaps lost in time, and others will certainly be invented in time. This last point must be further elaborated. Cornu-Breton wrestling is a very ancient art; it is complete, but it is not yet a completed art. There are still new techniques that the practitioner, after learning the basic holds and throws, will invent and master. Thus the progression is exponential, and follows a reverse pyramidic structure. Therefore it is an open-ended art, and we encourage the reader and student to practice the various holds and throws, to master them, improve upon them, and finally to add to them! Lastly, this book records the winners of the Celtic wrestling championships which, in modern times, resurfaced in the year 1928. This is the first book to contain the complete results of these championships. In the near future, in the year 2028, the first centennial championship of Celtic wrestling will be held at a place and time not yet known. Yes, I am an optimist! This book is a testament of, and a tool to further, the continuance of this style of wrestling. I am of the firm belief that wrestling instills the healthy value system, and fortifies the Spirit of Heroism, necessary to aid the wider aims and objectivesthe imperativesof cultural survival! With this we must push on with vigor, and remember the old Cornish wrestling motto: Gware Wheag Yu Gware Teag ('Good play is fair play')and live and play accordingly.

Matthew Bennett Nichols New Orleans, 2007

1 We have not published the current detailed rules for any of the styles, but people can email the respective wrestling federations, provided in the early pages, to obtain them.

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PART I - HISTORY OF AN OLD SPORT

Jacket Wrestling in America

In contemporary America, if one were to mention the sport of 'jacket wrestling', most immediately would think of Judo! Jacket wrestling, however, was a very living sporting practice in the U.S., lasting approximately 100 years, more than fifty before Judo was created in 1882. Indeed, a style of jacket wrestling called "Collar-and-Elbow" (Coilear agus Dille in Gaelic), "American style" or later "scuffling", derived from the Irish wrestling style, was very popular in America from the beginning of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20"' century. Indeed, this style was still practiced up until the I World War and then it vanished from the American landscape. Many famous American people practiced this style of wrestling. It is even said that General George Washington, the first president, was a noted exponent in his youth, having learned this style while a student in the Reverend James Maury's Academy at Fredericksburg. At age eighteen, in 1750, Washington apparently held a reputed Collar and Elbow championship that was countywide, possibly even colony-wide. Washington, however, was not the only US President who was a Collar-and-Elbow wrestler. Andrew Jackson (7,h) and Zachary Taylor (12th) were also "scufflers", as Ulysses Grant (18th). But the roughest and toughest of the wrestling presidents was Abraham Lincoln (16"'), 6 feet 4 inches tall! Some biographers claim that he was champion of his county in 1830, when he was 21. William Howard Taft (27th president, 1909-1913) was "A lifelong, indeed an ancestral, follower of Collar and Elbow" (Wilson). The old Taft homestead had already produced three generations of "fairly respectable" collar-and-elbowers. President's Chester A. Arthur and Calvin Coolidge also wrestled in their youth, but of the two only Coolidge was considered competent in the art. Zachary Taylor had became a very able practitioner of Collar-and-Elbow during his service with the Illinois Volunteers at the time of the Indian uprising by Black Hawk. Later Taylor (1849-1850) favored wrestling as an army sport. Harvard University installed its first director of physical culture in 1859; soon after the American Civil War (1861-1865) changed the perception of military training programs and reinforced the use of wrestling in the military preparation. Charles Wilson, in his book The Magnificent Scufflers2 states that Collar and Elbow techniques constitute the basis for much of the U.S. intercollegiate or scholastic
2 The Magnificent Scufflers, Charles Morrow Wilson, The Stephen Green Press, 1959

IS

wrestling, which is even called "folk style" by some current coaches. Wilson specifically mentions a throw called the "flying mare". This terminology (even if it was probably not exactly the same technique) comes from the Cornish and Devon styles of wrestling which traveled to North America with Cornish immigrants'. It appears that the sport spread through the Army during the Civil War as a means of casual recreation, practiced for fun and glory. At first the sport was very much an informal activity with matches organized at fairs, saints days, or social gatherings, as it was in Ireland, England, and Brittany. Prize fighting did not catch on until the second part of the 19lh century. Collarand-Elbow, at beginning, was not codified and the rules were only by 'gentlemen's agreement'. According to Wilson, "The practiced rules or prohibitions of Collarand-Elbow in the back-woods of the U.S. East remained unwritten for at least halfcentury. A long deceased newspaper in St. Albans, Vermont, and a surviving newspaper in the larger neighboring town of Burlington, had recorded that a rules list was first published in 1856 by the then Lakeside Press of St. Albans, in preparation for an interstate Collar-and-Elbow tournament which because of an epidemic of disease was never actually held. This rule4 list may or may not have been actually published; the Library of Congress, at any rate, does not list it." This was also the great period of the traveling carnival, with their numerous and varied sideshows. By 1850 the carnivals were transporting their own strong men and wrestlers from city to city same as in the cities of the South of France at approximately at the same period. At a time where there were not many forms of entertainment, these shows were extremely popular. Victory in the ring was the main object of these wrestling events. Later occasionally a wrestler might occasionally tour with a circus on carnival circuit, but wrestling became more professional and was largely a side bet affair. Matches between wrestlers practicing different styles started to be organized by the last part of the 19"' century. Champion wrestlers of catch-as-catch-can, Cornish wrestling, and Collar-andElbow often wrestled together. Sometimes they would wrestle only in one match, sometimes there were two or three different contests - in two or three different styles. Sometimes there existed ground wrestling in Collar-and-elbow, but in general this was against the rules. Sometimes even there included other styles of wrestling such as Cumberland and Westmoreland, Side-hold, Greco-Roman, and Lancashire. From a leisure activity, the sport developed itself, step by step, into a sort of modern sport activity, with championships but without strict rules, regulations and a democratic organization to control the activity. The champion of each county had his own manager to organize the so-called championships, and matches became more and more a professional practice, with challenges for considerable sums of side money (e.g. $550 in 1876 in Great Bethel, Vermont, or $1000 again in 1876 in the Music Hall of Boston, for example). With such large
3 William Baxter. 4 Henry Dufur was probably the author of the rules, published later, in 1884.

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prizes won in prestigious towns such as Boston, New York, Detroit and San Francisco, by 1888 there were even scufflers traveling from Ireland to Vermont to learn Collar-and-Elbow! Thereafter these wrestlers returned home to hold championships in Dublin, as well as in London, Buenos Aires and Sydney. The significance of all this enthusiasm is enhanced by the fact that this half-century, which witnessed the flowering of Collar-and-Elbow, was in fact a desert in terms of American sports. Otherwise, it is difficult to know exactly the influence that this had on the GAA (Gaelic Athletic Association - Ireland) at the time of its creation in 1884. But in 1907 the Irish Leinster Leader from the 16 March wrote "It is to be hoped that this eminently scientific and picturesque style of wrestling (Collar-and-elbow) will be again revived and popularized. The Gaelic Athletic Association should include it in its list of ancient Gaelic sports, which it is so commendably and successfully reviving in Ireland."
News published in newspapers

T h e PORTAGE LAKE M I N I N G GAZETTE (Michigan)

1870, T h u r s , June 23 d . Tommy Wallace, of Negaunee announced they will have a wrestling match (Cornish and American styles) on the 4,h and 5lh of July. Bastian and Co will have a wrestling match (Cornish style) at Red lacket on the 2" and 4'". 1870, T h u r s , July 7 lh . Cliff m i n e . The wrestling match winners were: I5' - $50-00 Wm. Thomas; 2" $30. Thomas Fruen; 3d $20. James Brooks, 4,h prize, $10-00 |ohn Gannon. George jacka and Kit Wallace were having a little sideshow, when )acka threw Wallace, and one of the small bones in Wallace's leg was broken. 1880, A p r i l 1 s t . H o u g h t o n , M i c h i g a n . The Cornish wrestling match between Peter Carlyon and Jack Carkeek resulted in a draw on Saturday last.

THE O H I O DEMOCRAT
1873, M a y 3 1 " The wrestling match between John McMahon, of Rutland, Vt, and Homer Lane, of New York, for $2000 and the championship of America, took place here last night at Apollo hall. About five hundred persons were present, among them Harry Hill, J.H. McLaughlin, and a number of prominent sporting men from all parts of the Northern States. Thousands of dollars changed hands. Lane stands 5 feet 10 inches in height and weighs 160 pounds. He has competed in seventy-eight matches, and had the championship since October, defeating Perry Higby, Lang Dolan and Lew. Ainsworth. McMahon hails from Rutland, Vt., stands 5 feet 11 inches in height and weighs 197 pounds. He was never defeated, having won twenty-two matches. (...) McMahon threw Lane and won the match, much to the disgust of the New York and Boston men. The match lasted one hour and twenty minutes.

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THE DAILY MINER (Montana) 1882, May 26. Butte, Montana. Second Day of the Cornish Sports. At least twice as many spectators were present yesterday at the second day's wrestling matches under the Cornish rules. The area was well covered with saw dust. William jobe, weighing 205 pounds and Henry Nichols, weighing 195 pounds, met for the final (Evans Lewis wrestled the day before). After this will come the collar-and-elbow match between V. B. Sabin and William Pascoe (a Cornish wrestler), neither one of whom needs any words of introduction to Butte audiences.

MINERAL POINT TRIBUNE (Wisconsin)

1883, October 11. The second wrestling match between Lewis and Carkeek took place at Darlington yesterday and the second time has Carkeek proved the better man, but it required more much time and tugging. Seventeen bouts (rounds) were had with all but two it in reported in Carkeek's favor, the last the "flying mare" hitch being applied. Lewis had no throw, but he showed to much better advantage than before. Wether it was an account of the contest being fixed before hand, as is the opinion of many, we can't decide. About 500 spectators put in an hour and a half witnessing the match.

THE DODGEVILLE CHRONICLE (Montana)

1885, January 11. Butte City, Montana. Carkeek champion of Michigan and D.A. McMillan champion of California wrestled for a purse of $500 + gate receipts. 800 people in attendance. The match was made to wrestle in five styles : Collar & elbow, Cornish wrestling, Greco-Roman, sidehold and Catch-as-catch-can.

Jacket wrestling in Ireland

While also excelling in the old Gaelic sports of Hurling Gaelic Football and Handball, the Irish had always been good wrestlers. "Their historic old county was the last stronghold of the eminently manly and ancient Gaelic style of wrestling known as "Coilear agus Uille" says John Ennis5 in 1903. One of the oldest modern reference is from this text of the 17th century (extracts) : "The gaping crowds, who still delight to be spectators at a fight, To see a scuffle at a fair, And leave those champions room enough To wrestle, scratch, to kick and cuff. Sometimes with close embrace they hug, With art they grip, with strength they tug; And now they both together fall To ground, and in strange postures crawl Then up they start in mighty rage" (This last stanza indicate a standing up form of wrestling.)
5 John Ennis, article of 1907 in the Leinster Leader Irish newspaper.

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M'COHMiCK HALL.

GREAT WRESTLING CONTEST

Between the Celebrated Athlete,

COL. J. .

MCLAUGHLIN,

OF DKTKOIT, MICH.. A N D OF CALIFORNIA. Will positively take placdTHia EVENING- for 83.00) and the Original Champion Belt of the World, now held by McLaughlin. General odmtislon, $ 1 ; referred cata. g l . s o . Now On aale ai Slicniiau and MavtasoU Houio. city.

JOHN

McMAHON.

Left: Newspaper poster advertizing the match between McLaughlin and McMahon who is supposed to be from the West. Indeed, McLaughlin had set as a condition to meet McMahon "unknown", i.e. he was not the McMahon of the East.

WRESTLING!
^ .
OZCsTIE.

Above: Ticket for the wrestling match. Left: Picture of McMahon on a cigarettes box, with his harness. On the back more information is given on "THE WORLD'S CHAMPIONS", with Baseball players, Pugilists, Oarsmen, Rifle shooters, Billard Players and Wrestlers with the following list: foe ACTON (Catch-as-catch-can) W.M. MULDOON (Greco-Roman) Theo. BAUER Matsada SORAKICHI (Catch-as-catch-can) John MCLAUGHLIN (Collar-an-elbow) lohn McMAHON (Collar-an-elbow) Young BIBBY (Lancashire wrestling)

ALLEN

JOHN MCMAHON.

GINTERS
V I M & I M I ft .

. . ( ' " I " ' M'

PLAYEH5

ClQARETTtS.

PLAYER'S

CIGARETTES.

AYERS

CIGARETTES,

. 1***,*1&

.mmme, omvsriQvmMSOi*

flnw J"rf Gvnivll Siy'r.

Left: "Devon and Cornwall" wrestling on cigarettes boxes in the end of the 19" century. Other examples were published with Cumberland & Westmorland, jujitsu, Catch-as-can-catch wrestling.

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Edward MacLysaght says that wrestling was a form of public entertainment in Ireland in the 17th century'1 and that it appears that the game has been governed by at least one or two accepted rules. "The way it was customary to make a match at this time was to bind a girdle or a belt of leather round the body of the two men, and to give each man of them a hold on the other man's belt and when they would be ready and the word (to start) would be given them they would begin wrestling." writes Dr. Douglas Hyde in a literal translation of Irish. In 1826, a famous Collar-and-elbow contest was celebrated between Carey and Larkin in front of twenty thousand supporters, held on the commons of Loughinure, near the town of Clane, County Kildare. Details of this match were still discussed by old men who had witnessed it in the end of the 19th century in Ireland. Richard Carey, from Mullingar, champion of Westmeath, and James Larkin, from Clane, Champion of Kildare were close in weight and height (182 pounds and 5'10"). Each had wrestled the best men in his own and neighboring counties and had never suffered defeat. John Ennis wrote that "On the morning of the Sunday selected for the contest, Carey set out for Clane accompanied by fifty admiring Westmeathians in horseback. This imposing cavalcade was met at Kinnegad, twenty miles from Clane, by two hundred mounted Kildare men and escorted with great prompt to Clane." The match was governed under "Kildare Rules". Under those rules any part of the body above the knee touching the ground, constituted a fall (as in Cumberland wrestling), and dropping on knees, either wilfully or otherwise, three consecutive times, was also counted a fall. Best two out of three falls was invariably the custom. Other rules were used in other places, where it was necessary for one shoulder, or one hip to touch the ground to constitute a fall. The fashion to wrestle on those days was in "stocking feet". It was also customary to commence wrestling by shaking hands. Carey won the first fall only after one hour of skilful wrestling, the next was for Larkin in thirty minutes, by an "inside hook" (back crook or inside lock). "For one hour and a half they continued the struggle, giving a splendid exhibition of footsparring, tripping and blocking. Then Larkin feinted with his right foot, and, quick as a flash, threw in his left, and getting Carey on his hip, threw him with great force, winning the fall and the match." An extraordinary demonstration followed the close of the contest, in which "victor and vanquished were seized and carried on the shoulders of the crowd into Clane where they were royally entertained". John Ennis said that in America a strong leather harness with handles at the collar and the elbow was devised which was substituted for the unreliable and cumbersome coat formerly worn. He also wrote that "as a gladiatorial spectacle a wrestling contest under Collar-and-elbow rules is to Greco-Roman or Catch-ascatch-can what a purely scientific boxing match is to a rough and tumble fight. In the former, while strength of grip must be developed in hand and wrist, there is no choking, or strangle holds; the art is confined to the feet which are kept
6 In the article Irish Life in the Seventeenth Century by Edward MacLysaght, Cork Univ. Press 1950.

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dexterously sparring and feinting for an opening to use the various hooks, trips and locks peculiar to the sport, while in the latter styles-to the uninitiated observer at least-brute strength seems to be the chief requirement, and a contest appears unseemly, undignified and suggestive of the rough-and-tumble." Walter Armstrong gives a description7 of a match in Phoenix park in 1876 : "The ring was belted round by close on seven thousand spectators, and two coats laid in the center of the arena, just as an invitation to be trodden upon. A stalwart Hibernian stalks into the ring and puts on one of the garments, which was a direct challenge for any man to take up the other". A fall was won when a wrestler touched the ground with his hand, knee, back or side, as in Cumberland style. During the period 1850-1870, Collar-and-elbow wrestling was in the zenith of its popularity in Kildare, when Pat Byrne, of Killashee, became the first best man in Ireland in numerous contests in Phoenix Park, Dublin. In the late fifties the allround athlete James Kennedy, of Raheen, succeeded to him. In 1865 James Rourke, of Clane, was matched with James Gallagher, of Drehid, a noted jumper and runner, near the hill of Carbury. No wrestling contest held in Kildare since the memorable one between Larkin and Carey" in 1826 attracted such a crowd to the ringside, it is estimated that nearly ten thousand were present. The match was held in a large field on the farm of Michael Farrell, at Hodgestown near Timahoe. The ring, 200 yards in diameter, was maintained by five men on horseback. From 1863 to 1867, when the dread of Fenianism prompted the Government to proscribe gatherings of the people, Kildare had splendid lightweight wrestlers under twelve stone. Among the best of these were John and Pat Salmon of Starffan, Pat White of Newtown, Matt Cully of Landenstown; James and William Byrne of Killashee, John Fulham of Clongorey, Timothy and James Dempsey of Newtown, and Christy Donahue of Caragh. Every parish had its champion who was kept busy defending his title and contending for higher honors in intercounty contests with neighboring champions. The men of the adjoining counties of Dublin, Meath, Westmeath, King's, Carlow, and Wicklow ever sought to emulate the prowess of the wrestlers of Kildare. But in 1903 Ennis reports that even if Collar-and-elbow was still cultivated by the youth of Kildare, Collar-andelbow was on decline. This was "primarily due to the rigorous application of the numerous Coercion Acts during the Fenian times and in the troublesome days of the Land League agitation, when gatherings for any purpose except religious service were strictly prohibited, and later, to the unnatural exodus which has denuded the country of its stalwart manhood, and has left but the infant, the infirm, and the aged." John Ennis suggested in 1907 that clubs for this Collar-and-elbow be organised in large Irish towns and "competent instructors engaged. If this be done it will be but a few years until we shall again be holding tournaments which will develop champions of the types which in former years were the pride of Kildare : The Gaelic American."
1 Wrestling, in the All-England series - London, New edition, 1904. 8 In 1822 was organized a woman wrestling match in London. It was between Peg Carey and Martha Flaherty, probably two Irish women.

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Left: Collar-and-elbow match in Dublin (Ireland), 1878.

Below Left: Jack Carkeek, the AmericanComish champion. Right: Orner De Bouillon, a Belgium champion of Greco-Roman wrestling. He was 2'" behind George Hackenschmidt (Estonia) at the professional world championship of 1901 in Paris (in the Casino de Paris. November 30"' to December 19"').

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The development of wrestling in America

A Collar-and-elbow contest which aroused considerable local interest was held at the old Sunnyside race track in Chicago in February of 1869. It was between Patrick Brennan, a native of Kilcullen, County Kildare and James Cahill, a native of County Westmeath, two non-professional sportmen, even though the stakes were $250 a side. Brennan was a teamster and Cahill worked in the North Side Rolling Mills. But one of the first well known wrestlers, acknowledged as the greatest competitors of Collar-and-elbow style was John McMahon. He was born in Vermont in 1841 of Irish descent well known for their athletic abilities. He was 5'11" (1,77-m) tall and weighed 190 pounds (86kg). His first wrestling match was held at Port Henry, New York, in June 1861 where he beat Peter English for $100. On May 30,h, 1873 in Troy, N.Y., McMahon met Homer lane for $2000 and the championship of America (see the Ohio Democrat article previous pages). On July 8th 1873, in New York City McMahon met Albert Ellis, "the English Devonshire and Cornwall lightweight champion of London". His supporters were from Boston, Chicago, Baltimore and Philadelphia. Ellis weighed only 138 pounds and so the match was held under Devonshire and Cornwall rules due to the handicap. McMahon won with difficulty the contest9 by using powerful cross-buttocks and inside-locks, techniques also known in Cornish wrestling. The same month, on the 22nd again in Troy, McMahon met Thomas Copeland of Montreal after a challenge "to wrestle any man of the world for from $1000 to $2500 a side". Copeland was completely out-classed but the newspaper reports that the wrestlers had used "hip throws, cross toe lock, leg lock, outside-lock". For many years McMahon wrestled like this, wherever a match could be arranged in United States and Canada and remained undefeated until 1878. But for several years his main rival to the undisputed Collar-and-elbow championship1" was Colonel J.H. McLaughlin of Detroit, a 265 pound wrestler who had always refused to meet McMahon. In October 1878 McLaughlin challenged "any man in the world" for the Collar-and-elbow championship, for from $1000 to $2500 a side ! McMahon saw this opportunity to wrestle McLaughlin and sold his saloon to get the money. The contest was staged in Chicago on November 23, 1878, as reported the Chicago Tribune. Large delegations traveled from Michigan, New York and New England to witness the match. Thousands of dollars were wagered on the outcome. They were meeting for the right to be called the undisputed champion of America. McMahon won two to one with a 'grapevine-lock' to throw his opponent onto his back. They met one month later under 'Collar-and-elbow in harness' and there the Colonel won. A third contest was held in Boston in March 1879 (Daily Kennebec Journal) with the two styles of Collar-and-elbow, jacket and harness, and it went to a draw. McMahon also wrestled against the famous Greco-Roman wrestler William Muldoon in 1882, born in Belfast, who decided to learn Collar-and-elbow the very
9 In a revenge match, one year later, McMahon used again an inside lock to throw Ellis. 10 The same year, the New York Athletic Club hosts the United States' first amateur wrestling championship. While the style was Irish collar-and-elbow wrestling, the club claimed that the style came from Vermont and New Hampshire rather than Ireland.

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same year! This was during the time when Greco-Roman and Catch-as-catch-can were increasing in popularity. In 1886 McMahon toured with Forepaugh's Circus giving wrestling exhibitions. The contemporary newspapers" describe how the matches were arranged between the two parts. The Mineral Point Tribune details in its edition of July 19, 1883 : "Jack Carkeek recently received a letter from Franck A. Flower, of Madison, inquiring if Jack would wrestle Dunacan C.Ross, the champion all-around athlete of the world. Jack immediately signified his willingness to wrestle Mr Ross Cornish style, and Mr Flower is making efforts to bring the men together. If a meeting is arranged, the match will take place in this city, the stakes being $1000 a side and gate money. Ross is a Scotsman'-, weighs 240 pounds and is a man of superb physique, while Carkeek's nerve, science and strength are known to all". The answer to the Carkeek offer came a little later, on August 16, 1883 : "Mr Carkeek received a letter Monday from Duncan Ross, who is Bay City, Michigan, stating that he knew nothing about Cornish style, but could get Pat O'Donnell to wrestle him (...) O'Donnell is 5 feet 11 inches tall, weighs 205 pounds (...)". Carkeek won and another article appears on September 27, 1883 : "Another wrestling match between Jack Carkeek and Evan Lewis is advertised to take place at Darlington on the 10th of next month (...)". Carkeek won against Evan Lewis, who was nicknamed "the strangler". Lewis had previously beaten the English Lancashire man Joe Acton, who was a great Catch-as-catch-can wrestler. The newspaper also informs us that two months later Lewis and Carkeek had "formed an athletic combination to give exhibitions in wrestling, boxing, etc. They are doing well in the business." Jack Carkeek, the champion from Rockland, Michigan, was born of Cornish parents in 1861. He met many wrestlers in his career. He was 5 feet 10 inches (1,77-m) and weighed 180 pounds (82kg). He made his first appearance at Michigamme, Michigan, on July 5, 1877, at age sixteen. There he won the fourth prize in a tournament of sixty-four entries. Jack Carkeek and John Pearce (the Cornish champion from Cornwall for five years, aged 27, 5fts 9in, 183 lbs.) met for the world championship of Cornish wrestling in Redruth, Cornwall. In the West Briton newspaper of 1887 a journalist wrote of Carkeek's list of achievements: until 1882 he only wrestled in Michigan, then Wisconsin, Iowa, Montana, as well as perhaps other states. At the beginning he wrestled only in ordinary tournaments, with a dozen or so other wrestlers, while later only wrestling in challenge matches for side money. On December 10, 1884, Carkeek defeated James Pascoe, the champion Cornish wrestler of the Pacific Coast, for a purse of $500, in Butte City, Montana. On January 10, 1885, at the same place, Carkeek defeated D.A. McMillan, in a mixed match of five styles, for $250 a side.
11 They also teach us that this period was often violent in the towns, with numerous shooting deaths. 12 Ross was bom in Turkey in 1856 from Scottish descent, and with Donald Dinnie the champion of Scotland, he has been one of the promoters of Catch-as-catch-can as a spectator sport. When Dinnie made his second visit in 1882, he won the important Police Gazette Championship for mixed style wrestling and Ross was one of the other two wrestlers of the match.

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On February 28, 1885, he defeated H. Bell in Darlington, Wisconsin, for $500 a side, in the Cornish style. On April 26, 1885, in San Francisco, Carkeek was defeated by Tom Canon, the great champion, in mixed matches comprising of six styles. On June 20, 1885, he defeated . H. Ingraham in Antioch, California, in the catch-as-catch-can style for $100 a side. On July 4, 1885, he won first prize in Grass Valley, Nevada, in a tournament against thirty-four competitors. On July 14, 1886, in Dodgeville, Wisconsin, Carkeek wrestled Matsada Sorakichi, the Japanese, for $500 a side (in both Greco-Roman and catch-as-catchcan) and won in 54 minutes. Carkeek said he also met the Estonian champion George Hackenschmidt in London in 1902, but the reality is slightly different : Jack Carkeek worked in the Alhambra Theatre in London. In his show, he challenged all comers offering 10 if he could not pin them in 15 minutes. Hackenschmidt challenged him in writing several times but the challenges were ignored. Carkeek then challenged any professional wrestler to a match either in Greco-Roman, Catch-as-catch-can or Cornish style. "Knowing that Carkeek would ignore another challenge and would claim that he had gone to Europe to avoid him, Hackenschmidt and his friends resolved on dramatic action. One the 2nd March 1902, when Carkeek was issuing his customary challenges five men in evening dress jumped from one of the boxes onto the stage. The group was, Charles Vansittart the strongman, Launceston Elliot the Olympic weight lifting champion, Ferdinand Gruhn the English amateur heavyweight champion, Roland Spencer and George Hackenschmidt. Vansittart issued a challenge to Carkeek that Hackenschmidt would pin him 10 times in an hour for a side stake of 25. Carkeek who was very quick-witted appealed to the audience but they favored the newcomer. There was uproar in the theatre and Carkeek managed to make the Estonian look very foolish. The police was called and Hackenschmidt's group was forced to leave"." We can see that wrestlers from different styles often wrestled together. In this situation, we are aware that wrestlers educated in a particular style have often reflexes which are in opposition to the rules of a new style, practiced only for an occasion. This can logically creates situations of incomprehension and disputes. It could also pose the risk of alienating a particular style.

The Collar-and-elbow and the Side-hold wrestling

Collar-and-elbow is a standing style of wrestling that involves grasping one another's collar and elbow, on a special jacket (or harness sometime), and through various hip throws, Cross-Buttocks, Grapevine-Lock (similar to Inside-Lock) and trips attempting to throw one another to the ground. Generally, a fall was called
13 The wrestling heritage of Europe and The Americas - Unpublished text - Willie Baxter - 2003

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when one man touched the ground with three 'pins', either two hips and one shoulder or both shoulders and one hip as in Cornish wrestling. To solve the risk of alienating rules or styles by certain wrestlers during mixed matches, The Police Gazette published the Collar-and-elbow rules14 to make a clear mention of how contests should be regulated. The Police Gazette was owned by Richard Fox, born in Belfast, a famous journalist and sport manager organizing wrestling matches, and the magazine was one of the leading sports publication of America (Baxter). Included are the following extracts:

RULES - The contestant shall be required to wear a knit shirt and short coat, or jacket, not to extend below the hips with strong collar and sleeve for the grasp of his opponent. - Each wrestler shall take hold of the collar of his opponent with his right hand. The grasp of the collar to be opposite the left ear of his opponent, and neither contestant sh be allowed to loose or break his hold or shift his hand on the collar, forward or back until a fall is decided. Should either contestant do so, the referee shall have the full po to decide the bout against him and in favor of his opponent. - Both contestants shall be made to stand up and move their feet alternatively; at the same time the right arm must be held in a loose instead of a stiff position, in order tha his opponent shall have an opportunity to move forward at his pleasure. - If either contestant breaks his grasp or hold during a bout with one or both hands t save himself from falling or to gain a momentary advantage, it shall be considered a foul, and the referee shall decide the fall or bout against him. - No kicking to be allowed, and any contestant who shall willfully kick, or attempt to kick his opponent, shall forfeit the match and stakes according to the option of the referee. - To decide what is considered a bout or fall at this style of wrestling, a contestant w be required to throw his opponent fair on his back, so that two shoulder and one hip sh strike the ground or floor at the same time to constitute a fall. Under no circumstance shall a referee be allowed to decide or declare a bout won unless either of the contest commit a foul by kicking or breaking holds.

- All contests for the collar-and-elbow championships of America are to be arranged the POLICE GAZETTE office, New York. In all contests for the championship Richar Fox shall act as the final stakeholder.

- Under no circumstances, in any contest, shall the wrestlers be allowed to rest unti fall is gained, and the referee shall have no power to allow the contestants to rest with the mutual consent of both parties. The rules for Collar-and-Elbow in the Police Gazette were very closed to theses used in Ireland: interdiction to change the hold and a fall was "two shoulders and one hip or two hips and one shoulder" touching the ground at once. These rules are quite the same, as well, in Cornish wrestling. Bryan Kendall, former president of the
14 Reprint in Scientific Wrestling. Bothner's book, 1903.

.'i,

Cornish Wrestling Association wrote in 1979, describing the manner to defeat the opponent: "a Back (fall) is scored when a man has been picked up and dropped flat on his back so that at least three of his four pins hit the ground simultaneously". Pins are the shoulders and hips, and a Back wins a contest for a contestant whenever it takes place. These have been the rules of Cornish wrestling since the sport was first described. In 1602 Richard Carew, in his Survey of Cornwall15, wrote that Cornish wrestling also had its laws, which include: first to shake hands in token of friendship, to grip only above the hips, and to throw the opponent to the ground "in such sort as that either his back, or the one shoulder and contrary heel do touch the ground" which is called a "fall". Carew also wrote that "the two wrestlers step, stripped into their doublets or pourpoint and hosen (sort of trousers or breeches)." Wrestling had its law, "of taking hold only above girdle, wearing a girdle to take hold by, playing three pulls (falls) for trial of the mastery". Wrestlers are clearly also from the army officers when Carew says that "amongst Cornish wrestlers now living, my friend John Goit may justly challenge the first place, not by prerogative of his service in her Majesty's guard". The collar and elbow grip known in America in the 19th century probably originated from a girdle grip used during the Middle Ages in the British Isles. It is also likely that the harness was a survival practice, or a resurgence, of that old time. Harry Pascoe, a Cornish historian, writes in the Cornish Annual in 1928 that in Carew's time, "In the common game, the hold was taken by the collar and waistband, in the prize game the body was stripped to the waist and each (wrestler) had a girdle something like a shawl, over one shoulder and under the other for his opponent to take hold of." The shawl perhaps survived in the sash the wrestlers won in the championships. Already in 1826, Polkinghorne got one after his match against Cann, now it is often a scarf in Cornwall and Brittany. We are also aware that from the 14"' to the 16,h century ordinary soldiers wore similar leather harnesses as an armor. We still can see this harness in two wrestling pictures of the end of this period, one in England, and one in Brittany. We have also seen that the girdle or harness was used in Cornwall in the 16th century (text of Richard Carew) and in Ireland in the 17th (Irish Life in the Seventeenth Century). But in Iceland the Glima wrestlers still use a harness, but this was only adopted in the beginning of the 20,h century -evolving from the traditional (belt) trouserhold. Many other examples of this harness or girdle are known and many of these can be seen on 14lh and 15th century Misericords"' in Churches. The old "Welsh borders" area in Great Britain is the most prolific one with Misericords in Ludlow, Hereford, Chester, Nantwich, Leintwardine and Gloucester. Others are in Bristol, Halsall, Ely, Norwich and Lincoln, and the cathedral of Exeter has a roof-bosses from the 13"1, all from the 13th, 14,h and 15th centuries (At that time people wore
15 Survey of Cornwall - Richard Carew of Antony, 1602. 16 The Misericords are situated on the stalls of the choirs in important churches. They were created to give a rest to medieval priests who found it difficult to stand through a succession of long services. A hinged seat was devised with a sculpture projecting its under-surface which, when the seat was tipped up, allowed the priests to combine the comfort of sitting with the appearance of standing.

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Wrestling in a harness: Left: Drawing showing a wrestling match between Corinus and Gogmagog. In Holinshed's Chronicles, 1577 (England). British Libraiy. The wrestlers wear underwear breeches and the harness seems to be specific to this practice. Below: Stone carving in the porch of the church of Guimiliau, Brittany, France (16th century). The harness looks like two crossed girdles. Wrestlers have devil's legs and feet which indicates that wrestling (or fighting) was not in favor in this parish.

Left, above: Halsall parish church, Lancashire, England. 15th century. The wrestlers grip a girdle which is not the belt of the short trousers. Tliey wear short breeches. Left, below: Lincoln Cathedral, Lincolnshire, England. 14th century. The grip is collar and elbow.

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breeches" which are not strong enough to take hold). In Ludlow there are two scenes of wrestling, one with wrestlers gripping in a belt or girdle at the waist, and a second scene with wrestlers gripping in a sort of shawl or scarf around the neck. At Hereford, Chester, Leintwardine, Gloucester and Bristol they take grips on a shawl. It is also the same hold in a margin' of the Mathew Paris Chronicle and in one drawing of the Royal Library (both from the 13th century). At Nantwich and Halsall they appear to grip at a belt around the waist, but we are aware that it is easily possible to slip the shawl toward the belt. At Lincoln, Ely, Norwich and Exeter they the have a shawl and a belt and they take a mixed hold. The different texts and articles describe that in Side-hold wrestling the contestants had to stand by side and a fixed hold was taken on a special leather harness. Victory was gained when an opponent was thrown to the ground with three joints landing at the same time as in Cornish Style. Charles Morrow Wilson wrote in 1959 about the Collar-and-elbow rules that "The Dufur Rules specified, too, that contestants wear tight-fitting jackets with strongly sewn seams (Occasionally but not characteristically a leather harness, usually associated with a style of wrestling known as side hold, was substituted for the jacket, particularly in bigtime exhibition wrestling)". Further he says that "Side-hold or harness wrestling came out of the British Isles during the Seventeenth century and endures at least occasionally into the present. Contestants wear leather harnesses generally similar to the Sam Browne belts of First World War days, though narrower and less heavily buckled and each equipped with a wood or metal handle placed slightly to the left of chest center." In may 15th 1883, the Police Gazette published standard rules revised and corrected by Richard Fox. In 1889, he wrote that "Side-hold wrestling is not much in vogue and seldom, except in mixed matches (...) In England it is unknown, but in Canada it is the popular style of wrestling, and in nearly every county in upper Canada can be found an expert at side-hold wrestling." RULES (Extracts) - Each man shall furnish at his own expense a set of strong leather or Webb harness, which must reachfromthe shoulder to the waist and from the neck to the elbow. - The men shall toss for the choice of holds, and the winner can take the 'left and under' or 'right and over'. - The contestant taking the 'left and under' shall take hold of his opponent's harness at the waist with his left hand, and his opponent's left hand (or wrist) with his right (hand). - The contestant taking 'right and over' shall take hold of his opponent's harness behind (back) the right shoulder with his right hand and his opponent's right hand (or wrist) with his own left. - Both wrestlers shall stand side to side and show fair and equal play, or forfeit one fall for each caution after the first.
17 In the 12th century, the new fashion is to wear the breeches which were the former trousers, as underwear. They become smaller, tighter and shorter, with a just a thin scarf of woollen fabric to tighten it to the waist.

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- If either contestant break his grasp or hold during a bout with one or both hands to himselffromfalling or to gain a momentary advantage, it shall be considered a foul, a the referee shall decide the fall or bout against him. - No kicking to be allowed, and any contestant who shall willfully after caution kick attempt to kick his opponent, shall forfeit the match and stakes according to the optio of the referee.

- To decide what is considered a bout or fall at this style of wrestling, a contestant w be required to throw his opponent fair on his back; two shoulders must strike the gro or floor at the same time to constitute a fall.

- Under no circumstances in any contest, shall the wrestlers be allowed to rest until a is gained, and the referee shall have no power to allow the contestants to rest withou mutual consent of both parties. - A rest of 15 minutes shall be allowed between each bout. The rules of Side-hold wrestling required that the starting hold be maintained as in Collar-and-elbow and Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling. Any fall whereby both shoulders touch the mat is final, as in Breton wrestling, and kicking is an automatic loss of fall as required for a long time in Cornish wrestling. So we can consider that Side-hold was a resurgence of an old practice and that obviously Collar-and-elbow had all that Side-hold has, and much more. This example also shows the inter-connections with other styles such as the Cornish and the Breton styles.

The Cousin Jack's Connection

Cornwall and west Devon was a region of technological innovation and acceleration. By the early nineteenth century it probably possessed the best contemporary European mining technology'", but the 1860's witnessed a huge economic crisis that created a wholesale collapse of mining in Cornwall. The consequences were that for more than thirty years from this period, nearly 7,000 Cornish miners a year were forced to seek work abroad. In every decade from 1861-1901 some 20 per cent of the Cornish adult male population migrated overseas, three times the average for England and Wales. When analyzing the consequences for population decline in many Cornish parishes, we see that the population of Tywardreath decreased by 29 per cent between 1861 and 1871, St Just in Penwith by 27 per cent between 1871 and 1881! This flow was facilitated with the improvement and the development of the transcontinental transports. Soon the towns of the copper country of Montana and the gold mines of California became familiar with the Cornish pasties (the staple diet of miners), and of course the traditional Cornish jacket wrestling tournaments. The records
18 The region had begun to export its technology and capital that aided the migration of a skilled labour force. The export of high-pressure steam engines pioneered and modified by Trevithick and his contemporaries, to the silver mines of Peru in 1818, marked the transatlantic migration to Latin America of the industrial revolution. Here the Cornish miner learnt new skills in the mining and milling of gold and silver ores which resulted in the practical domination of the world's mining industry by Cousin Jack's for well over a century. More on www.cornish-mining.org.uk

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from Grass Valley" give us many prominent wrestling family names, such as Pascoe2", Pearce, Carlyon, Menear, Hancock, and Treglown. William Reynolds, the famous Marshall of Grass Valley for ten consecutive terms, was also a famous wrestler. Born in 1843 in Cornwall, Reynolds came to California in 1860 and became a miner in Grass Valley's Eureka Mine21. He first became well known as a wrestler, an activity he continued to do when he became Marshall. He returned at least one time to Cornwall and a contemporary newspaper reports that he wrestled while visiting the old country. The first Cornish wrestling22 event held in Grass Valley was organized during the first miners' games, which was occurred during the first week of July in the summer of 1859. By 1851 the Cornish comprised 85 per cent of the town's population. These wrestling events were often sponsored by hotels, such as the Wisconsin Hotel at Grass Valley. In 1868 one of the mines even shut down for a week in order to give the Cornish miners an opportunity to attend the festival. This annual tournament was composed almost exclusively of Cornishmen who came from as far as Montana, Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to compete. But they suffered a shock one year when an Irishman who was new to this sport beat all comers and became the champion. We are informed by the newspapers that the arena had enough seats for 800 spectators, which was not a lot when compared to Cornwall 50 years previously. Three sticklers, or referees, judged the contest and the wrestlers were bare foot, as was the practice in Cornwall. As in Cornwall, the bouts could last for hours, even though "throughout a hot afternoon and a sultry night as many as 40 bouts might have been contested". As in Cornwall, the tournaments could last for two or three days to determine the winner. This was the case in the 1867 games when William Pellow was declared the champion after three days, and claimed a first prize of $130. This same day, W. Reynolds, who took fourth prize for $50, challenged Pellow to wrestle for "the best of three" (best two out of three fair falls) for $300. The following year it is interesting to see that Thomas Carkeek, Jack's father, wrestled in Grass Valley. The Morning Union newspaper reports that "the grand contest this year featured Thomas Carkeek, champion of the Lake Superior, Mich, area, who had never been thrown." Reynolds was also a "Hercules of the ring," and no one was able to put the other properly on his back. The final bout was postponed until the day after, and this bout lasted for four hours, for a prize of $100. In the year 1870, Reynolds became a stickler, which was a common and natural progression for former champion wrestlers. It is revealing to see that the West Briton Cornish newspaper reported the results from Nevada. On November 22, 1861: "The first prize, the champion's belt, value $275, has been won by Thomas Eudy, of St. Austell, who was afterwards called to the committee stand and presented with the champion's belt of the state of
19 20 21 22 26 In 1998 Crass Valley officially twinned with Bodmin, Cornwall. In about 1 750, a clergyman, William Pascoe, clerc of the parish of Sithney, became "champion of Cornwall". Nevada County Historical Society Bulletin, 1990. Other Cornish Wrestling days were organized in America, as in Butte, Montana, with the "Cornish Sports" the 25 & of May 1882.

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Left: Miners going to work. During their time off, many drilling contest where organized with the miners, using air drills on blocks of granite. At St just, Cornwall, there is an earthen circular stadium where it is still possible to see similar blocks of granite for local drilling contests (by hand). Wrestling was also a part of these festivities, as in Cornwall.

Below: Poster of a Cornish wrestling match at Calumet, U.S., in the years 1890s, between Sidney Chapman of Tremountain, and Tim Harrington, of Butte (two copper mining cities of Michigan). Harrington was also a champion of boxing. On November 4th, 1904, he met in Butte, wrestling in the Cornish style, Franck Gotch, the world heavy weight champion of wrestling.

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California... Thus Cornishmen uphold the fame of their native county for wrestling, when they emigrate to distant lands." The level of the prizes, in addition to the possibility of being well paid for work, certainly influenced the decision of many young men in Cornwall to emigrate. The 1887 second world championship (on the same year) was held on the 5th of August at Redruth. Jack Carkeek and the old champion of Cornwall, Hancock, the man from the Scilly Islands, wrestled for 10 in a challenge match. The first championship against Pearce was cancelled after a dispute between the two men. The article from the Royal Cornwall Gazette could be a current one. The match was held in front of 3-4,000 spectators, and it was more than 5,000 one month earlier. "Some impatience was manifested by those present in consequence of the delay which took place before the bouts. Williams, St Erth ; W. Eva, Camborne and W. Penhale, Gwinear, were the sticklers. In the first round Hancock fell forward. In the next round Hancock made a desperate effort to throw Carkeek, who fell forward. Then Carkeek got a splendid hitch by which it was thought he would have put Hancock on his back by the crook, but he failed. These intervals occupied only seven minutes, and the spectators applauded both contestants... After one interval the two men again entered the ring and Hancock got Carkeek by the heel and threw him a magnificent back..." Finally Carkeek won by abandon, but a suspicion of "fagotting (barneying) caused agitation in the crowd". The truth is that Hancock had a bad shoulder before the contest, and that this arm was dislocated before the end of the match, thereby forcing Hancock to quit. In 1889, another world championship was organized when Carkeek came to Cornwall. The prizes were 10 and a silver cup. The wrestling was announced to begin at noon, but did not really commence before two, when three to four thousand people had assembled as spectators. The championship was organized like a tournament, with a large number of entries. In 1890 Jack Carkeek has been offered the position of professor of Athletics at Harvard College, but he continued wrestling and in 1892 he became a preacher. If we return to the United States, in Nevada, we can see that also some Bretons were there at the end of the 19th century as some names prove: Le Bars Ranch, Le Du Mine (Du in Breton is Duff in Irish = black), or Kemper street (Quimper is the capital of the Cornouaille County in Brittany - Cornouaille = Cornwall). In fact, a Breton, named Le Bars, also organized the emigration of some tin miners from Brittany. It was, as the Breton novelist Michel Le Bris wrote, a new "lost kingdom of the Celts" with Welsh, Cornish and Bretons living there, called "cousin jack's" because they had their own language. The Grass Valley championship lasted until the Second World War and a few Bretons became champions. A wrestler named Guyader, miner in the Empire Mine2', was champion in 1893, 1894 and 1895, and felled a Cornish champion in 1896. A second wrestler named Troadec, from the same mine, competed in 1904, and then another named Cozanet in 1922 (The Cornish Jack Weeks won in 1924); these are names from the western part of
23 The Empire Mine operated from 1850 to 1956 and it was the largest hard rock mining operation in America. The Empire Mine labor force was made up of 90% Cornish miners.

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Brittany, from the county of "Cornouaille" famous for its wrestlers. In 1921 about 2,000 people visited the wrestling event at Grass Valley. In 1923, there were 3,000 spectators. In 1924 the first prize was only $50 and in 1925 the wrestling event had only a few entries. In 1927, the Morning Union of Grass Valley reported that a revival was being staged in the "old country," and that "Jack Carkett (!), formerly of Grass Valley, had recently won his spurs in Camborne, England". Other similar stories could be written from other newspapers, such as The Daily Mining Journal of Michigan. Why did Celtic jacket wrestling suddenly disappear from the American landscape? It is likely that the Collar and Elbow style was, in part, the victim of a certain standardization of wrestling. The more prominent wrestlers were practicing a sort of professional style of mixed wrestling, whereby Collar and Elbow, Lancashire, Cornish, Side-Hold, Catch-as-catch-can became known only as, generically, 'Wrestling' - which was a sort of free folk-style wrestling. This was certainly accentuated by the general tendency of the time to standardize and to codify all sports. The revival of the Olympic games with Greco-Roman wrestling in the program of 1896, and free-style wrestling in 1904 (with only U.S. wrestlers) gave these styles an official higher social status, while pushing the other styles into obscurity. Modern world championships were organized with rules, regulations, an international organization, etc. Here we touch upon another problem of traditional sports: the lack of organization in a world that is no longer one of mere oral transmission. It is important to remember that Collar and Elbow was not strictly codified with regulations, not only the rules of the sport, but also those governing refereeing. Cornish wrestling was sometimes boring to spectators, with passivity during matches that could last for hours. This was another problem resulting from refereeing and organization. These two styles had no intermediate results to decide the winner, like Breton wrestling at this period. This was especially prominent in Cornish wrestling, and Sir William Armstrong complained that after a challenge match held in the 1880's in London, John Graham, the Cumberland wrestler threw a Cornish opponent "no fewer than sixteen times, but on each occasion the verdict was 'no fall'." Armstrong says that "the great amount of unsatisfactory judging, and the haggling and 'hatching' inseparable from West-country wrestling meeting in London, have been the means of wiping out nearly all traces of Cornwall and Devon wrestlers, as a body, from metropolis. (...) a little more unity among the patrons of the sport, a revision of their rules (...) would have insured the popularity of the exercise". But, in the 1980's, one century later, it was still possible to see wrestlers in Cumbria, north England, struggling for as much as an hour just to take hold (this has recently been changed in their rules). So, the sport itself was not the cause, but rather the way it was organized and officiated. It is curious to remember that Jiguro Kano, the founder of Judo, had been sent on a "grand tour" of Europe in 1889 with the sole objective of studying the physical education systems of the West. During his trip he met Cornish wrestlers and it has

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Wrestling was influenced by the army preparation in America (left in 1905-1910), but also by many other groups of population than the immigrants from northwest Europe. Some were Greeks and they brought with them a part of their own traditionnal wrestling style.

Right: the Greek wrestling club at Hull House, Chicago 1910. Wrestling was a social practice of integration.

Left: Greek wrestlers had certainly the knowledge of this atmosphere in their lands. The photo shows a scene of the tournament of Sohos, Macedonian Greece, 2005.

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been postulated that the Judo jacket may in fact owe as much to the Cornish jacket as to any native Japanese costume (Baxter). Yukio Tani, the Japanese expert who introduced Judo to England made a tour where he challenged anyone to last ten minutes with him, after which he would pay a forfeit. When he met up Georges Bazeley and Fred Richards, well known Cornish (and 2 stones heavier) wrestlers at Plymouth in 1926, he was thrown many times. This controversy appears in the 1905 article: American Wrestling vs. Jujitsu is interesting. Two experts, H.F. Leonard and K. Higashi, debate respectively about the two styles. When Mr Leonard argues that Jujitsu is only a wrestling style from Asia, Mr Higashi answers that if the American style has developed to a higher state of perfection holds and tricks which confined to wrestling, the true end of Jujitsu is neither a sport or a pastime but self-defense "to be prepared for all imaginable methods of attack and assault. Judo - as Jujitsu has therefore developed three stages : gymnastic exercises, different tricks and the way to use theses tricks to serve the specific end of self-defense (...). Breaking an opponent's arms, neck, back, leg, are some of the objects to which a large number of the tricks of Judo are devoted". One can just say that Judo is now, after his beginning in the Olympics Games in the years 1960's, more a wrestling style than the old Jujitsu, even if the style still permits brutal arm-locks and strangling. Of the three families of wrestling known in the "Celtic" countries: jacket wrestling (Collar and Elbow, Cornish wrestling and Gouren), fixed hold wrestling (Cumberland and Westmoreland wrestling and Scottish back-hold), and free style wrestling (Lancashire or Catch-as-catch-can), the first two families had nearly disappeared in the early 20th century in their respective old countries and the third was considered as part of the new "Free Style" as Percy Longhurst24, Olympic games wrestling official 1908-1936, writes in the preface of the Text book of wrestling (1910). In the old countries people reacted and formed associations to govern the competitions and organization of these forms of wrestling. About twenty local wrestling committees created a governing association in Cornwall, with the help of the short-lived cultural body called Cowethas Kelto-Kemewek, founded in 1901. This association became a governing body in 1923 with the creation of the Cornwall County Wrestling Association, which later became the Cornish Wrestling Association still existing. In North England they created the Association Governing Cumberland and Westmoreland Wrestling, in 1906, which is today named the Cumberland and Westmoreland Wrestling Association25. In Brittany the situation was similar: the first body was created in 1912, at Scar, one of the most famous center of wrestling, and then a federation was formed in 1929. This was the Wrestling and Athletic Sports Society of Cornouaille, which became in 1930 the F.A.L.S.A.B. ("Breton Federation of Wrestling and Athletic Sports Friends"). Hooper, the future Cornish wrestling secretary, and Cotonnec (the future Breton president) met in Brittany in 1927. Their meeting was held during
24 Percy Longhurst was champion of Catch-as-catch-can in 1899, and of Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling in 1900. 25 The CWWA celebrated its centenary at the occasion of the under 21 years championship of Celtic wrestling, 25-27 October 2006.

a Cornu-Breton cultural event (Gorsedd), and there was born a new endeavor: the inter-cousins or international way.

Celtic Wrestling in the British Empire

It is not possible to tell the story of Celtic jacket wrestling without returning to the large emigration of the 19"' century. The 1860 economic crisis forced a large emigration of Cornish miners all over the world of mining. Their expertise was highly sought in the mines of America, South Africa, and Australia. One of the men of the Cornish revival team was James Triggs, born near Helston in 1873. He was, in 1923, a founder member of the Cornish wrestling body and the chief referee for the Cornish wrestling competition at the 1928 first inter-Celtic tournament at Quimperl, Brittany. He first emigrated to the US in 1890 as a miner, in the iron mines of Michigan, while and also practiced wrestling there. Like W. Reynolds he was also, for a period, an under-sheriff. Upon returning to Cornwall around 1900, he became champion in 1904. Triggs eventually returned to the U.S. around 1907, but in the interim he had traveled to South Africa where there existed a strong community of Cornish miners. The local newspaper reports that he met Neil Neilson, the champion of Australia, and Phil Mitchell, the champion of South Africa, in Johannesburg in 1905. As before he had beaten the U.S. champion King Stephen, the newspaper proclaimed Triggs "champion of the four countries in the style of Cornish wrestling". Triggs also wrestled in Norway, traveling a little like the famous professional Greco-Roman wrestlers of the time, the Estonian Georges Hackenschmidt (champion of the world 1901), the Dane Petersen (champion 1903), the Turkish Kara Ahmed (champion 1899), and the French Paul Pons (champion 1898). The contracts for these aforementioned wrestlers were sometimes in excess of $10,000 in the period between 1900-1910. Triggs, involved in professional activities often disastrous. He owned a mine in South Africa and a saloon in Marquette, Michigan. He was also a member of several mining syndicates and traveled often for wrestling contests of a professional nature. Newspaper articles from Michigan and South Africa provide reports of many championships. The one previously cited between Triggs and Mitchell was organized for the title of champion of Cornish wrestling for South Africa. This event was organized in the grassy field facing the hotel Star Stripes of Fordsburg, and a prize of 100 was awarded to the winner. In the currency of the time, this cash prize was twenty times greater than the price of a ticket on a ship, round-trip, between Glasgow and New York. In 1893 the price of such a ticket was about 5 in second class, even with a cabin. A single victory therefore permitted the time necessary to invest in business, as well as opportunity to travel comfortably. All tournaments were not endowed so richly and, a few months before this championship took place, another tournament was held in the same location. A dozen wrestlers registered, including Triggs (100 kg) and Pedlar (94kg). The prizes at this tournament were, respectively, 10, 6, 3 and 1. The newspaper there at the time commented that wrestling seemed to have lost its

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former popularity and stature, whereas in the period before the war (the Boer War, 1899-1902) wrestling had a considerably greater following and offered much larger cash prizes. Triggs also met a wrestler named Brockelbank26, of Loretto, South Africa, who was a miner and a champion of Cumberland wrestling. In Australia Gavin Dickson, an Australian wrestler and writer, informs us that Collar and Elbow survived in the Irish Community until the 1860s. It existed primarily as a tavern sport, as it was often organized in the 18lh century in Cornwall but it never reached a real level of popularity. Cornish wrestling had a different destiny and it is still alive today in Australia - weak but nonetheless still alive. Recently, in the 2000's, "more than 30,000 people flocked to Moonta to see the first Australian Cornish wrestling championship held in 100 years - the curtain call for a hugely successful Kemewek Lowender Cornish Festival" reports the newspaper from New South Wales, but we suppose that the crowd was there mainlv for the whole festival of course. Colin Roberts, the president of the Austrian Cornish Wrestling Association, conducted a wrestling clinic for approximately 150 youngsters! Bendigo, on Christmas day 1856, witnessed one of the first Cornish wrestling events in Australia, held by a gentleman named Scott at the Caledonia hotel. This created a new ritual calendar for Cornish wrestling, for often such wrestling was held on New Year's Day, and also at the Easter Day fair, but not on Christmas Day. One year after a "Grand Wrestling Match Cornish Style" was organized in the Pavilion Hotel, with the cash prizes being 5, 3, 2 and 1. In 1860, in another area of Australia, the wrestling event was referenced as being conducted 'without shoes' (i.e. no shin kicking). In 1861, another tournament was competed for 20, 10, 5, 5, and 2, monetarily showing an increased interest. In 1868 the Bendigo Evening News noticed that a certain Hancock wrestled, and described the different wrestling matches. Some famous wrestler family names were presents: Bolt, Rodda, Pascoe, and Rowe. Thirty-two adult wrestlers were registered and Hancock won. J. Thomas, from Eaglehawk, was champion of Australia for many years. During the time he had spent in the country he won over 100 first prizes, for a wrestling career of 28 years (1871 - 1899), which gives a good indication of this being an important annual activity. It appears that Cornish wrestling declined shortly before World War II in Australia. Wrestling was organized around the pubs or taverns as it was in the Old Country, especially on parish feasts days on the Greens. Such is illustrated in 1783 in Millbrook, Cornwall, at the pub Rose and Crown. There a gold-laced waistcoat was wrestled for on Monday and a silver cup on Tuesday, "the winner of each event having to spend five shilling at the house". Cornish wrestling functioned as a vital expression of culture, and such sportive events were popular at each mining site. The following story of John Symonds, which appeared in 2001, shows that the transmission of culture still exists even when it is unspoken. John lives in
26 He may have been the great grandfather of Wilf Brocklebank (born in 1929), champion of Cumberland wrestling in the years 1960 and 1970.

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Above : The pub Queens Head Inn at St Stephens, near St Austell, Cornwall, displays very old pictures of Cornish wrestling in a large frame. These pictures are from the 1890's and probably show some of the main actors of the (international) sport at that time. This group of people are (left to right), standing up :C.Trathen, A.L.Kmtckey, .Lucas; sitting : W.Oliver, W.Martin, j.T.Bray.

Stephens, probably the Cornish wrestling champion of America.

It F "

Mitchell, Cornish wrestling champion of South Africa.

james Triggs, the champion wrestler who was president of the jury at the 1st lnterceltic championship in 1928.

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Australia and, as all Australians, he knows his family's history quite well. One of his forebears, William Symons, was from Ladock, Cornwall, and he had a son named Francis, who also had a son Francis. Francis II built the Indian Queen Inn at St. Columb in 1766. Francis II had a son named Francis who became a farmer at St. Wenn, at Tregolls farm where there lived a branch of the famous Chapman wrestling family. We see a Harry Chapman in the wrestling results of 1812. Francis Symons III had two sons, Francis IV and William. John remembers, from oral tradition, that all of the Francis Symons' were famous wrestlers. Francis IV ", John's great-grandfather, lived at St. Enoder, at Nankervis farm, from 1810 to 1848, the year he immigrated to Australia. Francis IV taught Cornish wrestling his son John, whom himself transmitted this practice to his son Wybert, John's father. When John was twelve years old, his father taught him rudiments of Cornish wrestling, but John immediately "specifies that he never had the opportunity to try it himself until seven years ago" (1994). This was after his grandson, who was a champion of Judo, had just won an important competition. "One evening around Christmas, he was chipping away at me, suggesting he would show me some jujitsu tricks, so I said: 'You had better try putting me down'. My wife was horrified as she thought I was going to be treated to a whopping big crash ! He came up to me ready to put me on the floor. I took hold of his jacket, Cornish wise, right leg round behind his legs, a quick twist and he crashed to the floor! Instead of my wife looking worried, both my daughter and my wife gave me the rounds of the kitchen! My grandson looked at me in amazement and asked me how I knew how to do that!" This latter family history, as recounted by John Symonds, goes back to the 18th century. Today John maintains an active role in the revival of Cornish wrestling in Australia. John Symonds was not aware of the following information we have discovered, which involves, and revolves around, the popular ballad The Press Gang. This song provides us more insight into the time of Francis IV Symons, his friends, relatives and neighbors. The term 'Press Gang' described militiamen paid by the Royal marine to enroll, by force, men -often even dragging them into the ports and putting them directly on the war ships. This ballad exists in numerous versions, adapted according to the place where they were sung. Below are some common extracts: "When I went up to Plymouth town, There to a inn a - ostlin', I went right over to Maker Green, [recreation area] To ha' a scat to wrastling. A pair o' leatheren breeches was the prize28,
27 It is like the families of pelota players in the basque country : one example is the Atano dynasty. The first was Juan Maria luaristi alias Atano Lucia (from the village of Atano). Then one have had |uan Maria Juaristi Mendizbal (Atano I), Valentin Atano Mendizbal (Atano II), Luciano Juaristi Mendizbal (Atano III), Eugenio luaristi Mendizbal (Atano IV), Mariano luaristi Mendizbal (Atano V), Marcelino luaristi Mendizbal (Atano VI) and lose Maria luaristi Mendizbal (Atano VII). The four sons of |uan Maria : Pedro Juaristi (Atano Vili), Luis luaristi Alberdi (Atano IX) and Luciano luaristi Alberdi (Atano X) came later. 28 A text about Crediton tells us that, in 1762, to wear a gold laced hat was a sign of nobility and protected its wearer from being captured by the Press-Gang.

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A little the wuss for wear ;. Jan Jordan and I drawed two vails a-piece, [they became standards] Et And Dick Simmons corned in for a share. And jist as the double play began, [the final tournament] And Maker clock had nacked six, Up came a passei ' ugly chaps, Wi' lots o' swords and sticks; They abused Dick Simmons, and darned his eyes, (...) Then in coed a chap with a great cocked hat, That seemed to be the king; (...) 'Will ' stap wi' me into thering ?' So he turned inside, and I drawed the sword Directly out o' his hand, When a veller behind me nacked me down, And another he hold me to stand. Then amang mun all they took me up, And lugged me down to a boat..." The verses that follow continue the narration of their misfortunes, with a description of the hard life conditions on the war ships, including the spoiled food, the brutality of the officers, illness, battles, injuries and the death. The local history of Cornwall tells that four Cornish wrestlers were present that day in Plymouth (Devon). They participated in spite of them heading to the battle of Trafalgar. This battle took place in 1805 close to Gibraltar, resulting in the destruction and/or capture of two-third's of the French-Spanish fleet. Following this victory the obsession of an invasion of the island vanished and many men returned to their normal lives. By rereading the results from the years 1808-1809 we recovered the tracks of Dick Simmons. Another handwritten document from the beginning of the 20th century gives us other pieces of the puzzle. It mentions a certain wrestler nicknamed 'Stiffy', from St. Just, a wrestler for whom his contemporaries didn't have a lot of esteem. "Perhaps his ill-fame as a fighting man as well as a wrestler has helped to obscure his merits" wrote the Reverend Jolly, the author of the manuscript, to explain a man's difficulties to recover his balance after having lived the torments of the war on a vessel. The Reverend Jolly was the great-grandson of Richard Jolly, one of the participants to the very big tournament organized in Falmouth in 1809 (see the board with the results in the Royal Cornwall Gazette and West Briton newspapers), which featured the best wrestlers of Cornwall and 10,000 spectators. Richard Jolly finished 3rd that day, behind Parkyns and 'Stiffy', and the 4'" who placed was Dick Simmons! The Jolly's, from the farm of Penncawn in St. Enoder, were another of these families of wrestlers who transmitted wrestling stories from generation to generation. So it seems that Parkyns, Stiffy, Jolly and Simmons were the four

41

champions who went to wrestle in Plymouth and were lugged till a boat by the Press Gang. It was during a tournament in Devon and it is very possible that it was a set-up, such as to avoid them a win against their hostile brothers from Devon, because Parkyns and 'Stiffy' were formidable wrestlers! It was at a time where rivalry between Cornwall and Devon was extreme. It is even possible that a domestic tie between the first Symons and the famous Dick Simmons can be established, because the Symons lived in St. Enoder, as Richard Jolly, Parkyns being from St. Columb, a neighboring borough. The name Symons is also sometimes written as "Symonds", or "Simmons", and it also has different spellings in various versions of the ballad.

The Cornu-Breton or Celtic Connection

Cornwall and Brittany are still cousins today, and neighbors, just separated by the English Channel. By ferry it is 5-6 hours, or if you take the night ferry, you can fall asleep in Brittany and wake up in Cornwall in the morning. An old anecdote, from the time of the sailing boat, tells that you need a night to go to the new land, formerly called Small Britain, now Brittany. In the beginning of the 19"', with bumpy and muddy roads, travelers said that two or three days of continuous journey were necessary to go from Brest to Rennes, the capital, which is more or less the same distance on a straight line. In the Middle Ages the Bretons developed an important merchant fleet and for example, at the end of the 15"1 century, about 2000 vessels sailed from Amsterdam to Portugal. In 1533, the Breton boats represented 80% of registered boats in the Antwerpen port in Flanders (815 of 995), and 273 of these were from the main port of Cornouaille, Penmarc'h. The English market was (before the Seven Years' War with England - 1756-63) the largest, most notably for sailing canvas and bed linens. In 1680, the area of Brest sold goods valued at approximately 4.5 million pounds sterling to the English market (of a total of 9 million pounds in Brittany), mainly for canvases of linen and hemp. The population grew from 1.25 million in 1500 to 2.2 million in 1680, and the wealth of this time is still visible in many villages. What we today call 'Brittany' was created through two steps, coinciding with the fall of the Occidental Roman Empire. At that time the Roman army in the Island of Britain was mainly a Briton army after centuries of Romanization, and they had nearly gained their autonomy from Rome. "Armorica" (the former name of Brittany before the Briton emigration) at that time was populated with 200,000 to 300,000 inhabitants from Gallic and pre-Celtic origins. This region was already well known as a maritime crossroad since the Phoenicians. The first step was in 387 when the general Maxime, the Dux Britanniarum, tried to become Cesar (emperor) of the occidental empire. He failed and was killed after a battle in Gaul and his troops were not allowed to return to the island. After the reign of two other Dux a second general, Costantin III Dux Britanniarum, tried again to rebel against Rome and invaded Gaul. He also failed and it appears that the troops were again not allowed to return. The Briton soldiers, still citizens of the Empire, mixed

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with the local population and settled all along the cost, creating communities from Armorica to Flanders (Belgium today). When the Roman Empire fell in Gaul, in the beginning of the 5th century, the Francs invaded the country and pushed the Roman armies to the West (in 537 Clvis won near Bordeaux). After the treaty with Clvis in 497, the Briton-Roman columns retired to Armorica where they were allowed to stay without paying tribute. They probably also asked to their families to come settle there. This was reinforced by the alliance with Childebert, Clvis' son, King of northwest Gaul, from 511 to 558, who welcomed of many of the "saints" from the Island ofBrittania. The second step happened after the fall of the Empire in Brittania24 when the Britons no longer had a strong army to defend the country. Probably the last Dux Britanniarum, Vortigern or Guortigernus (his Roman name) decided in 449 to call Saxon mercenaries to defend the country against the Caledonians, the Picts, and the pirates from Ireland. He married the daughter of one of the Saxon chiefs, in order to forge an alliance, but eventually the Saxons realized that they could be more than obedient valets and seized power. Vortigern took refuge in the capital of the Ordovices, Aberffraw on the Island of Anglesey (Gwyned), in the middle of the Kymry (compatriots in Welsh), and the Saxons called them the Welsh (foreigners in Saxon). Vortigern is known to be a traitor in the King Arthur legend, probably because he made this decision. It seems that he was in conflict with the Aurelius Ambrosius (who died in 475 A.D.) who became the last Dux Britanniarum, perhaps the "King Arthur" of the Legend1". Another book says that Uther Pendragon, King Arthur's father, was the son of Constantine III. By 577 A.D., the Saxon conquest was over. During this period a large emigration was organized from the Old country, Wales including the current Welsh borders and Kernow or Domnonea (Cornwall+Devon) mainly, to the new one where Britons were already in place. Armorica became Little Britannia, with its own language, culture, and organization derived from the Matchtiems (chieftains), the hermits, and the abbots. The Briton ecclesiastic organization was mainly spiritual and the Gallic Church already had a strong influence. One legend in Brittany tells that the former inhabitants had their tongues cut when the Great Immigration came. This metaphor probably represents the important arrival of people speaking a different language. Today the Breton language (Brezhoneg) is still very close to Welsh (Cymreag) and Cornish (Kernewek), Aberystwyth in Wales is still the only place where a Breton student can complete an entire education in the Breton language. Cornwall (Kernow in Cornish) is called Kerne Veur in Breton (the main Cornouaille).

29 Britain comes from Pretanis, Prydain in Welsh. The Cruithnig of Ireland (one of the tribes) were called Picti, and the Caledonian Picts, Cruthini, in the live of St Colomban. The two terms were pronounced Pretanis by the Britons, which become Picti Britanni with the Romans (P became in the prononciation), describing the britons who refused the "pax romana". Cruithnig or Britanni the term would mean to tattoo (in the sense to have some paintings on the body) - Henri Hubert, Les celtes et l'expansion celtique, coll. Albin Michel, 1932. 30 Saint Gildas wrote "the last (Dux) of the Romans, and the first one of the Britons".

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ORIGIN OF THE WORD GOUREN

From the Welsh to the Breton, while passing by the Cornish

In 1464 the "Catholicon", a Breton-French-Latin dictionary, gives us the following: Breton (Brezhoneg) Cornish (Kemewek) Welsh (Cymreag) To wrestle Gouren (Gourenna in 1716) gwrynva gwrthryn (withvyn Wrestler Gourener gwrynyer Gourren, with two R's, also meant to lift. In 1464, the term meant to raise, which also evokes the image corresponding to wrestling. The dictionary of Le Pelletier says to agitate in 1716, but it is also interesting, at the linguistic level, to understand how one can pass from Gwrthryn to Gouren, without changing pronunciation. In Cornish gw is pronounced gou, ryn is ren, and va is used to mark the verb, as in the Breton e'boari = game or play, c'hoariva = to play. Le Pelletier lists Gourenna as to wrestle in 1716. The Welsh term gwrthryn was a phonetic equivalent o gouren: gwrth is gw or gou (with th producing the sound of r). [A similar example in the name Plouzeniel (parish of St. Deniel), plou is spelled plwyf'm Welsh.] Gour also means a man, gour in Cornish, gwr in Welsh. The etymological Breton dictionary of Deshayes, in 1999, gives to Gournou the sense of known, famous. Goumou was used to call the wrestling tournament in the 18th & 19th centuries. Another word, Gouron, refers to hero, in Welsh gwron, an audacious warrior, a brave man. We know otherwise that in Dagestan (Caucasus), the words man and wrestler are a same word, and in former Persia the wrestlers were called Pehlivans, which means heroes, heroic combatants. This term is still used in oil wrestling. In 1010 the wrestling champion is called fahan pehlivan (master of wrestling) in Shah-Nameh, the Book of the Kings written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi. Today, he is named Baspehlivan at the enormous wrestling tournament of Kirkpinar (Edirne, Turkey). It is therefore probable that symbolic connections have operated between the words hero and wrestler. The term gouren was used to denote, in a general sense, struggle. Below is an example of from a Breton poem, written 1519: A nep tu su na nort, ne caffo confort muy, Na sycour da gourren, diouz den anep heny. "From any side, South nor North, he (the man who has sinned) won't find any support, Nor help to fight, from any other person". The construction of a word starts with the symbolic image of a gesture or an action. Gouren was an everyday word that was transformed, gradually, to denote the sportive activity of wrestling (at least from the 18th century onwards). Today the term Gouren is used as a proper sport name.

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We also know, from the evidence of recent research, that a small Comu-Breton kingdom was solidly established in the 6th century, Domnonia" with Exeter (Dumnoniorum) as main town, during the reign of Childebert, which lasted until the 8"1 century; Kernow being linked with the North coast of Brittany. Kernow at that time included Cornwall, Devon or Dyfnaint and the western part of Somerset. Another fact concerns the army of William the Conqueror who invaded England in 1066. A third of this army was from Brittany, especially from the bishoprics of the North, the Domnone or Domnonia. In the ll , h century, the war columnist Guillaume de Poitiers reported that "The (Bretons) strong men take great care to the handling of the weapons and horses, neglectful of the culture and the civilization, eat milk and a little bread. (...) Ardent to the wrestling and tenacious, they fight ferociously". William's captains of war won much territory in the conquered country, and for the Bretons it was mostly in the Briton speaking zones, primarily in Wales and Cornwall. This situation lasted until the end of the 16"' century, until the Reform, and the cultural connections remained continuous. Relationships between Brittany and England are full of anecdotes showing narrow links, forced or wished. So, the sister of William the Conqueror (the 1st Plantagent) married the Breton Duke Alain IV Fergant. Henri II Plantagent, king of England, father of Richard I (Coeur de Lion) became Duke of Brittany in 1158, and reigned until 1168, then he placed his 4th son Geoffroy (married to the daughter of the former Duke) who died in a tournoi in 1186. The new Duke was Geoffroy' son, Arthur de Bretagne, who was murdered in 1203 on the order of the King John Lackland. The 1170's were also the time of the edification of the Cathedral St Peter at Poitiers, the French town where Richard I, who was Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine, had his court'2 and lived (Poitiers became the capital of France in 1420, for two decades). One of the results of such close relationships is that later, in the 16th century, in the Penwith area of Cornwall, of 723 people paying the taxes, 128 were Bretons or from Breton origin". Until this period Cornish people went on pilgrimages, during the Saint's Days feast of the former Domnonia, often to the bishoprics of Landreger (Trguier). At St. Ives, Cornwall, "over 23 foreigners, all were Bretons - 4 tailors, 7 plowmen, 9 fishermen, 3 blacksmiths". St Ives and Padstow, on the West cost of Cornwall, were important ports of exchange between Ireland and Brittany. Saint Ives (Yves) is still the main saint of Brittany. He lived at Treguier!

Cornu-Breton Wrestling in the Middle Ages

It is always difficult to determine exactly cultural loans, but the longer the exchanges are in duration by the parts, more these create a common cultural
31 The insular Domnonea had the Dumnonii tribe at the East and the Cornouii tribe at the West. 32 Richard the 1 st then became King of England in 1189, his reign lasting until 1199. His language was the Occitan, even though he spent only six months in England during his whole life (Rgine Pernoud - Richard Cur de Lion). 33 In Revue Celtigue, "Cornoviana, les bretons au Cornwall" - by Joseph Loth, professor of the Collge de France, 1911; and Valuation of the Lands and Goods of the inhabitants of the hundred of Penwith tempore Henri VIII. T IX.

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Wrestling scenes of Jacob and the Angel. Above : left; Arch of the choir in Kilteel church, Leinster, Ireland (IT" century). Right : High Cross of Durow, Leinster, Ireland (10"'). Other carvings exist in other part of Ireland. Below : Left ; Market High Cross ofKells, Leinster, Ireland (9"'). Right : This scene of the facade of the church Notre Dame La Grande at Poitiers, France (IIa) provides a good exemple of what can be seen on many other churches in the west and central parts of France.

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understanding, and more the loans are voluntary and important. Wrestling was an important social practice at that time. In his History of England, Andr Maurois reminds us that at the time of the Saxon invasions, to the High Middle Ages, the peasant and the soldier confounded themselves in a same man. The free man was free because he could fight. When, after the Danish invasions, the equipment became too expensive for the peasant, the war profession could not be anymore than the attribute of a class. This picture of the free man, free because he could fight remained, and probably remains a reality today. This is confirmed in the Ossian' poems which say "if a wrestler meets an equal adversary, luck can place the laurel of victory on his head". Even though he comes to fall, he falls as the Ossian heroes, while keeping his honor and his dignity. Carew confirms the status of wrestling when he wrote in his report Survey of Cornwall (1588, published in 1602) that "their continual exercise in this play (wrestling) had brought them (the Cornishmen) so skillful and habit, that they presume that neither the ancient Greek palaestritae, nor the Turks' so much delighted pelvianders, nor their once countrymen and still neighbors, the Bretons, can bereave them in this laurel". In the Middle Ages it is known that the "champions from the Emerald Isle (the Green Island, or Ireland) met the Cornish regularly to wrestle". It is quite possible that they met during the Cornish Games on the West coast of England, which some old references mention. This was still true at the beginning of the 19th century, when Irish champions came to England to meet the Cornish and Devonian wrestlers in London. For example, in 1827 there was tournaments organized by tavern owners. Gaffney, the Irish giant, met in a challenge match Copp at the Eagle City road and later Abraham Cann, the Devonian champion, at the Golden Eagle on September 2nd. In 1828, Gaffney held other matches in the Wellington Ground, Chelsea, first against Saunders and later Oliver, the two Cornish champions. At the same place, organized by the Cumberland and Westmoreland Wrestling Society in London, was a team competition between Cornwall and Devon, for 20. Gaffney and the Cumbrian Henri Mossop wrestled for Devon in front of 1000 spectators - where 28 other champions also wrestled. The final bout was between Trewicks and Oliver, who were both Cornishmen. Ireland possesses much of the earliest archaeological evidence of Celtic wrestling, from as early as the 9"1 century. Primarily this evidence consists of carvings appearing on the Celtic crosses of Kells, Durow and Castledermot, as well as in the choir of the Kilteel church. Other carvings exist in other crosses from the end of the 10'h century, but many are nearly today destroyed by time. It is not clear which styles are depicted. On some crosses, they appear to be like in a Collar-andelbow position (Castledermot), while in others the position is very similar to Gouren and belt wrestling (Kilteel and Kells). The scenes are supposed to represent the wrestling contest of Jacob and the Angel, when Jacob wanted to pass, with his family, a ford on the Yabboq river; but we can think that the artist probably found in the everyday life of his time the model that he have fixed for centuries. Many other similar representations of this contest can be observed on churches and this

47

wrestling scene was probably an universal symbolic position of two people that accepts to struggle fairly. These representations are so numerous (church facades, capitals and earthenware's, pictures, crosses) that a specific study should be achieved on this theme. However we can wonder if it was not the reproduction of an older symbolic representation. Indeed a statuette found in Mesopotamia, in the former temple of Khafajah and dated from 3000 to 5000 years before the Christ shows already a similar position, however that one can be considered more of a "belt wrestling" style. If we refer to some of the oldest references to wrestling of the Middle Ages, we can observe two different families of wrestling. One is belt wrestling with the hands taking to the belt or with the arms around the back. The Back-Hold wrestling grip, whether its roots are more attributable to the Northmen (Vikings), is not really far removed from belt wrestling. The other family is similar, in form, to Collar-andElbow and is often represented with wrestlers taking to a scarf, a girdle or a harness. The collar & elbow position is also the Cornish wrestling starting position, as well as that of Gouren, where the belt grip position (often with only one hand) is also used for many throws. At the end of the Middle Age, perhaps with the linen clothes, a vest (Cornwall) or a shirt (Brittany) were strong enough to be used for wrestling. Those two different positions certainly signify that this practice was organized as a game, a pastime, or as a martial training (not merely as a fight). The book of Leinster contains a very old reference to wrestling. At a time where wrestling was mainly used as a martial art, this book, which began to be written in old Irish in 1160, describes wrestling as a game. This book records the legend of the Sun god Lugh who instituted a sport festival in County Meath from 632 B.C. until the 1st of August 1169, when ecclesiastical reform after the Henri II Plantagent invasion outlawed this ancient tradition. This big festival, Aonach Tailteann (yearly fair) of Tailtu (Teltown) was supported by the high kings of Ireland and organized to celebrate Lugh14. This constituted a part of the harvest festival in August, where local champions were invited from all over the country to represent their clans in sporting events such as wrestling, horses races, and many other athletic events. We must note that these games lasted for over 1800 years, whereas any allusion to these ancient games generally evokes the image of the ancient people of Greece and the games of Olympia (776 B.C. to 389 A.D.). The Tailteann Games were almost as ancient as the games of Olympia, but they had a much longer continuity. Let's return to the Saxon time in England (before the conquest of 1066) where Norman Wymer informs us that the Kings made it obligatory for all young men of good birth to practice different body exercises. Since it was the most challenging activity of all, "wrestling was soon considered of a superior importance in the education of the sons of nobles. Numerous local forms of wrestling were fixed" as the drawing of the 13"' century shows it, published by
34 Gavin Dickson, Australia, 1999.

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Joseph Strutt in 1801. The Norman Conquest subsequently produced the Chivalric Tournaments for the nobles. This certainly also influenced wrestling, which had many practitioners among the nobles invested in the Art of War. The rule that forbids fighting on the ground, for example, could logically originate from the code of knighthood. During the Crusades it was declared compulsory for knights to be trained in the handling of the weapons, wrestling, leaping, racing and horse riding. In London important tournaments of wrestling were organized during the different calendar feasts, in particular those of St. Jacques and St. Bartholomew. Wrestling was part of the activities encouraged by the sovereign. In 1222, the men of London challenged those of Westminster on the occasion of one match where the men would participate in "games of defense and wrestling", with a ram given as the victory prize. The first meeting happened close to Clerkenwell where took place the St. Bartholomew fair. This yearly fair, lasting more than one week (as the one of Tailtu in Meath), was created in the beginning of the 12'" century and lasted until the beginning of the 19th century. John Stow (1525-1603), columnist of the city of London informs us that several days were reserved for wrestling. The mayor and the municipal counselors also attended the fair, and were provided with a large tent for their comfort. We learn there that "these were the citizens of London, the seneschals, sergeants of weapons, small owners, and other people of the city whom there fought, defying the men of the suburbs". Around the year 1600, however, there was only a half-day of wrestling. At the time of the hundred years war there have been many royal edicts to encourage the practice of wrestling, archery, cross-bow, papega (shooting to a wood parrot) and in general of all practices capable of facilitating military preparation. These edicts were often presented like interdictions to participate in activities of games of chance or address. Since 1319, Philippe le Long, King of France, wrote an order in which it was said: "that it was necessary that his subjects abandon all games of pucks, skittles, hurling, etc. to apply to archery and the exercises having a military character". In 1349, King Edward III of England asked his London police to oblige the inhabitants to only practice archery and to stop the other games of distraction. The penalty for opposing the king's order was imprisonment, such that "to the king's good pleasure, and even to the death if it was proven that it came to disrupt the practice of archery". In 1337, in Brittany, a personality who will historically become important, is described wrestling at a yearly fair. It was Bertrand Du Guesclin (1320-1364), the future Seneschal of France. In 1455, Pierre II duke of Brittany included some wrestlers in his official embassies in France. When he goes to Bourges to salute the King of France, he came with many Lords, officers, advisors and wrestlers, the latter were "of a rank not to be forgotten by history. These wrestlers were Olivier de Rostrenen, Guin de Kerguiris, Olivier de Kernec'hriou, Kergout, Quenecquevillic, and Le Moei", all from Cornouaille. The same year the duke went to salute the King of Spain, and also was accompanied by two wrestlers. In the acts

49

of ceremony, it is said that these wrestlers occupied the position of dignitaries, probably the same two wrestlers that were previously in Bourges. The following text A mery Geste ofRobyn Hode come from a manuscript of the 15th century, probably written in the 14th century while leaning on a bottom of old ballads. The poet speaks of a knight who is going to join Robin Hood, and who passes alongside a large gathering of all the west counties, which was the name given to the former Brittonic areas. As he went, by a bridge was a wrastling And there taryed was he, And there was all the best yemen, Of all the West country. A full fayre game there was set up A white bull, up ypyght A great courser with sadle and brydle, With gold burnished full bryght. A payre of gloves, a red gold ringe, A pipe of wine, good faye; What man bereth him best, ywis, The prise shall bear away. As he went by a bridge, was a wrestling And there tarried (linger) was he, And there was all the best farmers Of all the West country A full fair (a fair) game there was set up A white bull up tethered A great courser with saddle and bridle With gold burnished full bright A pair of gloves, a red gold ring, A pipe (barrel) of wine good faith What man bears himself best, Certainly the prize shall bear away

Michael Drayton notes that in 1415, at the battle of Azincourt, Cornish soldiers walked behind Henri V king of England while carrying a banner with an emblem representing two wrestlers. But the most famous meeting was probably the one at the Camp of the gold sheet, in 1520, organized by Henri VIII, king of England, and Franois 1er, king of France. Some time ago, a Minister of the king had written to Godolphin for a number of Cornish wrestlers to compete at the great Sporting Carnival held at Calais, north of France currently. "After the jousts, the wrestlers from England and France came, and wrestled in front of the kings and the ladies, and it was a beautiful pastime. There were powerful wrestlers, and as the King of France did not ask the wrestlers from Brittany to come, so the English (Cornish) won the prize... The Kings of France and England then retired under a tent, and there drank together. Then the King of England took the King of France by the collar and told him: My brother, I want to wrestle with you, and they had one or two hitches, and the King of France, who is strong and a good wrestler, threw him on the floor by a tour of Brittany, giving him a marvelous 'jump'. The King of England, who was also an athlete and a clever wrestler wanted to restart the fight, but the hour of the meal came just in time to prevent a fight of heavy consequence."35 The English wrestlers, ordered by Godolphin, were from Helston and 'hardly spoke English'. Let's note that the father of Henri VIII, Henri VII called Henri Tudor, was Welsh, and that before taking the throne of England, he had passed about fifteen years in exile in Brittany, close to Elven, in the wrestling
35 Memories of the Marchal de Florange (from 1505 toi 521 ). The two kings were parents.

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Left and middle: Three plates from Fechbuch (Fight Book), the Hans Talhoffer's 1467 manual of defense. Below: One plate from Ringer Kunst (Art of wrestling), Fabian von Auerswald's 1539 manual of wrestling.

(^^&tOMi^rSvftfo^i^u.

w$nfg

-*> %$>*

'\

fc\ ^) W/ ^^* *

^^^../..-*
>>..-/;

The plates original legends are: Above: attack and counter-attack. Middle, left: the plate shows "Knave wrestling". Right: The clinch with each wrestler having one arm on top and one arm below.

The Talhoffer book (first printed in 1443) is a manual where wrestling is one of the means to prepare combatants to war situations. One century later (1539), we can see wrestling as a specific Art in the book of Fabian von Auerswald (Plate on the right). Ringen im Grueblein (pastimes wrestling) is also desribed at the end of the book.

area. It is therefore likely that Henri VIII, the sportsman, who knew Cornish wrestling very well, also knew that the Bretons had a strong wrestling tradition. Franois 1er was also aware of Breton wrestling as his mother in law was Anne de Bretagne, the last duchess of Brittany. Another international event happened in 1551, when the English Prince Edouard VI, that rushed in France a noble representative to invest the French king Henri II in the title of Lord of the garter. The court of France was then in Chteaubriant, Brittany, and the text reports that impetuous Breton farmers fought with their Cornish counterparts, who were in all probability soldiers. It is possible that these meetings organized by the Lords are the result of very numerous Anglo-Breton relationships. Captain Pietro Monte (see later) confirms us: "many matches were organized against the English soldiers".

Wrestling, a martial art taught all over Europe

We know that in the 13'" and 14th centuries it was very common for students and teachers to travel abroad to study in the different universities of that time. Foreigners generally constituted the majority in these places of knowledge and they were under the protection of Kings and Popes. They had letters of recommendation for the everyday life in the Universities such as Bologna and Padoue (Italy), Paris (La Sorbonne), Montpellier and Toulouse (France), Oxford and Cambridge (England), Salamanca (Spain). The teaching was done in one unique language, the Latin, and the diploma was the Vicenta ubique doceiuli (license to teach everywhere). This was also the time of long conflicts such as the Hundred Years' War (13371453) between the English and French kingdoms, and many royal edicts encouraged the practice of wrestling, as well as any other martial arts that could enhance or fortify military preparation. Wrestling was then certainly popular in the Middle Age, having a high status with nobles or knights exercising it themselves to defend their King. The Kings or Dukes had in addition often teams of wrestlers to their service. If many texts describe a sporting or a pastime practice, we are aware that wrestling was also a martial art exercise, and it was quite normal that practical manuals to the war fight saw the day. This martial arts fashion covered all the old Europe and was extremely inventive, with Masters travelling a little like teachers, studying and teaching martial arts techniques in different countries. This was from the middle of the Middle Ages to the beginning of the Renaissance, as we could say, in another word, just before the predominance of the firearms in the tactics of wars. Sidney Anglo tells us that later, in 1622, wrestling is no longer valued by the high classes, but is still an exercise, game, and pastime for the soldiers in the camps'". Most of these martial arts manuals, quickly forgotten even if they are still amazingly modern, are arrived to us.

36 The Martial Art's of Renaissance Europe. 2000.

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The following shows that men of high birth received a scientific and wellorganized education in the fighting art. The stage is 1549 in France, and it describes a sword fight that ends by a wrestling fight. "The baron has just been injured by a stroke of sword, only to regain the advantage, he decided to use wrestling, having been very well trained there by a little Breton priest; and immediately he threw his man on the ground while keeping him under himself, no one having anymore offensive weapons because they had fallen of the hands to wrestle better..." This second text shows in 1402 how it was possible to use only wrestling during a real fight. During one of the numerous intermissions of the hundred years war, some English nobles wanted to win the favor of their ladies and thereby challenged the French. Seven French and seven English were then designated. "The game and the battle had to remain polite" (i.e. chivalrous), but it was however a true battle, with deaths. Among the French there was Lord Guillaume du Chtel (a Breton) and Champagne. Several Lords had serious doubts about the capacities of Champagne, but he was one of the best wrestlers that one could have found. And for this, the Lord of Barbezan tells to the duke of Orleans: "-Eminence, let him come, because if he can, only one time, take his enemy, body against body, by the means of wrestling, he will knock him down". Agreement for a match was taken May 19 and what he said occurred, because "Champagne gripped his man and cut him down with a wrestling move. The English surrendered." If we return to the wrestling manuals, most of them have been published in the political area of the "Holy Roman Empire" (or Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) which was a sort of federal state, but lacking real directive powers, the successor of the Charlemagne Carolingian empire, which prolonged the myth of the old Roman western empire. It comprised of many Principalities and "free towns" of Europe (from the current east of France to west Hungary, also including Italy and Spain) and this system permitted the cities to develop themselves, by free merchant exchange, and this helped the creation of a dense network of abbeys, libraries and schools. The peace of Westphalia in 1648 ratified the end of its influence, as it generated at the same time the model of the modern States of Europe. The first manual we know from this period is the book of Fiore, published in 1389 in Italian, Flos Duellatorum. This manual prepared the combatant to fight body against body, meaning with wrestling, swords and other white weapons (de conbatere a corpo a corpo). Then there was the Talhoffers Fechtbuch of Gustav Hergsell, written in German and published in 1443. A second version was published in 1455, and two others in 1459 and 1467. It is a practical manual for self-defense, where knife fighting is bound to wrestling and there are included many brutal techniques on the limbs or the throat. We also learn from this book that the contemporary position of Back Hold is very ancient, and we discover that a popular Judo technique (Tomoe-nage) is not solely attributed to Japan, but rather this technique was also known in Europe in the Middle Ages.

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In 1509 Giovanni Angelo Scinzenzelers published in Spanish the book of Pietro Monte, Exercitiorum atque artis Collectanea militaris, which proposed a scientific method to the martial art, a document of an exceptional quality for the time. This method was based on the development of the suppleness and the speed, thereby abandoning the system of strength that was mainly valorized until then in the military academies. Monte was a Spaniard who sold his expertise to the French, Spanish and Italian armies. He was a pioneer, expert in wrestling renowned in the royal courts, and he specifies "that in Brittany it is necessary to throw the opponent on the back, and that the contests are always in three falls", as generally in Cornwall. Many other books have been published, as the one in German, Ringer Kunst, printed in 1537 by Fabian Von Auerswald. This book, reissued in 1897 by the Leipzig Edition, is a fantastic manual of wrestling. Only some techniques can be classified martial, that is to say with arm-locks or such brutalities. The different techniques of holds are described there, as well as the manner in which to do the throws. It is nevertheless a manual of unarmed martial defense, but without an overt display of violence. Just a few years earlier, in 1531, there was published the manual Der Altenn Fechter, by Hans Weiditz, of Strasbourg. There were three other versions in German that were inspired by these two first. At the same time, in 1533, another German, Gregor Erhart, published Fechtbuch, and then there was Joachim Meyer, in 1570 and in 1600, with his Kunst des Fechtenses. It is also noteworthy to mention the book Traitado de las armos, written in Spanish, by Pedro de Heredia in 1606. In 1663 another book was published in German by Philip Fiibrmans. The last such book was published in 1674, in Flemish, by Nicolaes Petter and Romein de Hooghe, Worstel-Konst. We know that many wrestling instructors sold their expertise, as Hans Tallofer and Pietro Monte, or the Italian Galesti who was commissioned in the 15"' century by the royal court of Matthias Corvin of Hungary. We also know that the Count of Brantme, in France, had ordered in 1549 three instructors to come teach martial education to his son Timolon. There was a Master from Milan, and another one from Bordeaux, to teach the art of the sword, as well as a certain Coll (which is a Breton name) to teach wrestling. It is also interesting to note also that in 1580, when the French General Franois de La Nou proposed the creation of multiple military academies through France, he included wrestling in his program of compulsory exercises. We also note that Lord Hebert of Cherbury, who received his martial education in France, included wrestling and leaping in his English fief. These two exercises were still two of the main tests in Cumbria during the 19'" century, as at the Grasmere Sport Show. But wrestling was also, with Cudgel Play, Quarterstaffs and Single Stick, one of the main sporting activities at England country fairs and revels right up to the 19"' century. Important Lords, or the courts themselves, often had teams of wrestlers who represented them during special occasions, but it is impossible to compare these teams of wrestlers to the Samurais of Japan - which warlords maintained, for the

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Samurais were primarily trained to kill. One can otherwise say that most of the Asian martial arts have as an origin the need for self-defense of the common people, and for the religious communities, for protection from the gangs or troops of the small Lords living as parasites on the local population. The application of wrestling as a martial art, by military groups, still exists today. The French judicial police used Savate, or French foot fighting, in the beginning of the 20'" century and Jujitsu was chosen by the gendarmerie (state police) school of Strasbourg at the same period. In the 20,h century a style called Sambo (a Russian acronym for "fighting without weapons") was developed by the Soviets for use in their military.

Birth of modern Celtic jacket wrestling styles

We have seen that in many places in Europe masters of Martial Art wrestling traveled to teach their art and to learn new techniques. The different books and treatises on wrestling, which appeared in Great Britain in the beginning of the 18'" century, are probably a result of this fashion mixed with a new way of life after the Civil War of the mid 17"' century. Industrialization and commerce enriched the country, which became intoxicated by a very strong taste for challenges, bets and research of records. With the arrival of the comfort procured by money and the fashion for physical exercises, the notion of health also began to become a preoccupation. It is a general tendency of the century "of the enlightenment", with for example the printing in 1762 of the book Dissertation sur l'ducation physique des enfants depuis leur naissance jusqu' l'ge de leur pubert (Dissertation on the physical education of children from their birth until the age of puberty) by the Swiss physician Ballexserd. This book is one of the first to use the term "physical education", even though such education is associated with weapons training, as was natural for the time. Some games were codified by the creation of sporting type associations: golf in 1754 for golf and cricket in 1788 for example. However, towards the end of the 18th century, Joseph Strutt tells us that "the Art of wrestling remains mainly enclosed by the lower classes". In 1711, a martial art manual called The English MASTER of DEFENCE'7, Or the Gentleman's Al-a-mode Accomplishment was published by Zachary Wylde. The book contains some forty pages and the content is about Single-Rapier or Small-Sword, Ways of Disarming, Broadsword, Quarter staff and the five last pages, wrestling. The title of this last chapter is Concise Rules at wrestling, plainly demonstrated and there is no precision about the style, it's a description of wrestling, in general. The chapter ends with a small paragraph titled The most excellent of manner of breaking holds that can be taken on you. In fact these pages are an excellent background, with descriptions from a real expert, showing that wrestling was already at that time scientific wrestling (when people train regularly with a method) as the author says "Practice is the marrow and quintessence of the Art". The author starts by saying
37 By Zachary Wylde, Printed by |ohn White, for the Author, 1711.

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that there are two main styles of holds, one is the Loose or Out-Hold and the other the In-Hold, that we can compare to Out-Play and In-Play (body-to-body). Loose-Hold "is performed on this manner" writes Wylde : "Take hold of the parties right elbow with your left hand, then with your right hand take fast hold of his left shoulder, approach to your opposer upon an entire body, and when you are within distance, that is two feet from him, immediatly twist or bring him with all the strength and force you have, striking at the same time with your right foot the outside his left one, and you throw or cast him towards your right side". This is more or less that we call the Sweep or Side Sweeping today in Breton Wrestling. So Loose-Hold is what we call semi-distance wrestling, as judo. Wylde also gives one example of In-Play: "take hold on the (opponent) right elbow as aforesaid, then put your right arm over his left Shoulder, and take fast hold on his back with your right hand, about the height of his waste, hold fast your holds, stand about two foot distant, (and) in this capacity you may close a Lock called the In-Turn. (For this) Put your (right) leg the inside his left, and clap the lock in the ham of the leg, secure fast your holds, and you may throw or cast the party (opponent) backwards by winding your body close to his, and fall with him". This technique that Wylde called also In-Turn Backwards is currently the Back-Crook, Back-Click or Inside-Lock Backwards, Kliked Adrenv in Breton. Wylde continues: "still holding your holds with your hands, and lose the Lock you have taken in his Ham, then put your leg up (to) his Loins, so wind or bring him forward." There it is that we call an Inside-Lock Forwards. "From thence you may come to a Cross-Buttock, that is, continue the holds that you have taken with your hands, and place your right Leg equally between his, then wind your buttock under his belly, bend or incline your head forward, raise him from the ground, hit the outside of his right ankle with the heel of your right foot, and you may make a sore fall." This is still called a Cross-Buttock, similar to another throw name the Heel. One of the last holds is the famous Cornish Hug "which may be taken with the one arm under, the other over, but both arms under is the best and easiest way, thus, lose the hold that you've taken on the Parties (opponent) right elbow, and with both your arms quite environs (at the same place), his waist being fast gripped about him, Hug or close him fast to your Breast, lean (bend) a little back with your Body, raise him from the Ground, and cast or throw him over your right or left Thigh, which you find best for your Advantage". Wylde never says what the wrestlers grip, but we must consider that it was to a vest (a tight jacket) or a waistcoat to be able to do such holds. This is confirmed in the books of Thomas Parkyns and Charles Layton; altogether he gives about a dozen basic descriptions: The Sweep, the Back-Crook, the Fore-Crook, the Cross-Buttock, the Outside-Lock, the Fore-Hip, the Lock, the Toe, Heave and Hip, the Flying-Mare, Back-Heave and two or three others which are variations. Most of theses techniques are demonstrated in this present book, nearly three centuries later. The others still exist but are just considered as variations. We can think that Zachary Wylde did not consider himself Cornish when he says, speaking about

56

the Cornish Hug technique : "I do really believe, the Cornishmen performs this hold the best of any men in Christendom, we borrow it from them." So we can consider that the practice of this style of wrestling was wider extended than only Cornwall and Devon, the Peninsula keeping this custom more strongly and longer and identifying with it, as it was probably the case in Brittany. In 1713, a book titled The Inn-play or the Cornish-Hugg Wrestler, was published'8by Sir Thomas Parkyns (1664-1741), a Baronnet from Nottinghamshire in central England. This book, the first manual of wrestling in Great Britain, gave the art of wrestling the status of gymnastics and the exercise of defense. Some pages explain how to combine wrestling and fencing. In the first edition Parkyns writes that "a clause to encourage wrestling in every county, as there was an Act for obliging persons of such Estate to exercise the long bow, before guns and pistols were in use, would be essential in that Act (...)". He certainly gained a certain success in giving more prestige to wrestling because in one of the numerous prefaces of the 1727 reprint he mentioned that he had the support of many important people such as the Duke of Rutland, the Duke of Newcastle, the Duke of Richmond, and a dozen of others, numerous esquires, officers and lords are subscribers, and it appears that some of their sons where his pupils. This book contains entries for dietetics, physical preparation, and technical practice. During his education at Westminster, Parkyns discovered that wrestling was one of the five historic Olympic. After Westminster, Parkyns went to Trinity College, in Cambridge, to become a professor. There he followed Isaac Newton' teachings, a scholar of which he became a good friend of. Newton was also an experienced wrestler, and a winner of many tournaments. Much earlier, in 1687, when Parkyns met Mr Cornish (by name), his Inn-Play wrestling master, he discovered so great a variety of holds and techniques that he said it was impossible to remember half of them without committing them to paper. His master answered " he had taught five hundred scholars but never any one could set them down !". Two months later Parkyns showed to Mr Cornish a first draft of what he had done to remember the techniques, "and then, about twenty six years ago, digested it in this method" he presented in the book, "but have added through practice much to it since". Around the period 1700-1705, Parkyns went to see a tournament in Cambridge and observe the vast difference between the Norfolk Out-players and the Cornish Huggers. He makes commentaries about the wrestling: "and that the latter (Cornish Huggers) could throw the others when they pleased... So it is with the smattering in wrestling that can play a little off-play, and now and then give a fall by chance, by a swing with his loose leg, or knows but a few inn-holds, and not how to break any when bee's engaged with a true Inn-Play gamester, that camps odd stands, loose and low, and crosses him in his little play, breaks all his holds, and took what he pleased of him... I rather advice beginners to go through a
38 This book had a reprint in 1714 and another one in 1727, which shows a certain interest even if we are aware that a printing was only some dozens copies at that time.

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whole course of lessons often, with all sorts of play, and after or with both hands, that they may be perfects ambidextrous, and know how to use both hands and feet alike...". He also added that "I never could hear that the women approved of the Norfolk Out-Play, the rending and tearing of waistcoats, kicking and breaking of shins..." Out-Play in his estimation "depends much upon (the) plucking and tearing of clothes, wasting time to break his adversary's shins". The book give descriptions of many In-Play techniques as the Flying Horse, the Flying Mare, the Hanging Trippett, the In-Clamp, the Back-Clamp, the Pinnion, the Buttock, the In-Lock, but Norfolk Out-Play, or Loose-Leg wrestling is also described. Parkyns advises the wrestlers to "choose rather to wrestle in a pair of linen drawers, wide at the knees and easy above the knees than in a pair of streight breeches. Choose rather to wrestle with narrow heels, low-quartered." He also says that the shirt collars and wrist bands were often "left unbuttoned". RULES The two Gamesters that wrestle shall be fairly chosen by lot.

1. The two Gamesters will wrestle till one of them get three Falls, and that this wres will not be allowed anymore to compete for the Prize. It is ordered and agreed tha a wrestler who will throw his opponent on two /oints at once to the ground will ge a Fall. (The two joints are described as the two shoulders). 2. No Gamester shall hire another to yield to him upon any condition, and if any suc practice be discovered neither of them will be capable to get the Prize. 3. The wrestler who will stand the last, not thrown by any one, with no breaks of the rules will get the Prize. 4. If any Differences will happen concerning the Wrestling, it will be determined by men, who will be chosen by the most voices of the Gamesters before they begin t Wrestle. 5. That none Gamesters who wrestle with shoes that have any fort of nails or metal i them will get the Prize (It was often a gold-laced hat). Another important rule appears in the description Parkyns gives of a match. It is written that the winner is the one who gives the first three Falls or nine Foils, "three foils to be accounted one Fall" and a Foil was when they "fall upon any part of their body" (an intermediate result). In 1740, thirty years after the first Parkyns edition, was printed in Norwich", in East England, a curious small book for Charles Layton, The Whole Art of Norfolk Wrestling "Rules and orders, for the Use of Landlords where wrestling matches are held". The language used in this twenty page booklet seems to be older than 1740 so much it is colored by old expressions. He writes that "wrestling, called one of the Olympic Games, and as an athletic amusement was encouraged in the remotest ages, by which youth were enabled to display their muscular powers; not
39 The printer was T. Webster for Charles Layton's book.

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merely to amuse the populace, but to elicit courage, and thence trained to an exercise, which might ultimately prove beneficial to some part of the community." Some lines after he says "I verily believe if there was an army of wrestlers engaged in a skirmish, and had spent all their ammunition, rather than they would turn their backs on their enemies, they would try their efforts and grapple with them, and make them stink a little matter of shoe leather, I mean to say, if they were true Norfolk Gamesters". A great deal of information can be found in this rustic text as Layton was more an active participant of the sport and an observer than a writer. To understand a little more the context of wrestling at that time, in a long poem of more than one hundred verses the author describes how he was named "The Celebrated Game Chicken". He started before he was thirteen "to put in tickets to play falls, for apples or some other things". The wrestling was generally done on the market day every week and his father often went with him. One day one man was kicked so much in four rounds that he died few days later of his wounds (probably with phlebitis after the hematomas). He tells us that Wrestling is so much in vogue in his mother county that he had decided to "lay down a few rules a little worthy of observing ; which if of no utility to Wrestlers themselves, may possibly be to Landlords, &C where Wrestling matches are held". RULES AND ORDERS. Art.l : That the company being met at the appointed time, at the house specified in the Circular hand bill, some person ought to be employed to take down the names of those who wish to wrestle for the above mentioned prizes. Art.2 : That the wrestlers, to the number stated in the circular bill, they shall be cut off into tickets and doubled up single. Art.3 : That the persons entering the ring with the tickets, they must stop for a few minutes till all the spectators are stationed, and one or more of the wrestlers have an opportunity to observe that the tickets are drawn fairly. Art. 4 : That as soon as the two persons are drawn, that are to play the first fall, they shall be immediately called aloud for around the ring, until they both answer to their names; and either or both of them shall, if required, satisfy each other that he have only on pair of stockings on his legs and nothing else to prevent blowsfromkicking; and at the same time their shoes shall be fairly examined, by one or more of the spectators, to see that they are equally fair, as no nailed shoes are allowed to be played with, on any account whatever. The combatants shall each provide himself with a good jacket, and the ring shall be ordered to be immediately cleared, and while the first couple are playing their fall, another couple shall be drawn in readiness, to begin playing when that is over. Art. 5 : That the two men on setting too, shall each of them take fair hold, and go to work till one be indisputably brought to the ground by his adversary (any fall on the knee and over including on a hand, if from a fair position, is counted). But if so happen that they shall play the best of half an hour, sixteen minutes and upwards, so as they both fall disputably, that fall shall be played over again, or decided by tossing. But, on the other band, after playing the above-mentioned time, and one catch his adversary a good

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ygy.^i'^
f* Tat lquor

Tlte Norfolk Wrestling style: Drawings of the techniques in the book of Charles Layton published in Norwich (England) in 1740. This wrestling style is close to what was called Shin Kicking (with grappling).

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visible clear Loose Leg (or other recognized technique), and fall disputably with his adversary, the man that first catch, shall be the conqueror; because as I before observed, it not being sound and safe play he hazard it, and by that means rid the fall; but if this takes place in less than sixteen minutes, after the first Commencement, the fall in dispute to be played over again, in either of both cases. Art. 6 : The second and third rounds being over (elimination bouts) according to the Articles, then comes die contest for the separate prizes (the second play, the Standards): which if twenty-four men play; only he that is left out, as you may term it, for second best, stands the best chance of winning the prize. Previously in the text, Layton had stated that it was possible to "leave go of one hand to save from falling", that is to say the hold was not fixed. It is also mentioned that "no hold is allowed fair that is caught below the waist band or thucklebone". He gives descriptions of "six different modes of falling", but only three of them can be considered as techniques : the Trippett which is a similar to The Toe, but with a shoe, the Loose Leg which is a leg sweep, and the Howard's Hank (inside or outside) which is not an efficient technique (as described) to put your opponent fairly on the back, but enough to create a fall. The three others, Double Touch, the Flying Hobby, and the Blackgaurd Snatch are only feints and ways to accompany the fall of the opponent. Layton gives this precision about the Trippet, when the opponent have a control of it, "then some other course must be taken to rid him the quickest way, or they are both liable of getting desperately kicked; but when it comes to that it requires a good temper and a great deal of caution, for kick sharp or faint, kick high, kick low, to kick certain is the main thing for in a good safe player there is some dependence, for if lie can keep his antagonist from throwing of him, he will, as is reasonable, make him in time throw himself". This is not far to what was called Purring4", which was a popular English folk sport, but without grappling, practiced from at least the 16"' century. Charles Layton mentions that these rules are used in "Ring or in Prize wrestling", which means that the old girdle had disappeared from Prize Wrestling and that the jacket (or short coat) is the only equipment in Common wrestling and Prize wrestling; gripping with "either both hand-collar hold, or one hand-collar and the other elbow hold". This is very similar to the hold in Collar-and-elbow or Cornish and Breton styles, and there is little doubt that the Cornish Close-Hugg and the Irish Collar-and-elbow are in some way related, and that the Breton Gouren is most likely a piece of the same equation. The Norfolk style was not only practiced in Norfolk, we are aware it was also one of the two wrestling styles of the Cotswold Olimpicks Games", in Gloucestershire, on the other side of the Country. There, Shin Kicking, as it is called, is still competed once a year. We can also consider that the Devon style of wrestling was a mix of Cornish wrestling and Norfolk wrestling, more or less as described in the The Inn-play or the Cornish-Hugg
40 By the mid-to-late 19th century, Purring was exported and practiced in America brought by Cornish miners residing in Pennsylvania. By the end of that century the sport had disappeared, and now it exists only at fair exhibitions and in the mutated variants seen in children's games. 41 The Cotswold Games last from 1612 to 1852 with a small interdiction from 1652 to 1660. Since 1963, Chipping Campden welcome again the festival once a year.

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Wrestler of Parkyns, but with difficulties performing all the techniques which had a Lock of the foot, because of the shoe. Here we are confronted again with the difficulties of travelling back in time to weigh the cultural loans in the different styles. Collar-and-elbow, which had tight jackets with double sewn and where footwear was banned, is very similar to Cornish wrestling in the Out-Play version, but the fixed hold did not permit to perform all In-Play techniques42. Probably the fixed hold at the jacket was a relic of the hold in the shawl or scarf, considering that in this hold if one lost an end of the scarf, the hold is lost (and the fall). We can then think that Cornish wrestling comes from a former type of Collar-andelbow style. Breton Gouren seems itself to have been very similar to the Cornish style in the Mid 19'" century and even in the 1920s when old wrestlers from each . side of the English Channel said that with the exception of the competition shirt, it was the same wrestling style (The Cornish style having probably digested some elements of the Devon style by the end of the 19th century).

Wrestling as Sport and Pastime

Sidney Anglo wrote that in the early 1600s wrestling was mainly a game and pastime for soldiers in their camps. Indeed wrestling was considerably less advantageous after the advent of firearms and gradually it was reduced to the field of playful practice. Even though it appears that it was especially the nobles who practiced wrestling, we have multiple examples where, as Roger Caillois4' says "the games and toys, during history, are the residues of this one. Misunderstood survivals of an expired state, or loans made to a foreign culture and that are private of their sense in the one where they are introduced". One could speak of conservatory practices of the old uses, while replaying cultural, social mechanisms light, religious of the bygone times. The practices of the "greats" fall therefore always gradually in the garden of the "humbles". It is the people of the lower classes who want to imitate the "powerful". It is the children who imitate the adults. It is also somewhere the psychic weight of training by the example given through a person in a dominant position. The social functions of the games change, undergo adjustments, are reinvented, but not their internal nature, so the outmoded weapons become sporting games or toys as the bow, the sword, the frond, and probably wrestling, even if the technical practice is still identical. Wrestling was certainly practiced by the people, but probably not always within an official status. Richard Carew confirms, in 1602, while speaking of wrestling: "you shall hardly find an assembly of boys in Devon or Cornwall where the most untowardly amongst them will not as readily give you a muster of this exercise, as you are prone to require it." So wrestling became a game, a pastime, and what we now call a sport, but probably with a mixed status - originating from its former use as a martial art. This is partly confirmed by Henri Pascoe when he informs us
42 Austria has currently a quite similar wrestling style called Krnten Ringen, whith a similar jacket and hold, but with a simpler way to achieve a fall - i.e. above the knee. 43 Roger Caillois, a sociologist author of Man, Play and Games (reprinted edition, University of Illinois Press, 2001 ). One of the best books on the phenomenon of play with Homo tudens - |ohan Huizinga.

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of an old rules from Carew's time which said that in the common game, the hold was taken by the collar and waistband and in the prize game the body was stripped to the waist and each wrestlers had a girdle similar to a shawl. In Wales the clan society had also elaborated very precise rules of education for the elite of its youth, of which wrestling, in the goal to form future qualified warriors. "Four and twenty games had been instituted; and every young man who aspired to be regarded as an accomplished person was obliged to study and become expert in the performance of them". These rules already existed in 1420 as a poem of Rhys Gch44, a bard of the time, specifies it in the poem Robert ap Meredydd. There he call them "British Games" but the myth linked them back to the Druids and the Roman time. 'The Four and Twenty Accomplishments' (Y pedwar camp ar hugain) were decomposed in 5 families: "Domestic and literary games (some examples) 1- Barddoniaeth, or bardism, including the philosophy and knowledge in general 2- Canu Telyn, or playing on the harp. 3- Darllain Cymraeg, or reading Welsh. 4- Canu cywydd gan dant, or singing a poem with the harp or violin 7- Herodraeth, or the art of conducting an Embassy. To which may be added four inferior games. 8- Chwarau gwyddbuyli, or playing at chess. Those regarded as the most reputable were exercises of activities. 12- Cryvder dan bwysau, or displaying strength in hurling a stone, or throwing a bar. 13- Rhedeg, or running. 15- noviad, or swimming. 16- Ymavael, or wrestling. In addition to these were exercises of weapons. 18- Saettili, or archery. 20- Chwarau cleddyv Lenddwm, or fencing with a sword and buckler. And rural sports 22- Hela a milgri, or hunting with a greyhound. 24- Hela aderyn, or falconery. We can easily see that wrestling had a status of honor, even when it was a pastime. The Campait yr hen Gymry Gynt, review of a Welsh Antiquarian society published the same list about in 1820, giving the situation of each "accomplishment". Wrestling is referred to as "Ymafael" (unarmed Combat). This feat is still generally practiced in Wales4S and Cornwall to the present day, with Ymafael Codwm Cefn (Back-hold wrestling), being the usual way by which an individual "might prove his strength and skill among the district's inhabitants." Wrestling had now
44 The history and antiquities of the County of Cardigan - S.R. Meyrik, 1810. 45 In the mining valleys.

hi

become a folk sport, as it is found it in many references of the day. Such references enumerate the frequent matches held by, or around, the pubs in Cornwall in the 18th century. Sir Thomas Parkyns' book (see further) details the folk-sportive aspect of Cornish wrestling during this period. Even the sport festivals such as the Cotswold Olimpicks Games, first organized in Gloucestershire in 1612 (by friends of Shakespeare), include wrestling as an essential folk sport. In Brittany, it appears that wrestling was already organized as official games before the Reform, but the tournaments were in general considered more like manorial rights, with the local Lords pushing to have their champions to represent the parish (and, likewise, their honor). These matches were held very often on Saints' Days near small churches called 'chapelles' in Brittany. In some places there are, ' even today, 5 or 6 of them in the same parish. Every year there is the feast of the Patron of the Parish: St. Brandan, St. Conogan, St. Gildas, St. Kadoc, St. Brigitte, St. Gonnery, etc., and in the 18'" century probably thousands of them existed. These 'chapelles' still maintain the living cultural antiquities of the past. Even today, at these feasts, there still exists many old traditions, including a variety of skittles games, bowling games, traditional dancing and music, processions with animals and banners, and a wealth of other cultural treasures found almost nowhere else.

Wrestling song collected from an old storyteller woman of 80 years in the years 1970. The woman said she got the song from her grand mother who said she got it from her mother. The construction of the song seams to tell a story from the 18'". Naig Rousval ar femelenn Doug dantelez diwar hi fenn Met Runargo en eus laret Dilezel hi dantelezou Gant an noblans hag int dougo Naig Rousval n 'eus laret Ma dantelezou zo paeet Beim ar fm zo savet gourennou Pa oa komanset ar gourennou Tout an dud a ouele Gweled Naig Rousval Vond da c'houren gand Runargo Raok ma oa fm ar Gourennou En doa bet tri lamm Runargo Runargo neuze n'eus laret Ar Rousvalin honezh a blij din Kavet da bried a rankin Naig Rousval, a woman Carries a lace on the head (...) But Runargo told to her To let the laces (she was probably from the gentry) Which are hold by the nobility Naig Rousval answered to him My laces have been paid (...) To finish a wrestling is organized (...) When the wrestling started Everybody cried To see Naig Rousval To go to wrestle with Runargo (...) Before the wrestling was finished Runargo has been thrown three times (tri Lamm) Then Runargo said The Rousvalin please to me I want her for (my) wife (...)

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Jacques Cambry, in his 1794 survey4" tells us that "wrestling tournaments were given by important Lords, or rich farmers who wanted to prepare, or to pack down, the area to beat the grain... One made, with ceremony, the tour of the area, preceded by the bagpipe and the 'bombarde47', the main instruments of the country. The master of the house walked, followed by his friends, these showing to the extremity of a May pool contributions that were made to decrease the expenses of the feast; the women carried milk, butter, and some sheep finished the walk... One got ready to wrestle; the prizesbulls, sheep, ribbons, hats were offered to the cupidity of the spectators..." In Brittany, even though bulls were sometimes offered for wrestling (up until the middle of the 20th century), generally it was only small prizes for the first wrestling events, with a sheep awarded as the prize of the main competition. There are also records mentioning a horse (as in the Robin Hood ballad, or as in the 15th century misericord of the Ludlow cathedral in Wales), given as a prize. We have in Brittany many records about small prizes for the games organized during the festival of the Saint' Days. Wrestling and hurling were the main events in Cornwall, as John Norden wrote in 1594, and Richard Carew in 1602 in his Survey of Cornwall. For such entertainment's, the prizes were paid by the "general", a sort of parish organization elected every year to manage the functioning problems, with all the accounts noted in their notebooks. Wrestling was rewarded in general by gifts in nature. It was a pourpoint (shirt of the nobles or doublets) and aiguillettes (gold laced) near Quimper (1563 to 1591), but also a pair of gloves at Hanvec (1622), aiguillettes and gloves at Chteauneuf du Faou (1616-1627). Sometimes the wrestlers even returned their pourpoint and exchange it with wine. In the Saint-Denis chapelle in Plogonnec, the accounts of 1601 signal that 5 coins were expended to buy a cap (jacket) for the wrestlers. In another place the prizes were leather belts. These prizes, the gloves, pourpoint and aiguillettes reveal an origin within the nobility. It was formerly rare for wrestling tournaments where money was directly at play, but as we approach the present period more cash prizes appear. This is apparent in the pilgrimage to St. Julien of Redon in the 18'" century. The prize for wrestling there, offered by the Lord de La Motte Glain, consisted of a pair of white gloves, a gold Louis (coin) of 24 francs, and a certificate to present to the concerned Lord. This certificate usually exempted the winner of almost all of the manorial royalties for a period of one year. In 1669 an extravagant prize of 1,000 was distributed by the English King after a meeting between Cornish and Cumbrian wrestlers in London. In Cornwall, up until the 18'" century, prizes are very similar to those of Brittany. Hamilton Jenkins4" describes these prizes, in general, as gold or silver-laced hats, buff waistcoats, gloves, silver or tin cups, or even a pair of candle-sticks. The prizes also included belts, as in the Cotswold Olimpie Games of 1725 where a gold ring and six belts were wrestled for, and a hat and six pairs of gloves were cudgeled for
46 Voyage dans le Finistre - published in 1 799. Survey done for the administration. 47 An oboe 48 The story of Cornwall, 1934.

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(i.e. stick-fighting). H. L. Douch49 writes that in 1753 a very beautiful gold laced vest of leather was "to be wrestled for in Plymouth, organized on the green, a hat decorated of silver laced was to be cudgeled for, and a Holland shift to be run for by women". In 1783, at the Pentecost games, a wrestling contest organized by a local Pub, Rose and Crown, offered a gold-laced vest on Monday and a silver cup on Tuesday. On the other hand the following text, from 1365-70, extracted from the general Prologues to the Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer, show us a very old and world symbolic prize still awarded in Brittany: the ram. The ram was also the prize given in London in 1222, and this animal is still carried today on the winner's shoulders in Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and some other countries. The ram seems indeed to have represented an universal symbol of victory. In Brittany for example an expression still exists: deuet ar maout ganitl which means: Did you get the victory? and which is still use for any activity. We know that the offer of a sheep, to celebrate Abraham's sacrifice, is a widespread and common ritual to the Christian's, Jew's and Muslim's religions. For the Muslims, it is an extremely important ritual and the Orthodox countries having been under the Ottoman domination use all these symbolic practices, in particular for wrestling. The Tartars also have this custom. It is well established that in the Middle Ages sheep were the most numerous and important domesticated animals. It was therefore at the same time the prize of the sacrifice to God and a symbol of opulence. Whatever either the answer to this problem, a ram as a trophy was a part of the "habitus" of the concerned populations.

Ther was also a Reve, and a Millere, A sommour, and a Pardoner also, A Maunciple, and myself- there were namo. The millere was a stout carl for the nones; The Miller was a powerfully built man Ful big he was of brawn, and eek of bones. With big muscles and big bones That proved wel, for over al ther he cam, That stood the test, for everywhere he went At wrastlinge he wolde have alwey the ram. To wrestle he always won the ram A swerd and bokeler bar he by his side He carried a sword and shield by his side

A baggepipe wel koude he blowe and sowne, He was good on the bag-pipes And therwithal he broghte us out oftowne. And he played for us as he left town

49 Old Cornish Inn, 1966.

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CORNISH WRESTLING TECHNIQUES Extracts from the book DEFENSIVES EXERCISES, by Donald Walker, 1840, London. Dressing: After stripping to the shirt, taking off the shoes, and tucking up the trousers, the wrestlers put on a loose jacket, made of canvas, tied in front with two strings, and reaching as far down as the hips. The sleeves are made very loose for the convenience of both parties in taking hold at the elbow or wrist. Left: Taking Hold: The wrestlers hold each other by the jackets, and by nothing else; but they are at liberty to alter their hold as often as they please.

Left: Forehand play with Inside Lock Most wrestlers prefer the forehand-play in which you are almost before the adversary with your back turned to him to that of the afterplay in which you are behind the adversary. From the forehand-play may be taken the outside-lock. To take the outside-lock, throw your right leg over the outside of his right leg, and twist your foot round it, so that your toe comes to the inside of his ankle, and while you hold so close with your hands as almost to lift him off the ground with your right hip, pull him over his right side by twisting yourself to the left. As both of you keep at once turning and falling, he will come to his back, and you will fall upon him.

Left: Outside-Clamp To stop the outside-lock, the adversary, if his head be under your arm, will take the Inside-Clamp, by striking the inside of your left shin with the outside of his left foot, pushing yours forward, and twisting you round, so as to make you fall on your back. But if his head be not under your arm, he will mostly prefer taking the Outside-Clamp, by throwing his left leg over your left thigh and pressing you either backwards. If he throws you backwards, he will try, as you both come to the ground, to turn himself so as to fall on his left side and make you fall on both your shoulders.

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Left: Inside-Lock forwards. The inside-lock may be taken so as to throw either backward or forward. To take the inside-lock forwards, twist your right leg round the adversary's left by passing it between his legs and bringing the toe round to the front of his shin, and then proceed as in the outside-lock. To take the inside-lock backward, after twisting your right leg round the adversary's left, turn yourself forcibly to the right, and you will both fall backward, he on his back, and you on your right shoulder. The way to stop this, is with the double-lock, which the adversary will execute by throwing his right heel inside your left and pressing you backwards or, with the heave.

Left: Cross-Heave. To take the Cross-Heave from the forehand-play, slip your right hand round your adversary's right side, to his left loin, so as to have him under your right arm; and slip the left hand along his belly, so as to get hold of his left elbow. You may thus throw him heels over head. This is the only throw in which both parties are in exactly the same position. To stop this, the adversary will take the hip or Cross-Buttock, by throwing the right leg over yours, as before described; or (you), the Cross-Lock, which is performed by putting your right heel round the inside of the adversary's right heel, pulling his right arm, and pushing him backwards.

Left: After-play, Home-Tang & Pull under. To take the heave from the after-play (by which is meant throwing your adversary backwards over your left shoulder, and falling on it, while he falls on both of his), you must hold firmly with both hands, lift your adversary well up, pull strongly with your right arm, and turn yourself so as to fall on your left shoulder, and make him fall on both of his. The pull-under is performed as follows: Move your right hand from his collar to his left elbow, pass your left hand under his chest to his left loin, and make him take the inside-lock. The home-tang is taken by getting both the hands round under the adversary's chest to his left side.

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Wrestling in Cornwall in the 19th century

Since the middle of the 18'" century, we can see that Cornish wrestling begins to structure itself with tournaments organized around the pubs and on the greens, on grassy lands. The rules seem to become codified to one period where many sports appear. The wrestlers wear strong linen jackets and never do ground work. The hands can only seize the adversary's jacket; the legs can only take to the legs. The contest was not limited by time but by obtaining a fall called a Back. This fall is obtained when two shoulders and a buttock, or two buttocks and a shoulder touched the soil before any other part of the body. These rules were very similar in the Breton wrestling, with two shoulders and one or two buttocks, or only two shoulders (currently in Gouren, only two shoulders constitute a lamm, which means fall). Three minutes of rest were granted after a hitch (round) without result, fifteen minutes after a Back. For some competitions, the 'best of three' rule was applied, as in the inter-county matches. Two Backs were therefore necessary to win a contest. Sir Walter Armstrong, however, tells us in 1889 that the refereeing in Cornwall was not always very rigorous, and that one could see a wrestler beaten after having fallen on the side, then rolled on the back. This, of course, generated many disputes. News published in newspapers THE ROYAL CORNWALL GAZETTE and THE WEST BRITON Wrestling tournaments organized on the greens (Pubs or publics greens), often at the Saint Feast days St Columb. I 3 guineas ; 2"" 2 guineas ; etc. Richard Parkyns, winner last year will be present. 1801.5-30'" St Austell. The 2nd of June will be held a wrestling with a purse of guineas for the best man, 2'"' a gold-laced hat, 3'" a silver laced-hat. 1808.8-16'" St Columb Games, in front of 4 000 spectators. T' Richard Parkyns, St Columb; 2'"1 Pascoe, Mawgan; 3rd Hawke, St Kew; 4"' Oliver, St Meniver, who threw Jolly, St Enoder. 1809.5-27"' Falmouth Athletic Sports, in front of 10 000 spectators. Whit monday. Monday: I a silver hunting watch (6 guineas). Ier Parkyns, St Columb; 2nd Stiffy, St Buryan; 3 " Jolly, St Enoder; 4me Dick Simmons, Redruth. Tuesday, wrestling : a silver watch to the best man (4 guineas) 1812.7-17'" Probus. Important crowd. T' Chapman ; 2nd Stiffy ; 3'" Jolly 1813.6-18'" Morice Town. Upwards of 20 000 people present at the fair. The Cornish and Devonian heroes met again. Devonshire champions Jordan, Perrott and Wadling were opposed to Roberts and the two Truscott. 1814.6-1" Morice Town (Plymouth). Cornwall - Devon match. Devon won with Hower (10) ; 2"" Truscott. 1798.7-2""

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1815.7-22'" Bodmin. T' Polkinghorne; 1820.8-1 " Truro. After a first tournament in July, a second is organized with 32 standards (= 96 wrestlers). Dick Simmons, Redruth, won. Carkeek from Redruth was 4th. 1822.7-12'" Probus. I Dick Simmons ; 2"d G. Rooke ; 3rd Stevens 1827.8-1 " Bodmin. 23 standards. T' Gilbert, St Enoder (15) 2nd Rably, (6) 3'" Elford (3) 1827.9-14"' Helston. 32 stand. T' Rhodda Crowan; 2"d Temby Camborne; 3rd Rooke Gwennap. 1827.9-28'" Penzance. 6 000 spectators the T' day, at least 10 000 the 2"d. T' Clmence of St Just; 2nd Tregise, St Just; 3rd Trigins, St Just 1827.10-8'" Penzance. T' Clements (12) 2" Warren (7) 3rd Trigins (4) 4'" Berryman (2) 5th Rhodda (1). 1828.5-30'" Penzance. Inter County Match. T' James Stone (Devon); 2nd Cundy (Cornwall); 3,d Blake (Cornwall) 1828.6-27'" Redruth. Tournaments on Saturday and Monday. Monday : T' Rowe, Crowan; 2nd Dobble, Kenwyn; 3rd Rhodda, Crowan 1828.7-1 T" Penzance. T' P.Meagher (15) 2"d J.Warren (10) 3rd J.Rowe (5) 4'" Rhodda(3) 1828.7-18'" Wadebridge. All wrestlers attended the match. A crowd of at least 5000 spectators. T' Blake, Eglosheyle; 2nd Dewey, Eglosheyle; 3"1 Rooke, Gwennap 1829.5-20"' Wellington grounds - London. 142 players. T' Meagher (25) 2nd Harrup (18) 3rd Finney, Ireland (12) 4'" Rhodda (7) 5'" Rooke (4) 6'" Julyan, Ireland (2).

Toward the beginning of the 19th century, the tournaments were on a larger scale, especially after the creation of the inter-county meetings. It is in Cornwall that the first real wrestling championships were organized in England, with the advent of the Cornwall vs. Devon competitions5". Before, wrestling was mainly considered as a personal performance where the honor of the village was the stake. Since 1810, in Cornwall, there was a fee charged to competitors in the wrestling field, whereas in Cumberland wrestling, in London, the old practice of the subscription permitted them to organize the yearly tournament on Good Friday (until 1845, then it was an entry fee system). With this practice the promoters of a feast gather money, from door to door, to cover the expenses of the event. This practice, where the visitors are not charged for admittance, still exists today in Portugal, South Italy, and in Bulgaria. In Cornwall it was generally the local committees who managed wrestling in the Saint's days festivals. This included managers, inn owners, as well as individual patrons. Cornish wrestling became the main sport of Cornwall, just below Cricket, which was a team sport that appealed to a higher stratum, or class, of people.
50 It appears also that some Devon vs north-Devon tournaments have been organized, as in Paington July 21st, 1826.

70

The spectators increased from about one thousand, to 1,800 - 4,000 in 1808, and to as high as 10,000 in 1809. The meetings between Cornwall and Devon lasted until 1850, when the champion Thomas Gundry won the champion belt of the two counties. It is likely that the newspapers participated voluntarily to develop the popularity of wrestling, using the very new power of the print media. It is necessary, at this time, to consider that the recent industrialization had produced a large excess of money in Cornwall, especially among the tin, silver, lead, and gold miners. This money was available, in part, to be spent on new leisure's, with the industrial works organizations affording more free time. One can observe that the prizes increase quickly in value. From the gold-laced hat for the winner, soon there is the gold hunting watch, from 3 guineas to 10-12 guineas, etc. Twelve guineas in 1810 was a considerable sum, and in 1860, a qualified miner only earned about 3 guineas per month, with a schoolteacher earning 3.5 guineas. In 1811, at Bodmin, the wrestlers are so numerous that it was necessary to wrestle until midnight to determine the winner. These numerous registrations imposed to modify the tournaments organization to dispute them on two days, the first day being for the eliminatory, qualifying the standards, the second for the standards to wrestle until the final. August 2, 1811 appears to be one of the first official challenges between Cornish wrestlers and those from Devon (it was held in the outskirts of Plymouth). The respective champions represented their counties: Jordan, the 24 year-old "Giant of Devon" (6f.5i or 1,94-m), and Parkyns, "the technician" of Cornwall. They wrestled, with Parkyns winning easily. The two counties met again in Saltash (Plymouth) the same year. Parkyns won again against Jordan, and Jolly was 2nd. In 1813, in front of 20 000 people at Morice Town fair, Jordan, Perrott and Wadlings met the Cornish Robert and the two Truscott brothers. It was John Truscott who won against "the enormous" Jordan. In 1816, Flower was confronted with Parkyns, at St Columb, and he was thrown. The day after, Jackman, another Devonshire man met Polkinghorne, "and he was cast over the head of the Cornish with a flying mare". With the Cornish almost always winning, the Devon supporters ruminated for a long time over these defeats. Just after 1820, at 26 years of age, Abraham Cann becomes champion of Devon after defeating Jordan. It was then Cann who the Cornish would have to contend with to prove the superiority of Cornwall. London was then the center of the world. A part of the English youth countryside gravitated there, enticed by the new wealth coming from the economic revolution and the colonies. A society regrouping the youth of the Cumberland and the Westmorland had been created toward 1760. Its object was to create some opportunities to meet, wrestling and leaping was part of it. The prices were symbolics: a belt, a pair of gloves. This society turned around 1820 into a "Cumberland & Westmorland wrestling society in London", with its seat in Chelsea (suburb of London). One of the object was to organize a championship51
51 The minutes of the 1824 meeting tell that "a subscription be entered into for the purpose of procuring a silver cup, two silver snuff-boxes, and two gold seals, to be wrestled for".

71

on Good Friday every year. A few years later was created another society: "the young Devonians", formed exclusively of expatriate people from Devon. But the citizens of the capitol needed excitement at that time, and the athletic spectacles had become a very popular attraction, as well as animals fighting which was forbidden (without much of success) only in the middle of the 19'" century. Quite quickly this society hosted wrestling spectacles. These meetings of wrestling were organized, as in Cornwall and Devon, by the owners of pubs or hotels, but also by Bowling greens or Cricket-Grounds managers. One of the important places of these meetings was the "Eagle Tavern", held by a certain Thomas Rouse, himself a former wrestler. It is in this symbolic place that the Devonians supporters created the image of "champions of the Kingdom" for their best wrestlers. Abraham Cann, who resided in London where he made his living through contests, was thus presented everywhere as the champion of "the west" wrestling (Cornish & Devon styles). For Devon it was a sort of revenge after the defeats at home, for Cornwall it was seen as a provocation. It is in such places that the wrestling styles of the west degenerated according to Walter Armstrong52, with arranged contests, the wrestlers taking names like "little elephant" for James Stone. In 1825, A. Cann set out to challenge all of the wrestlers of the world, most notably the Cornish, offering 100 sovereigns (pounds) to the man who would beat him in his style. The Cornish, tired of Cann's provocations, answered by offering some challenges of their own, insisting that the matches should be fought on their own soil. Polkinghorne proposed a match to Cann, for 500 shillings, at the Truro Races, August 19th, 1825. Cann never showed up! At 37 years of age in 1825, James Polkinghorne hadn't wrestled for some years, having rather invested his gains in the purchase of a pub, the King's Arms, in 1818. Polkinghorne was one of the best wrestlers before 1820, but the greatest champion at the time had been Parkyns, a wrestler who was virtually undefeated. Polkinghorne was chosen by the Cornish committee because he was the only wrestler to be able to advance the 100 sovereigns a side requested for the match. In 1826, while in London, after a visit to the Sporting Club Becher & Cribb, Polkinghorne decided to accept the conditions of Cann. The selected site was Morice Town, a parish that touches Plymouth whith a population of 70,000 inhabitants at that time. The guest rooms in all of the pubs of Plymouth were quickly booked, and the visitors had to be received in the homes of families. The supporters came from all around the two counties. A vast field had been secured in order to receive 10,000 supporters, but by noon all lodging had already been rented, and the surrounding hills became darkened with people (17 000 says the Rev. Baring-Gould). A match Cornwall - Devon was organized just before the great contest. We can see on the following lines that the matching system was not automatically between a Cornishman and a Devon one, or perhaps it was arranged like this for the first play, to become a standard.
52 Armstrong was a long time secretary of the Cumberland and Westmorland Wrestling Society in London.

72

GAMES.
.

ST.

i ." '

WRESTLING
On Tuesday H(t \>1
<!.

Above: A silver snuffbox won by T. Donoham from Penrith, 2'"' place in the 12,5 stones Cumberland wrestling, London, Good Friday 1840.

PRIZES;
ffl Sovereigns,
SECOND, FOUR S O V E R E I G N S , Third. TWO SOVEREIGNS, Fourth, ONE SOVEREIGN Fifth, TKN SHU-LINGS, ^ And IIALF-A-OROWW fceverj Staudttrd.
Bmrf / u u w i | | f *<U be tfir- ft'JRm^ir.. d Fa.r l'I-, lo Il

% Sill"-) SVW.

Middle: a silver watch for the T' prize.

ne pi.*v i r x r emr* M .

Above, right: Poster of the Annual Wrestling of St Austell, 1841, May 28'".

Right: Cornish wrestling as spectacle of "Old English sports" at the Saville House tavern, Leicester square, London, 1850.

( i W T C S l t l f l g

Left: Drawing published in The illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, April 17'" 875. The 3 sticklers are there but we can doubt that the wrestlers still practice wrestling with arms, as we can see blood on the shinbones of the wrestlers.

73

Double Play Richard-C Mooris-D Jewell-D Juliott-D Dascombre-D Johns-C Treleaven-C Reed-D A.Werry-C Prick-C Axford-D Flower-D J.Werry-C Martin-D Bray-D Spry-D

Treble Richard

Quadruple Richard

Final 4th Richard L.Dascombe

Jewel L.Dascombe L.Dascombe Treleaven A.Werry Axford JWerry Bray 1st L. Dascombe

A.Werry 2nd A.Werry 3rd J.Werry

J.Werry

The Cann - Polkinghorne contest took place, between two wrestlers representing two different styles, from very different weight categories51, and in two different physical conditions. Polkinghorne was very quickly out of breath but compensated this weakness by a Herculean strength. In fact the match didn't hold its promises and ended in an extreme confusion, without a true winner, and generated many disputes. This particular match had very important effects in the "countries of the west" (Cornwall and Devon), at a time very beneficial for the image of wrestling, but it was also depreciated due to of Cann's use of the shoe in effecting violent shin kicking techniques. At this time the lower social classes identified themselves with the wrestlers, as today they do with the soccer teams of Europe. Wrestling continued to develop in Devon and Cornwall, and also in London and some other big cities through bet matches. In 1828, in Leeds, there was a tournament, with large stakes, between some champions of Devon including Abraham Cann, James Stones, Wrexfords, Jordan, thereby showing a certain degree of professionalization. It is also at this period that one can see many elaborate articles about Cornish wrestling. The correspondent of The Table Booku for Cornwall, Sam Sam's Son, wrote the following text, which could easily be one in a wrestling manual: "At a Cornish wrestling, a man's favorite play can be seen by the hitch or hold fast he takes; as right or left, which is sure to be crossed by left and right, and the struggle
53 A. Cann : 1.75m & 81 kg;). Polkinghorne: 1.79 & 103 kg 54 A sort of newspaper : "Everlasting calendar of popular amusements, sports, pastimes, ceremonies, manners, customs, and events" published as a book by William Hone, London, Thomas Tegg, 1827

74

immediately commences. The off-hand play is that in which the men have each a grip on his adversary's collar, or on the collar and opposite elbow, or wrist (OutPlay); when by a sudden blow against the outside of the foot, by the striker's inside, if strong enough, or by a corresponding twist of the collar, one lays the other flat in his back. This is called playing with the toe. When the hitch is Collarand-Elbow, one mode to play is to lift with the heel placed on the fork, with the back twisted round towards the other's front, and pulling him strongly by the elbow and collar, carry him forward. Another way is to heave forward or backward with the crook, or inlock, or with the hip, but this is what is termed the closing play (In-Play). (...) The under player has his right hand on the left side of the collar, his left crossing the loins on the back, or crossing the belly in front, and facing his opponent's left side. His defensive play is to stop the hip by the clamp and the crook; by pushing forward with his left hand and the nape of the neck, and then heaving; which in the ring is considered the best play." He continues to describe all the main throws in this detailed manner. He concludes the article with a description of the technical differences between wrestling in Cornwall and Devon: "In Devon wrestlers used shin kicking, what means to use a shoe to sweep (and kick) the lowest parts of the opponent legs". In this position "the Devonshire men have no under-play" says Sam Sam's Son but we are aware they had the ForeLock, the Back-Lock, the Heaving-Toe, the Back-Heel. In some cases haybands (sort of gaiters) were wound on the legs as a protection. An important book was published in London in 1840. This book, Defensive Exercises - with sections on Wrestling, Boxing, and Stick-Fencing was written by Donald Walker. It featured wrestling exercises, as well as methods of self defense with the hands, while also including brief sections on Shillelagh (Irish stick) and single-stick -similar to the German manuals of the 15th and 16th centuries. The chapter concerning the methods of wrestling includes sections for both the Cornwall and Devon and the Cumberland & Westmoreland styles, which demonstrates a certain fashion for these sports at that time. The Cumberland and Westmoreland section gives a long list of detailed rules, but almost nothing of the kind is provided for Cornish wrestling. Only some basics information's are given about the regulations. RULES : - Fall : no fall is counted unless both the shoulders come to the ground together. - Dressing : stripping the shirt, taking off the shoes, and hicking up the trousers (to prevent them getting entangled with the adversary's feet), the wrestlers put on a loose jacket, made of canvass, tied in front with two strings, and reaching as far down as the hips. The sleeves are made very loose for the convenience of both parties in taking hold at the elbow or wrist (by the jacket). - Hold: the wrestlers hold each other by the jackets, and by nothing else; but they are at liberty to alter their hold as often as they please. - Challenging : the usual mode of challenging is for one of the wrestlers to throw his hat into the ring, and any one who intends to wrestle him answers it in the same manner.

75

Walker writes that there are two principal holds, that for the Forehand-play, in which you are almost before the adversary, with your back turned to him, and that for the After-play, in which your position is a little behind him. When the attacker is in the first position, the defender is in the second and Walker says that "Most wrestlers prefer the Forehand-play." He also specifies that there are some movements "which can be taken only from the Forehand-play, and others only from the After-play." From the Forehand-play may be taken the Outside-Lock, the Inside-Lock, the Cross-Heave, the Cross-Lock, and the Cross-Buttock. From the After-play come the Back-Clamp, the Heave, the Cross-Heave, the Double-Lock and the Pull-Under. The book includes a very good technical description of the techniques, certainly written by a technician of the sport, which are very close to the one described in this 2006' book. But Cornish wrestling had to wait until the 1900's, and a certain revival, to see written rules55 done by an official committee. RULES of 1905:

Art.l: Fall decided by three judges whose decision is definitive. Art.2: Wrestlers must shake hands and grip in the jackets, barring the cross-collar ho Art.3: Usual definition of the Back with 3 'pins'. (In 1889, W. Armstrong writes this precision : " a man must be thrown flat on his back before any other portion of his body touches the earth). Art.4: When there is a fall without result, the wrestlers stand up and start again. Art.5: Precision's about passivity (drop on one knee, escape being thrown, etc..) Art.6: If a jacket comes off, the bout shall start a fresh. Art.7: Wrestling in stockinged feet and no kicking Art.8: disqualification for wrestler using unfair means. These rules were renovated in 1923 with new elements such as weight and age catego and a little later time limits were included for the contest and intermediate results to w such as the points, faults, decisions. However a little later, in the middle of the 19'" century, the ordinary people had other preoccupations. The mining crisis, and the large Cornish emigration to the mines of the New World, had a significant impact on Cornish society. This was the situation even though in the decade of 1860-70 wrestling and hurling were still the most popular leisure activities in the West Counties, at a time where about one hundred thousand people still work in the mines. Such important customs, however, were soon disrupted by repressive societal movements, which were often dressed in the disguise of modernism. Numerous traditional feasts were banished and replaced by temperance meetings organized by the Church. The pressure exerted at some working places by industrialists was also opposed to the continuation of the former types of local amusements organized by the populace. This alliance took the form of a deep contempt for everything that was local and popular. Thereby, all former festive rejoicing were considered "traces of one
55 Published in the Text book of wrestling - Ernest Cruhn, 1910, London.

76

Evolution of the Cornish wrestling dressing

Left are two drawings found on one poster advertissing a Cornish wrestling tournament at Helston in 1868. No doubt that the styles seem different. Above the wrestlers wear a tight dressing, as in the book of Donald Walker and many other drawings of that time. The scene of the top represent probably the In-Play, and the other the Out-Play. But perhaps it is a representation of the Cornish (top) and Devon (below) styles. Right are two photos found on the wrestling frame at St Stephens. Above: james Triggs (right) shows the Under Heave. Below: He does a "Toe", both techniques on F.Trudgeon. jackets are very "Loose" and if the wrestlers still practice the same techniques, this wrestling costume look likes as a mix between the two former styles (Cornish and Devon), perhaps a relic to keep some traces from the Devon style which had disappeared from Devon in the 1890s. Perhaps it is what Henri Pascoe wanted to say writing in 1928 : "Two hundred years ago the jacket was almost tightfitting and small enough to be called a 'vest'. Today it is big, loose, coarse and ugly" ?

77

bygone barbaric time". Wrestling took refuge in private circles, such as at the inns, where in the 18th century it degenerated under other influences. When Jack Carkeek came to wrestle for this famous world championship of 1887, a new revival had been forming for some years. But after the incident of the championship, the support fell again as indicated by articles referring to the second "world championship" of 1889 where the T' prize was only 10, plus a small silver cup... The beginning of the 20'" century saw some tournaments with only eight to twelve registered wrestlers, and even sometimes four, to compare with the fifty-nine wrestlers of the Helston Downs in 1868! The spectators, however, are still present in well-known tournaments, such as those associated with big festivals, but a large number of tournaments at this period only consisted of a few hundred spectators.

In the US, at the time of the creation of modern sports, some attempts were made to transform the game into a sport, or at least to use it as a form of physical education. The information contained in the Macfadden's Encyclopedia of Physica Culture (Vol. II), published about 1910, can be considered one of these attempts. In the description of the rules, it is written that Cornish wrestling requires the wearing of a loose jacket and that a collar hold was favored. When the Encyclopedia approaches the topic of Collar and Elbow, it states that this style was "at one time quite popular". As per this entry, the type of hold required and the definition of a fall are practically the same as in Cornish wrestling.

Some statistics on wrestling around 1826 in Cornwall and Devon

1825's w r e s t l i n g t o u r n a m e n t s in D e v o n (and available results) (Notes extracted from a 19'" century manuscript). JuneP' June 17'" June.. July T' July 7m July 12'h July 18lh July 2L' July 25,h August 10'" August 22nd September I September 6'" Charmouth (Dorset) T' A. Cann T' Wreford W.Marchand Totsham Torquay Paignmouth Crediton Ashborton Newton Abbot Swimbridge Honiton Woolington Molton Milton Hampstead T' A. Cann Is' A. Cann T A. Cann l 9 A. Cann T' A. Cann T' A. Cann T' L. Dascombe T' A. Cann T' Flower T' A. Cann T' A. Cann 2. Underdown 2. J.Cann 2. Wreford 2. Cleve 2. J.Cann 2. J.Cann 2.Jorda 2. J.Bolt 2. Philips 2. J.Cann 2. Webber 2. Rawle 2. Webber 3. Miller 3. J. Dascombe 3. Webber

(A.Cann beaten for the 1st time in 5 years)

3. Thorne 3. Buil 3. Pout 3. L.Dascombe 3. Mallet

7H

1826's wrestling tournaments in Devon (and available results)

June 25'" July 25'" July 1 July 17'" July 21" July 23'" th July 24 July 26'" July... August 13'" August 17'" August 17'" Augsut 19'" August 29'" August 29th August 29'" September September 24th Topsham (exeter) T' Woolaway T' Woolaway Crediton T' Wreford Broadclist T' Webber Ashborton T' Jordan Paignton T' Wreford Broadclyst T' Woolaway Swimbridge T' A.Cann Milton Abbot Milton Hampstead T' A.Cann T'Jordan Tavistock T' Wreford Honiton T' Woolaway Okehampton London (Without shoes) T' . L o n d o n (Eagle tavern) T' Thorne T' L.Dascombe Exeter (st Sidweii) T' A.Cann Exeter (St Thomas) T' Jordan Tavistock T' P.Pyke Newton Abbot 2. Flower 2. Cleve 2. J.Cann 2. Bolt 2. Frost 2. J.Cann 2. J.Dascombe 2. J.Cann 2. J.Cann 2. Kent 2. Marks 2. J.Dascombe 2. Warren 2. Warren 2. Bradford 2. Wreford 2. Kent 2. Mortimore 3. E.Underdown 3. Avery 3. C.Knight 3. Frost 3. L.Dascombe 3. C.Knight 3. Thorne 3. Slade 3. Bolt 3. Luxon 3. Toogood 3.Jury 3. Glanville 3. Batson 3. Webber 3. Jackman 3. Luxon 3. Dymond

1827's wrestling tournaments in Devon (and available results)

April 16'" May 9'" June 4'" June 4'" June 6'" June 12'" June 18'" June 18'" June 28'" July July 12'" July July 26'" July 30'" August 25'" August 30nd September 24'" September 24'" London
TavistOCk (31standarts) L o n d o n (Devon style) L o n d o n (Cornish style)

T' Topp T' A.Cann T' A.Cann T' Meagher T' A. Cann T' Jordan T' A.Cann T' Wreford T' A. Cann

2. Pyle 2. Wreford 2. Pyle 2. Clements

3. Sowby 3. Stone 3. Chappel 3. Parden 3. Bradford 3. Huxtable 3. Copp 3. Bolt 3. Kine 3. Chappel 3. Avery 3. Slade 3. Benn 3. Trewick 3. Wreford 3. Finney

Paignton Lidmouth Ashburton

2. Underdown 2. Bolt 2. Stone L o n d o n (Golden eagle) 2. Huxtable Liverton 2. J.Cann Dartmouth 2. Rowe L o n d o n (Green man KentlT' C o p p 2. Wreford T' A. Cann Totnes 2. J.Cann T' A. Cann Milton Abbot 2. Parden L o n d o n (Cornish style) T' saunders 2. Parkyns L o n d o n (Eagle city rd) T' Pyle 2. Cornali T' Snell South Molton 2. J.Cann T' A.Cann L o n d o n (Eagle tavern) L o n d o n (Golden eagle) Match A.Cann-Gafney: A.Cann won

2-0

79

In 1826 Abraham Cann resided in London and we can see with the results that he is not often present in Devon. He wrestles three times and wins each time. The other winners are Woolaway (4 times), Wreford and Jordan (3 times), Webber, L.Dascombe, Thorne and (1 time). The author of the manuscript gives some interesting notes about the duration of the contests, sometimes 2 minutes, sometimes 15 or 20, but other numbers appear quite often, especially between the best wrestlers : 30, 40, 55, 60, to 72 minutes ! As it is not possible to receive kicks from shoes on the tibias during 72 minutes, so the wrestlers probably wrestled more or less like in Cornwall. It would be interesting to discover more about these champions, since the vast majority of the information is lacking, even though the author notes the age, height and weight of the best wrestlers who had the privilege to be invited to wrestle in London (this particular data was probably derived from the registration list of the local organizing committees).
Born Devon A. Cann Wreford Woolaway Jordan Webber L. Dascombe Frost Avery Bolt Flower J. Dascombe J. Cann R.Underdown J. Stone 1795 1795 1787 1799 31 31 39 27 1.75m 1.80m 1.94m 1.74m 1.73m 1.78m 1.76m 1.74m 1.82m 1.71m 1.76m 1.71m 1.63m 1.76m 81kg 86 kg 108 kg 76 kg 82 89 86 74 99 82 76 75 84 kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg Age in 1826 Size Weight

1799 1807 1794 1781 (brother of L.) 1792 1799 1795 Average

27 19 32 45 34 27 31 31

84 kg

Cornwall P.Meagher Warren Clements J. Rooke Rhodda 1.81m 1.83m 1.78m 1.84m 1.79m 1.77m 86 86 86 86 83 kg kg kg kg kg

1805 1805 Total average

21 21 -

84,5 kg

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In 1826 in Devon, among the "standards", which are wrestlers who had given one fall to two opponents in the elimination bouts, we find 56 different wrestlers who appear one time at 8 tournaments (we have results for 16 events in Devon). Webber appears five times, as well as Wreford. Ten wrestlers: J. Cann, Flower, Bolt, J. Dascombe, L. Dascombe, Avery, Priest, Jordan, Frost, A. Cann, appear three times, and eight others two times. This gives us 76 different standards wrestlers, therefore there must have been a maximum of 228 registered wrestlers (we can have the same registered wrestlers at different tournaments) with this system of elimination without a direct elimination'". But we have no details for at least half of the 1826 tournaments because we know that tournaments are held every year for the saint day's festival. This allows us to estimate a total number of 250 to 350 adult wrestlers entering into the tournaments, for 70 to 90 very regular wrestlers, a little more than the situation of Cumbria (England) in the 1980's, when the FILC was created (International Federation of Celtic Wrestling).

Other interesting data can be found in registration lists, such as the one found in the Helston Downs tournament of 1868. That year fifty-nine wrestlers are registered, with the name of their parish, their height, their age and the weight. The weights are still measured in Score (1 score = 20 lbs.), an old measure used for cattle. The average age is 24 years old (two of them are more than 40, seven are between 30 and 40, four are under 18). The average height is 1.69m which is
56 At Truro, on August 3, 4, 5, 6th 1829, Litt's manuscript gives "160 players, 56 standards". The Rev. Baring-Gould said in Devonshire wrestler "a player who gave his adversary a fall remained in the ring for the next antagonist, and when he had given two falls he was reckoned as a standard."

81

closer to average people (only three are over 1.80m and only two under 1.60m). The average weight is 69 kg (only one is over 90 kg and six are between 80 and 90 -most of the elders-, six are under 60 kg). We can also see that wrestling seems to be a little organized, at least orally, with eleven wrestlers coming from the St Austell parish, at 50 km, coming by horse car or on foot! In 1826 we can see that the Devon champions are experienced wrestlers. They are taller than the average for the time in England and they are probably very athletic and very powerful. In comparison the Cornish are younger, smaller and lighter, except for the champions of the above list, to a lesser degree, because their weight corresponds with their height. Indeed, Meagher, Warren, Clements, Rooke and Rhodda were some of the top Cornish wrestlers of that time. They were probably young, since they do not appear in the results before the beginning of the 1820s (except Warren, 1st at Penzance in 1816). The average of Standards wrestlers is 1620 wrestlers in Devon and in Cornwall it is 24-30. In 1827 Abraham Cann won 177 in only the nine tournaments of the above list, a significant sum of money for that time! After the polemic who followed the match Cann - Polkinghorne in 1826 it however appears that the best Devon wrestlers focussed more and more their activities and efforts in London. It is likely that this contributed gradually to help extinguish the tradition of wrestling in Devon, proper.

The Gouren in Brittany in the 19,h and beginning of 20th

In Cornwall, popular newspapers appeared since the beginning of the 19"1 century, and in Brittany it was at the end of the second half of the century. Brittany was also (and is still) a more rural country. Therefore we don't have the same data with which to trace the development of wrestling at this period, in Brittany, so it is necessary to look for elements of missing information in other places. This is how the songs, poems, place names, legends, sketches, paintings, the seemingly insignificant articles, constitute the pieces of a puzzle that, once reconstituted, reveals life for the period in question. We have the writings of many English-speaking people, both British and American, who traveled through Brittany in the 19"1 century. Their incentives to travel to Brittany probably varied: to visit the homeland of forgotten men, a new Eden, the country of former cousins, or simply to visit an exotic country. The little American magazine Bro Nevez published several essays of this period, texts that were generally unknown to the Bretons. The foreign authors, often speaking neither French, nor Breton, were obliged to note what they saw, instead of what one wanted to tell to them. In Wolf Hunting and wild Sport in Lower Brittany the English pastor Robert Davies describes wrestling in Pleyben in 1870, as a game that the natives call "Ar Gourenn". He was aware of Cornwall because he refers to the Cann - Polkinghorne match of 1826. In Rambles in Brittany'7, written in 1906, Francis Miltoun tells us that the game of bowls is the national game of Brittany.
57 Rambles in BrittanyBoston 1906

82

Cornwall, S-W Devon & Western Brittany

Main places of wrestling
St Columb

7
Okchampton Crediton

/CORNWALL? / Bodmin
.
' ^
S A

,^E

) /~~^

St Enoder St Stephen

*_
1

Cambomev -^ ^ - ^ Penzance \ s' 1 ^T^^Helston p U

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These travelers communicated with the Breton speakers through an interpreter when they could find one. Indeed several of these were surprised, after making an effort to learn some French, only to find almost no one speaking French from the moment they arrived in western Brittany. In Peeps at Many Land, John Finnemore tells: "In Brittany the West-Country Englishman or a Welshman finds himself quite at home... The Breton peasant is a distinct figure among the workers of France. He is proud, and brave, and independent. He loves liberty, and he is his own master, tilling his plot of land or going to sea in his own fishing-boat... In Brittany we seem no longer to be in the twentieth century, but to have wandered back among a people of the Middle Ages". In The fair of St. Nicodme, written after a trip in 1876, and published in the magazine Temple Bar in London, the anonymous author tells us that "peasants, especially the men of Morbihan and Finistre, are a race apart; with their tangled hair spreading over the shoulders, and often reaching almost to the waist... they are wholly un-French. They are taller, too, and larger framed than the generality Frenchmen are; they look more powerful, both physically and mentally... Even if he is drunk, and it is too frequent an occurrence, the Breton strives to be selfcontrolled and quiet. When he is sober, there is a touch of the North American Indian in his stolid indifference". These testimonies, often without nuance about misery and fatalism, the lack of instruction and the drunkenness, reveal that the 19"1 century was a dark period in Brittany. The revolutionary years witnessed the Napoleonic wars, new geopolitical balances, and the industrial revolution, something which completely changed Europe, along with French centralism in organizing the different regions. The maritime trade, completely disorganized after 1815, resulted in many of the traders being financially ruined. The canvas industry, which constituted the wealth of Brittany, declined with the closing of the Anglo-Saxon and Dutch markets. The population of this region was nearly treated like those of a colony. In 1812, 100,000 beggars are counted in only the Ctes du Nord department, and 130,000 in 1817. At this time there are numerous references to bringing the "light" to this backward population, who spoke "a barbaric language". It is in this morose atmosphere that wrestling would have to survive and continue to express a certain way of life for the peasants, especially during the Saint feast days, the communal system of the Breton countryside's having been accentuated by the bad economic situation. It was especially true in the middle of the lands as the urbanism of the villages still shows it today, with farms overlapped in others, a little like in the mountain villages. The families are large, the soil produces little by lack of fertilizer, and money is rare - therefore the pooling of resources union is a necessity. Numerous works in the fields, the farms or the villages, require much handwork due to a lack of materials and machinery. The work, itself, is exchanged as a virtual currency, one of social contract and local custom. The

58 Peeps at many lands - London, 1921

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technical obligation becomes the habitus"" which turns into tradition, and this work ends by the feast. The agrarian cycle and its major works is thus intrinsically associated with the Feast. As this work is often labor intensive, some contests are invented to give the laborer a more playful break from his daily activities. These are the contests of scything, of porterage of the cereals bags, of making firewood bundles, etc. These practices were still even visible after WW.II in numerous of Breton townships. Around 1830, in his work Les derniers Bretons, Emile Souvestre describes wrestling in this context: "Every year wrestling is celebrated in "1 at the time of some Saint Feasts. One announces then in the townships the day and the place of the event. That those can hear listen to this announcement says the crier assigned to promote the program, and that they retell it to the deaf. All wrestlers are invited. The tree will carry its fruits as the apple tree its apples. Pass in your sleeves the water of the good fountains." The author makes reference to the sacred fountains of Brittany, supposed to cure all sorts of pains, illness of the eyes, of the stomach, and skin, etc. The fountains consecrated for wrestling were destined to bring strength to those who would visit them. Then, on the agreed day, the crowd arrives to the village where the festival will take place. "The sound of the bagpipe, the noise of the dances, the song of the drinkers reveals the feast from afar. A court in the village or in the cemetery usually serves as a ring for the tournament" says Souvestre. Children's contests were organized after the elders had mimed some challenges. Then the main wrestling match began, preceded by an opening ceremony: "soon a rolling of drums invaded the assembly, it is the signal". The wrestling was by challenge, which means that a candidate for any prize had to seize it and to make a tour of the ring. If another candidate wanted to dispute him this prize, he only had to touch slightly the shoulder of the first to tell him that he had found an opponent. Souvestre describes the rising of the event, with the wrestlers who "walk forward, surrounded with their partisans and their families; they measure themselves in advance, proudly, with a wild look". This proud attitude is always seen among the wrestlers who hide their anxiety, playing also a sort of bluff game before the contests. Then the combatants approach, shake hands while promising sincerity and loyalty, while attesting that they won't use any trick to obtain the victory. "One recognizes the wrestlers by their particular costume. They are clothed merely with trousers and a big canvas shirt that ties to the body," says the author. At the same moment, the men who will judge are designated. These are primarily former champions, who are recognized as the depositories of tradition and who must decide whether the wrestling is faithful and the victories unambiguous. In some places, it is specified that the opponent will be defeated only if he falls flat down on the highest part of his back; if he falls on the side the fall is only a
60 The habitus is a concept taking the total environment of a person: the believes, the cultural habits, the material space, the physical senses, etc. The habitus is a state which prefigures unconsciously everything that one person may choose to do. This challenges the presupposed concept of free will. 61 "Cornouaille" Is similar to Cornwall in French, to Kerne in Breton and Kernow in Cornish.

85

Wrestling match in London (at " Hackney wick "). Drawing published in April 1866 in the /llustrated Sporting theatrical News. The wrestler of the right is in a wrestling costume and the other in " Sunday " clothes, with shoes. It is probably a challenge match with bets. The title is " Devon & Cornwall wrestling ", to indicate it is the wrestling style of the peninsula. In Cornwall the tournaments were often held on the greens of the villages.

Wrestling in Brittany in the 19th century. This rural " photographic " scene was painted by Eugene Martin in 1848. It is one of the set called " The Bretons, customs and habits " - Cadart et Luge diteur, Paris. We can see the spectators, mainly children, on the branches of the trees. It is a gathering probably held after the religiou ceremony of a " Pardon ", the Saint day festival in Brittany. The wrestlers are locals.

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"costin" and doesn't count. The rules are not the same everywhere, which is natural in a situation where there is not a body to govern the practice as a whole. Wrestling is a sporting game that can be violent sometimes, even without any irregularity of the opponent. The pressure of one's friends, the honor of the village, the hardness of the soil where there is only grass for protection in the dry summers, the lack of physical preparation to acquire the necessary suppleness in the falls, certainly created a situation where many wrestlers were injured, as is cited in the songs of the 19"1 century. Injuries, at this time, were then often synonymous with handicaps, since a man's value was generally equated to his capacity to do physical labor. The wrestling tournaments were therefore often a place where one could acquire prestige, and by this a new social status permitting one to get a better job. Reciprocally, one could also be a victim of a psychic or physical injury62 due to defeat. The pressures of the competition, associated with the superstitious and religious mind of the countryside people probably contributed to construct a introduction ritual to the wrestling, like those that are still done today in numerous styles of traditional wrestling, such as in Turkey, Tatarstan, Korea and Mongolia. Souvestre describes the wrestlers who "hit three times in their hand and make three signs of cross": - "Don't you use neither spells nor magic? (demands the first wrestler) -1 don't use spells, nor magic, (answers the second) - Are you without hate against me? - I am without hate against you. - Go then! -Go! - I am from Saint Cadou. -1 am from Fouesnant." (Saint Cadou and Fouesnant are both parishes) After having pronounced these words, the contest can commence. The words spoken at the beginning of this ceremony were often different, according to the county, but it seems that this ritual took place everywhere. M'emaoc'h dre ho nerzh hoc'h unan If you wrestle with your own strength Chotn't ho sao, me a ya deoc'h. Stay, I am your man; M'emaorc'h dre verhiz an diaoul If you have strength borrowed from the Devil, Kerzh kuit ! Go away Many foreign travelers were consumed by a bucolic vision of Brittany, probably also finding what they looked for. In 1840, Thomas Trollope, in A Summer in Brittany, is haunted by this picture of a living museum. This sensation of a disappearing world is also present with several other authors, for example Brizeux and Georges Sand. This romantic picture of Brittany, reflected in Breton wrestling,
62 In Devon, at Marytavy, in the churchyard, is the tombstone of John Hawkins, blacksmith, 1721. It is written: "Here buried were some years before, his two wives and five children more, one Thomas named, whose fate was such to lose his wife by wrestling much."

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inspired a number of artists yearning for exoticism. In the 19"' century wrestling is also one of the most studied themes for sculpture in France. Gouren was the focus of many works of art, with the numerous representations serving to strengthen the mythical 'aura' of the sport. There were the drawings of Olivier 1'errin that awakened the curiosity of more than one artist, the publication of the Breton costumes of llippolyte Lalais.se, as well as numerous other works, including that of Adolf Leleux, Lutteurs en Basse Bretagne. Wrestling was then a popular spectacle in I'aris, for example in The folies Bergres hall with the new fashion for Greco-Roman, which, despite the popular misconception, was in fact developed from the old wrestling style from the south of France {la lutte du Midi). It is from this school of painting, Pont Aven (Aven is a river and the village is built around the bridge, or "pont"), that Gouren owes its most famous representations. With the arrival of the train in 1862 at Quiniperl, Pont Aven was frequented little by little by a colony of painters, which included Americans, Dutch, Polish, Irish, English, Danes, Swedes, Swiss, Norwegians, Austrians, and later French. I'onl Aven: "1500 inhabitants, 100 painters" as we could write today in a tourist's booklet. Its reputation is already important at the time of the first stay of Paul Gauguin in 1886. l'ont Aven is a lovely borough with old stone houses, as are typical in much of Brittany, but the river that crosses it gives it a particular charm. This river marries, as by magic, with a small forest named " the forest of love" and houses are constructed on the banks. One article of the Union Agricole et Maritime from September 17"' 1889 gives the program for the Saint least day of l'ont Aven, held during two days. On Monday the 16"' : traditional rural games, athletic games, and at 2.00 p.m Grand Wrestling with two rams for the winners and 140Fr for the various prizes. On Tuesday there were working boats and Yachts Regattas, and many other games. The journalist also wrote that "The Pont Aven festival has seen a large crowd, including many tourists and painters that have lived here for some time". This region is in the heartland of Gouren, and each borough in this zone has their own annual tournament. It is here that Gauguin painted, in 1888, his famous painting The vision after the sermon, which may be his first painting in Brittany. Detailed in this painting is a scene with children on the banks of the river Aven. "I have just finished a Breton wrestling," he wrote to Vincent Van Gogh. This traditional scene of the Pont Aven area was also painted by his friends Maurice Denis and Paul Srusier. Other famous painters, such as Lucien Simon with his Luttes St Gwenol and Lutte main plaie, and Mathurin Mheut, etc., also painted scenes of wrestling"'. These painters were the first visible element of a newborn tourism, which began in the last two decades of the 19"' century. Katharine McQuoid, a British writer, described the 'Pardon' of l'ont Aven, with its demonstrations of the strongest man oi the world: "we went to see the wrestling... The Breton wrestling is completely different than the one of Cumberland..." She then continues to provide a description oi Gouren. Another author, (eorge
63 In the 1990's jean Michel Mfort, a painter living near Quimperl, was the most prolific of the artists painting on the subject of Breton wrestling.

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Floride, summarizes this vision "Pont Aven contains everything that nature has more sublime... it is nearly the summary of Brittany. We find the megalithic monuments, the varied and extraordinary costumes, the exotic customs". The Cornu-Breton wrestling a n d the Inter-Celtic Championships

By the 19'" century Breton culture seemed to be disappearing into an atmosphere of moroseness and fatalism. However some men and women were determined to prevent the identity and the dignity of Brittany from disappearing: its culture, its language, its traditions and customs. The second half of the 18"' century had witnessed the development, almost everywhere in Europe, of a movement of interest and sympathy for popular traditions. This folkloric movement developed partly because of the rupture between two worlds: the rural world and the world of the industrial city. This fashion helped the Scottish Walter Scott to become well-known, as well as the German brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. Their work Children and household Tales was translated in very many languages and influenced, as it helped to create new vocations, throughout all of Europe. In Brittany we have Emile Souvestre and Franois-Marie Luzel, as well as the Viscount de La Villemarqu who had a regular correspondence with Jacob Grimm in the 1840's. The prefect and writer Jacques Cambry (born in Lorient in 1749) became the first president of the Celtic Academy created in 1804. This society gathered French scientists, scholars and writers, and had the sole objective of collecting and documenting the traditions, the customs, the uses, and the regional languages. This politico-cultural movement will see many writers and literati of Brittany to commit to this endeavor; many of the numerous descriptions of Gouren in the 19"1 century came from these sources. We can regret, however, that more advanced studies had not been done for Breton wrestling such as those transcribed by the Comishman Sam Sam's Son. The druid movement that emerged in Wales in the middle of the 18"' century will prove to be a support network mainly for the culture of Cornwall, Wales and Brittany, symbolizing in essence a cultural rebirth. Begun in 1824, the Welsh made contacts in Brittany with the scholars of the cultural revival, and in 1838 these intellectuals were invited to the fifth Welsh Eisteddfod"* where the Breton Theodore Hersart de La Villemarqu was enthroned bard. Later, in 1898 in Morlaix, the URB (Breton Regionalist Union) was founded under the honor patronage of La Villemarqu. This scholarly society had an influence on a whole movement that seemed to wait for a sign to exist. Delegates of this organization were invited to the Cardiff festival in 1899. On their return they decided to create a Breton College of the bards, also called Gorsedd, that was created in September 1900 in Guingamp, in parallel to the 3"' URB Congress. Franois Jaffrennou, Loeiz Herrieu, Franois Valle, Lon Le Berre were members from the beginning of this organization. These Bards and writers played a significant role in assisting the
64 Annual cultural event lasting a week, with hundred thousand visitors.

Tlie wrestling tournament ofScar, 1903 (Post card). The "Pardon" ofScar was for almost a century a sort of non-official championship of Breton wrestling. The ring was nearly 200 yards wide which enabled thousands of spectators and numerous bouts to be held at the same time, as in Pehlivan oil wrestling. The referees are the men with armbands and the pole on the right is used to suspend and show the prizes.

Tournament at Quimper in 1905 (post card). The Gouren was very popular in Cornouaille in the early 1900's, as was professional wrestling in Paris during the "crazy years" before VV.1V./. The rural sport began to be organized in towns and the sawdust was used to replace the grassy soil. We can see the officials on the right and on the left the competitors are taking off their Breton costumes.

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The wrestling fashion of the early 1900's in Europe, added to the birth of tourism, and had a direct effect on the interest in exotic traditional wrestling styles in the western world. Above are examples from Vietnam (Haiphong), Algeria, Switzerland, japan, and North England during the years 1903-1908. The post card on the left was done at the 1904 international exposition of Arras (France).

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creation of a Breton wrestling federation. Otherwise the URB was also a very influential cultural movement that included many mayors, deputies, senators, and press directors. This organization developed, starting in the beginning of the 20,h century, a politics of enhancing Breton culture. Many contests involving the traditional music instruments, dissertations in Breton language, the theater, the economic research to develop employment, etcwere organized. The folk festivals followed this fashion and began organizing folk costume contests; this also reinvigorated the tournaments of Breton wrestling. Brittany witnessed the arrival of more and more tourists, and wrestling was a popular and "exotic" spectacle. Medals were presented during a solemn ceremony, by deputies or famous men, and rewarded all interesting initiatives. This was a very visible and valorizing social recognition for the local participants. The wrestling tournaments therefore began to redevelop in a lot of places thanks to the support of the mayors and politicians. It is in this context that the region of Scar - Quimperl will see the creation of a sort of federal organization during 1910-1912. Unfortunately, it is just when the whole movement of renovation was beginning to take form when the first world war descends upon Europe like a dark curtain. Unfortunately in Brittany, and to a lesser degree in Cornwall, all this preparatory work was practically annihilated with the Great War; the death and widespread suffering became the symbol of the end of a period. Many wrestlers had been killed (about 140,000 names are engraved on the monuments in Brittany, nearly 25 percent of the enrolled soldiers). The survivors discovered new ways of life, and for many of them the Breton language was sometimes likened to a handicap in this New World. All of this will contribute to accentuate the loss of confidence of the peasant world, and with it all related activities. At the beginning of the 1920s one can see that many of tournaments from before the war no longer exist, or have been replaced with other activities. Half of the traditional sites don't propose wrestling anymore. It is in this negative atmosphere that the people who would save Celtic wrestling in Cornwall and in Brittany will have to act. Tregoning Hooper, the Cornishman, declared that "formerly in wrestling one could receive some kicks, the quarrels were frequents, and drunkenness pushed 'respectable' people to run away". It was a little as to exorcise the past to be able to rebound. Thus, thanks to the effort of some people (including the champion Triggs) and with the support of journalists, the Cornwall County Wrestling Association (CCWA) was formed in 1923 - in 1932 it became the Cornish Wrestling Association (CWA). The C.C.W.A. elaborated a regulation taking into account the errors of the past. There was at first two weight categories, under and over 150 pounds, two age categories (under 18 and senior), two level categories in the seniors (confirmed and novices). There was as well numerous other rules to avoid the pre-arrangement of results (fagotting), the prize level (max. 10), the poor presentation, the participation in tournaments not organized under the CWA rules, speaking to the Maching Committee, "begging of the ring", etc. The

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point system, which is a necessary intermediate result when there is a time limit, appeared late, probably after the first Inter-Celtic championship in Cornwall in 1929"5. The new Cornish committee was shouldered by well-known and prestigious personalities, such as the rich ship-owner Sir Edward Nicholl, and later by the Lord Lieutenant of Cornwall. Tregoning Hooper of Falmouth, an engineer of the Highways Department fascinated in history, was close to the committee. The Cornish Gorsedd was created at the same time and was a strong supporter to the C.C.W.A. The Cornish wrestling rules used during the dawn of the CWA, in the 1920's, had 64 paragraphs, most of which were written to regulate the wrestlers, instead of the sport itself ! AIMS and OBJECTS; Point 1: To promote and foster wrestling in the Cornish style in towns, villages, Public Schools, the County Regiment, the Territorial Forces and the Cadet Forces... Point 5: To promote and to hold yearly championship meetings with five distinct championships: All-weight overl60 lbs.; Middle-weight not exceeding 160 lbs.; Light-weight not exceeding 145 lbs.; feather-weight not exceeding 130 lbs.; bantamweight for youths under 18 years of age. (Later, in the 1970s, more youth age categories were added). RULES : - 11: The affiliation fee for local Committees shall be ten shillings 'per annum' - 17: All affiliated Committees who desire to be allotted dates for their meetings for the coming season must notify the General Secretary, in writing, of their proposed dates 7 days previous to the date of the annual Meeting. - 44: The wrestlers must compete in their stockinged or barefeet, and kicking shall not be allowed, but striking with the side of the foot shall not be deemed kicking. Later it was added "- wrestlers must take hold above the belt and all throws are made from a standing position - All grips must be taken on the jacket with no gripping of the flesh permitted." (more information on the web site of the Cornish Wrestling Association). - 47: A fall (Back) is scored if a wrestler be thrown so that his two shoulders and one hip, or two hips and one shoulder, or both shoulders and both hips simultaneously touch the ground. Later it was added "- The Back is the area between the shoulders and the buttocks and each corner of the back is called a Pin. - Points are scored for each pin that touches the ground: 1 point for 1 'pin' down and 2 points for 2 'pins' down simultaneously". The Sticklers (Referees) mark their score-cards as the bout progresses noting points score for and faults against each wrestler. After 3 faults against a wrestler, one point is deducted. - If no points are scored during a contest, a point may be awarded to the Wrestler who, in the opinion of the Sticklers, has made the most honest attempts to throw his opponent."
65 We can notice that the creation of an international body in 1928 permitted the timely modification of some ominous rules for the modernization of the Cornish and Breton styles.

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- 48: If either or both wrestlers come to the ground and no fall be counted, they s on rising, shake hands and play for afreshhold. - 49: If the jacket of a wrestler comes off the bout shall start afresh. After it was added "Intentionally slipping out of the jacket to avoid being thrown is a foul. - 50: If a wrestler intentionally drops a knee or hand to escape being thrown, he s be cautioned for the first offence and disqualified for the second. In Brittany, in the 1920's, one speaks mainly of wrestling while referring to the past, to mention the great champions of the 'old time'. However the Hennebont region began to quickly organize tournaments. These competitions were considered as championships by wrestlers, with the 'gold belt' for the winner, name probably borrowed to the professional's in Greco-Roman wrestling from the beginning of the century. In 1921 ten wrestlers are in final phase, nine in 1924, twelve in 1925, twenty-six in 1926 and twenty-three in 1927, either way it was a certain renewal. Some cash prizes appeared: 80fr to the winner in the junior in 1927, 400fr for the first prize in adult. From 1925, one begins to see the emergence of a new generation of champions. The journalist Job Jaffr then wrote about Gouren: "The war seemed to have delivered it a deadly blow (...), but it is the national sport of the Bretons. It is the only reason that explains its resurrection..." The cultural network will appear again as one of the strongest support systems for Gouren. Charles Cotonnec was then a contributor of the Breton magazine Dihunamb, with close ties to the regional cultural movement, while also avidly following the redevelopment of Gouren. He said otherwise "that he would prefer that one cuts his tongue rather than forbid him from speaking Breton". Charles Cotonnec was born in 1876 near Quimperl and studied medicine in Paris during the time of the creation of the sporting movement and of the 1900 Olympic games; he remained very influenced by this. As doctor and humanist, Cotonnec was active in the life of his region since his installation in Brittany. He moved closer to the Breton cultural movement, the tool that he intends to use, and to the ancestral sport of the Bretons, the raw material that he intends to remodel. He saw in gymnastics and physical education a functional means to fight against some societal ills of the time: physical deficiencies, tuberculosis, alcoholism, etc. It was in brief "a means to improve the man while perfecting the race" as he said, with the farming idea of the biological improvement of the species as applied to the human condition. "To become a great wrestler, wrote Cotonnec, it is necessary to submit yourself to a regular practice, to practice the physical education every day, for months and years, then to acquire the form. (...) It is a school of will". One can also note that many doctors joined in with him or after him. The most famous were the Dr Loyer, the Dr Guillou, the Dr Anthony, anatomist to the Muse d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, the Dr Desse, a famous rheumatologist and researcher. Doctor Cotonnec never entered in the problematic of sport to records, his idea being the one of an educator a little Utopian. To him wrestling was merely useful: "The wrestler possesses a

94

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Left: The Cornish delegation with Dr Cotonnec (Brittany) at Quimperlin 1928. Seatet: Middle Dr Charles Cotonnec; to his right Tregonning Hooper (Cornish secretary). Standing up behind (I. to .): j.B. Hooper, Franck Gay, Francis Gregory, Walter Fish. Standing front: extreme right, james Triggs the former champion in America and South Africa.

Wrestling after the W.W.I, at Hennebont (1927). After the war, many tournaments had disappeared. Scar had lost its position and the un-official championship was then organized at Hennebont by a manager, owner of a local hotel. The wrestlers of the photo have been selected to participate in the second day of the "championship". A maximum of 150 wrestlers still wrestled regularly during this period. A piper is playing a wrestling marche (on the left) as wrestling has inspired many wrestling songs and music.

95

fundamental capital in life, health and the capacity of work. The athletes constitute a breeding-ground of good workers, of brave soldiers and of audacious fishermen. Create a gymnastics hall and a bath establishment and you will suppress two hospitals". However the Gorsedd organized its first post-war gathering, in 1927, at Riec sur Belon. An imposing program is elaborated with the presence of delegates from all the Celtic countries and contests of all Breton sports, also including costumes, dances, etc. It is on this occasion that Charles Cotonnec was enthroned bard and that he met W. Tregoning Hooper, the leader of the Cornish delegation. After having fraternized to this occasion, they had then an important correspondence and commenced a common project to move the two styles closer together, without standardizing them. It is also through these contacts that Cotonnec felt that it was necessary to federate the different districts where Gouren was popular. Hooper's idea was to establish a regular meeting between the Cornish and the Bretons. He also proposed to create four weight categories as well as to limit the time for the bouts, what imposed to create a points system to determine a winner if there was no result by Back or by Lamm. Then a system of penalties was imagined for cases as brutality or the passivity. The set of these arrangements represented a small revolution in the world of wrestling, and they could only be imposed by a high-ranking action, while proposing something new of more prestigious, that would give back an impetus to wrestling! The Breton also proposed that it would be necessary to generalize the protection for the falls while using the wood sawdust. Dr. Cotonnec developed the idea to organize this first Inter-Celtic tournament in Brittany. It is again with the help of intellectuals, including Mr. Strafford, the American director of the Paper Mill of Mauduit, that the project was articulated. A local committee of Breton wrestling was created on June IT" 1928 to oversee the organization "of a great Inter-Celtic meeting", which was fixed on August 19th 1928 at Quimperl. This initiative galvanized the energies in the region, and all of the wrestlers and former wrestlers wanted to participate, as to celebrate the revival of wrestling. This was seen as a sign that Gouren is also the demonstration of a culture that finds its roots in an original soil, taking part of the cultural heritage. The newspaper La Dpche de Brest et de L'Ouest reported that "from man's memory, one never had seen such a considerable crowd of spectators around a wrestling ring, one never had seen gathered such a large number of the best wrestlers of Brittany and it is the first time that our men tackled with Cornish-British champions". After the championship, Cotonnec didn't even make reference to the results of the tournament (a draw between the two teams) in his final speech, but instead emphasized the importance of the historic reunion of two families meeting for one feast. He declared himself touched by "the gestures of loyalty, union and friendship" that he took from the event. These values which Cotonnec so admired are still found today in the loyalty oath of the wrestlers. This oath has
(Continued p. 105)

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Medieval enluminure: Soldiers training in arching, jousting and wrestling in the book Secrets de l'histoire naturelle written in the end of the 14'" century but illustrated in 1480 by Robinet Testard, the official painter of the Duke ofAngoulme (Central Franc near Poitiers). The title of the drawing is " Bretagne la Grand, nomme pour le temps Angleterre " (Bretagne the Great, curren England). National Library, France.

Medieval enluminure, left: Young men training in wrestling from illustrations in a book on education (end of 15'" century hitlers). The other pictures are " Learning to read ", " Learning to drawb", " Learning to sing ", a little like the Welsh twenty-four accomplishments. Right: Enluminure in the book of Jacques de Monbron (V part of 14"' century), depicting Collar-and-elbow wrestling. Nantes library, Brittany, France.

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Above: Misericord - J 5'" century. Ludlow Parish church (England). Ludlow is a form fortress of the Wales Borders. The wrestlers wear short breeches and practice M wrestling and Collar wrestling. The horse and the purse are the prizes, as in the Rob Hood ballad. Heads have been broken during the English Reform.

Left: short breeches and long shirt in 1460 (miniature - French N.L.)

Below: Misericord - ca. 1340. Gloucester Cathedral (England). The wrestlers wea long breeches.

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Above: Misericord - ca. 1390. Chester Cathedral, Cheshire, England. The wrestlers wear short breeches and a harness. Two Marshals are there holding sticks (sticklers). The wrestler on the right has the face of the devil, as well as the stickler to the right, perhaps to show that wrestling sometimes created trouble in the community (for the Church). Two heads have been broken during the Reform. Below: Misericord - about 1370. Abbatial church of Nantwich (Wales Borders). The wrestlers wear short breeches. They clearly grip a girdle (belt)

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Above: Picture extracted from the German book Das landshuter Ringerbuch published by Hans Wurm in 1500, in Landsh Munich (Germany). This wrestling manual contains on its first inside page the term Ringen Grueblen, which more or less leans " pastime or recreational wrestling ". Two other manuals nearly identical were also published in the 1500's, one by Haussen Sit in Augsburg, the other in a place and by a publisher unknown.
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OTHER TRADITIONAL WRESTLING STYLES

Right: Ranggeln, one of the wrestling styles of the Alps in Europe, here shown at the Ruhpolding tournament, in the Bayern region. This 2005 event was the Alpencupranggeln, with teams from Salzburg, Tirol, east Tirol and south Tirol (Italia). Most of the Ranggeln tournaments are organized on mountains top ; Ruhpolding is about 2000m in altitude! One of the federations, the Salzburger Ranggierverband is a member of the FILC.

Below: Lucha Leonesa is the wrestling style of Leon, in the northwest of Spain. Its ancestor is the old style of Aluches which was also practiced in Cantabria and Asturia (called Baltu). The hold is currently taken on a special leather belt and the style is quite similar to the Back-Hold wrestling style. The Federacin de Lucha Leonesa is a member of the FILC.

Above: Krnten Ringen : Amberg, Carinthia (Austria), 2005. Krnten Ringen is a standing up wrestling in which the wrestlers use a jacket and keep their shoes. The aim is to throw the opponent to any part of the body above the knee (the knees not being a valid fall). The wrestlers grip a loose jacket similar to the Collar and Elbow jacket and they are not allowed to change their hold. The main techniques include Sweeping, the forward Inside Lock, Outside Lock, as well as various Hip and Leg throws.

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Above: Cumberland & Westmorland wrestling at Grasmere, northwest England, in 1991. The Cumbrian Alan jones (left) throws the Breton Frdric Boixire in front of a crowd of 6-8000 spectators. The referee of the match, kneeling on the right, is Ted Dunglinson the great champion and former vice-president of the FILC. The Cumberland & Westmoreland Wrestling Association is a founder member of the FILC.

Above: Glima (Iceland). Left: Lucha Canaria (Spain) Both the Glimusamband Island and the Federacin de Lucha Canaria are members of the FILC

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' '^"^ Above: Yagle Cures o/ wrestling in Turkey (also called Pale in Macedonian Greece), during the famous tournament ofKirkpinar, July 2006, with nearly 2000 wrestlers !

Below: Gouren during the 2"' European under 21" years old championship and the first international female competition, Lesneven, 1998.

Above: S'Istrumpa is the wrestling st)'le of Sardinia (Italy), here at the international competition in Villagrande, August 2006, with Scottish and English teams. This style was formerly also practiced in the south of Italy. The wrestlers grip in the wrist or in the fingers like in back-Hold. The federation S'Istrumpa is a member of the FILC.

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Top: International competition at Guingamp, Brittany, 1993, with Francisco Perez of the Canary Islands ; Perez is 160kg and more than 2 meters tall. Above: Valentin jordanov, president of the Bulgarian wrestling federation, and Guy jaouen, International Convenor of the FILC, 2005, Sofia, both former wrestlers. Right: Patrice Le Mem holding the " maout " (the ram) after one of his numerous victories at challenge " mod koz " tournaments.

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been translated in all of the other languages of the federations participating in the Celtic wrestling championships: Gaelic, Welsh, Spanish, Dutch, Frysian, Swedish, Sarde, Icelandic, and Austrian, thus continuing the function for which it had been created.
The Breton oath When tou da c'houren gant lealded Hep trubarderez na taol fall ebet Evit ma enor ha ITini ma bro E testent eus ma gwiriegez Hag evit heul kiz vad ma zud koz Kinnig a ran d'am c'henvreur, ma dorn ha ma jod. The Cornish oath War ow enor ha war enor ow bro, My a de omewlel, Hep traytury na garowder, Hag avel ol ow leider My a ystyn ow lufdhe'm contrary. Gans geryow ow hendasow. "Gwary whek yu gwary tek". I swear to wrestle with entire loyalty, Without treachery or brutality, For my honor and that of my country, In testimony of my sincerity, And to follow the custom of my ancestors, I present to my fellow My hand and my cheek. On my honour and the honour of my country, I swear to wrestle, Without treachery or brutality, And in token of my sincerity, I offer my hand to my opponent In the words of my forefathers : Good play is fair play or (C'hoary c'hwek so c'hoary tek in Bretoni.

Cotonnec had wanted to mark the minds and succeeded in a monumental task in 1928, and became the essential leader that this sport needed. The sound waves produced by this meeting generated more and more articles about wrestling in the newspapers. The big tournaments recovered their status before the war, and Gouren became popular again! Then the Quimperl' committee turned into an Athletic Sports Society of Cornouaille in 1929 to be able to officially manage the championship having to select the wrestlers who would go to Camborne in Cornwall. There the championship was again an embrace of the wider the Cornish culture, organized in parallel with the Cornish Gorsedd. Still the task remained to gather all the committees in a federative structure, such that the regulation of the wrestling would be possible. It was these different successes that "made possible the creation of a Federative Society of the Breton Wrestling" as wrote Cotonnec. This federative body was created on March 30th 1930 at Quimperl, in the presence of numerous wrestling organizing committees and members of the bard organization. A regulation booklet was published following this meeting with rules for wrestling and for refereeing. The constitution specified that the FALSAB had for goal the practice "of Breton wrestling and Breton athletic sports". The definition kept for the Lamm was the one that had already described to the 19th century, but the wrestling clothes were standardized. Gouren finally had its formal regulations and its federation and could now consider a wider regional development. It was this regulation that was used, with few major modifications, until the en of the 1970's.

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Breton wrestling (Gouren) Rules, after the creation of the FALSAB, like for the Cornish wrestling rules, had more articles to regulate the participants than the sport itself ! Rules to avoid the pre-arrangements (fagotting), the prize level, the bad presentation, participation in tournaments not organized under the FALSAB rules, begging around the ring. We can also observe that the creation of an international Committee to run the Inter-Celtic championship was decisive for the creation of written regulations. RULES : - Art.2: Breton wrestling is a standing up wrestling - Art.3: The aim is to obtain a fall called 'Lamm' which is the fall on the two shoulders simultaneously.

- Art.4: The contest lasts 15 mn in a tournament, plus 10 mn of extra-time in case o no result (no Lamm). If there is still no result after the extra-time, points are used find the winner. Points are results close to the Lamm. [Later the point was bette defined. Currently it is called 'Kostin' and in the international competitions the duration of the bout is 5 min + 2 min 30 sec if needed of extra-time. A system of 'advantage' and 'decision' is also apply to avoid a draw (more information can be found on the web site of the Federation of Gouren)].

- Art.5: If a wrestler intentionally drops a knee or hand to escape being thrown, he get a fault and shall be cautioned for the first offence and disqualified for the seco Passivity and brutality are considered as faults. Currently the fault is called 'Fazi' Disqualification is after 3 faults in the same family.

- Art.ll: Wrestlers will wrestle in four weight categories: over 72,5kg, under 72,5 under 65,5kg and under 59kg (which are exactly the equivalents of the four Corn categories). A fifth category is for the juniors under 18 years of old. Currently th are 7 seniors categories (see the list of competitions at the end of the book) and many age categories.

- Art.14: All wrestlers must be registered in a local committee who deliver to him annual card.

- Art.17: The wrestlers are bare feet and the wrestling dress is constituted of a sho trousers and a strong canvas 'shirt'66 with short sleeves. The 'shirt' has a large co and a sort of canvas scarf to tight it around the waist. Currently the 'shirt' is made of linen of cotton and a canvas belt is directly sewn on it. The wrestlers have to tie the belt to avoid the jacket slipping off.

66 The word Shirt comes from two references : the first is the old pourpoint or doublet (shirt of the nobles) and the other Is the strong linen working shirt which was used by the farmers in Brittany. This last was a little like the long shirt used in the Middle Ages.

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The FILC, International Federation of Celtic wrestling

Before his death in 1935, the Dr Cotonnec had wished to create a big brotherly competition of wrestling and traditional sports between the athletes from Cornwall, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the island of Man and Brittany. "Six countries! only one soul!" he liked to repeat, "One day we will make the Celtic Olympiad!" The idea of the FILC therefore probably germinated in 1928 when the committee for the Inter-Celtic championship was established. The humanist motivations of Cotonnec and Hooper, their deep love for their regional culture led them instinctively to create a non-standardized structure. Wrestling was for them a pretext for the exchanges and for the harmonious development of the human being in his cultural environment; the sporting competition was not one the main objective, but a pretext for these meetings. The FALSAB and the Cornish Wrestling Association (CWA) organized thus some regular Inter-Celtic meetings during more than half a century between the two regions of the old common language. In 1969, at the beginning of the cultural movement that agitated all of Europe, an attempt to create a network with all Celtic countries was made by a group of wrestlers who had created a break-away federation in 1964. They established contacts in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England. This initiative prompted FALSAB to react, what she did in June of 1970 in a meeting directed by the son of Cotonnec (Charles like his father), expressed the wish to see the creation an international federation of Celtic wrestling. These attempts didn't have any direct continuation because the FALSAB functioned while only reproducing from one year to the next on their calendar. The germ of the FILC reappeared later with young wrestlers from the FALSAB, at the time of private discussions, while the end of the 1970's saw the last Championships between Cornwall and Brittany. There was not any common regulation indeed, nor even rules translated, and the championship was too often a source of tension and sometimes chauvinism. Indeed the two federations were weak and the Championship was used by the two federations like a sporting summit and a symbol of vitality. In fact it was a lure that concealed the weaknesses, the tree that hid the forest. In the beginning of the 1980's, since the FALSAB had turned into a confederation, the wish to reorganize the Inter-Celtic Championship turned into the idea to create an International Committee of Celtic Wrestling. The FALSAB renovation had created a new body for Breton wrestling called Fdration de Gouren - Bodadeg ar gourenerien. This federation was organized according to the modern diagram of the sporting federations, which created a new situation because its size and its means of actions differed from those of the C.W.A. The federation of Gouren had otherwise instituted a legal and political procedure to be recognized as the controlling body for Gouren at the French level, and the creation of an international activity was a positive element to push this demand. The different contacts made since 1982 succeeded in the organization, in April 1985, of an international camp of Celtic wrestling in Brittany. The Scottish and English

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federations sent a cocktail of champions and responsible guides, but the CWA was absent in spite of the individual presence of some Cornish wrestlers. This first camp lasted one week and continued in the same form until 1995. The first idea was that it was necessary to break the suspicion of the "Other" through experiences in common life - the sporting practice being only one of these elements -, and so to install the confidence. Plans were elaborated, as for example the idea to create common rules for the championship while keeping different clothes, or oppositely to create a common dress for the championship while keeping different rules. We turned in fact around the standardization, royal way advocate by the States, in concert with the Olympic movement. But when the synthesis of our project succeeded in an obvious way to this extremity, it was immediately a very clear dismissal. For us it would have been completely absurd to invent a new style of wrestling for the international meetings, as it was done for example with Sambo, a synthesis of traditional wrestling styles from central Asia. It would have been equivalent to destroying the essence of these wrestling styles, while having only a minor chance of success by creating a new style. This would have besides provoked a serious crisis, which would have inevitably caused splits in the various federations. In sport, as in general with a society, such immense external loans are often culturally impossible to assimilate, creating a new reference where one doesn't recognize itself. We realized therefore that we were on a false track if we wanted to remain consistent with our philosophy, and that the solution was not in technical problems, but in those of the human links and resources. It was necessary to educate people in a different fashion, so as to convince them something which was probably more difficult than merely changing technical rules. This 1985 international camp will remain engraved in the memory of all those who took part in it, with six hours of sporting practice per day, with the evenings passed in constructing new plans, having fun, and more importantly learning from the others. Following the cordial ambiance that had been built, some tours were organized to Wales, England and Scotland in July and August 1985. After the camp of April and the summer tours it became possible to try to set up an international network. But there were still numerous hesitations because an international body of traditional wrestling, if one only takes the sporting aspect of it, it is in fact a "marriage against nature" with all the different styles of wrestling. A championship including the three styles had been studied during the camp of April 1985. As this competition was planed for the summer 1986 it was necessary to do a constituent General Assembly to establish a temporary structure. This event took place on November 16th 1985 in Cardiff, in a place secured by an association for promotion of the Welsh language.

This meeting had only one objective: to create a temporary body, the International Committee of Celtic Wrestling. It succeeded, however, in creating the International Federation of Celtic Wrestling, FILC in French. This acronym made reference to the

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THE FILC ATHMOSPHERE

[Tj^tj

4*mm&

fc^f' ^BrJk^r
ZZkLJ^

International participants (males females) after a wrestling session in the Fll ( Eastei ( tiinp of Brittany in 1989 (seven countries on the photo, 40-50 people every year).

Two Bretons at the Bute Highland (james. 1941 (Scotland). On behalf of the FILC, wrestlers pom abroad are invited to participate in local competitions of the different federations.

Carlisle 1999 (England). The two finalist teams (Leon and Scotland) and their coaches pose for History and enjoy themself.

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wrestling styles still practiced in countries or regions where a Celtic language is still spoken. William Baxter, of Scotland, was elected president, Guy Jaouen general secretary and treasurer, and Ted Dunglinson, the great Cumberland champion became vice-president. William Baxter was a former free-style and Back-hold wrestler, as well as a former captain of the Great Britain Olympic team in Munich (1972) and thus very experienced in public relations. He is still president in 2006 while the general secretary became International Convenor in 2001. This trio allying expertise, prestige, clairvoyance and dynamism, was an essential key to the development of this young international federation during the laborious years of starting up.

The members present in Cardiff were the Cumberland & Westmoreland Wrestling Association, the Federation of Gouren, the Scottish Amateur Wrestling Association a the West Penwith Wrestling Association of Cornwall, however The Sport Council o Wales unfortunately was not in a position to represent Wales. The first 1986 championship in Lorient saw an Irishman wrestle for the Cornish team, and took place in three styles: Gouren, Backhold and the Cornish style. In 1987, the next one had only Gouren (jacket style) and back-Hold (belt style) and saw the arrival of the Frysian (North of the Netherlands) as well as the Glimusamband Island, the federation of Icelandic wrestling clubs. It also witnessed the arrival of Johannes Jonasson who became a second very active vice-president. Then in 1990 Sweden joined the group during the Reykjavik championship. The 1991 championship in Lesneven saw the participation of the wrestlers from the Federacin de Lucha Canaria, the powerful federation of 8000 wrestlers from the Canary Islands. It was also the first championship that got the appellation "European Championship". Ireland had joined the FILC in 1990 under the umbrella of Ogras, a youth organization for the Gaelic language but without participating in the championships. Later they created the Coiste Coraocht Ceilteach and then participated for the first time in the 1993 Glasgow championship.

After a meeting in Sardinia in the spring of 1995, the Federazione S'Istrumpa di Sardegna, also linked to the wider Sardinian culture, joined the FILC to participate in the Carhaix championship. This same championship saw a delegation from the Federacin de Lucha Leonesa (North West of Spain). Spain became a member in 1996 at the occasion of the first European under 21 years championship that took place at Lesneven (Brittany) during an important European gathering of traditional games. It is therefore in 1996 that the FILC changed its rhythm, with one official meeting being held every year instead of two. In 1997 the Federacin de Lucha Leonesa organized the championship in Leon. Then in 1998 it was at Lesneven where the second European under 21 years championship took place next to dancing, music and traditional athletic sports competitions. Carlisle organized the 1999 championship, next to the big Carlisle fair and its prestigious tournament of Cumberland wrestling. The third European under 21 years championship took place in Leon in 2000. The year 2001 saw the Quimper senior's championship. It is this year that the Salzburger Ranggierverband, the wrestling federation from the Austrian duchy of Salzburg, became a member.

no

Rennes, the capital of Brittany, organized the 2002 edition, when the FILC decided to add a women's championship. In 2003 Sardinia, with the Barbagia from the region of Nuero, hosted the championship. Brck, the Austrian town from the duchy of Salzburg welcomed the 2004 European under 21 years and women's championship. In Landerneau the senior's championship was held in May 2005 and in Carlisle the under 21 years in October 2006.

A revival of traditional wrestling

Twenty years ago, only few people would have believed in the path achieved by the FILC. One can affirm that if this union didn't implode, it was probably not only the result of a proper analysis of the situation, but also certainly of a new international context, more favorable to the traditional sports and games in general. Our analysis in the beginning was based on a vision of development, not solely sporting and elitist, which probably allowed our structure to succeed (we were first pioneers, developing a new concept, then we became friends and the championships were opportunities to meet friends regularly). Icelanders, Canarians, Sardinians, Leonesa and Austrians each have their own style; however these styles are not used in the FILC championships. Indeed, after several tests we concluded that it was impossible to ask the competitors, often differing from one championship to another, to learn all of the styles. The FILC therefore focused mainly on the goals written in its constitution; whereby the primary objective was to help the affiliated federations to develop, while receiving official approval, to organize international sporting meetings, and, in general, to work for the recognition of traditional wrestling styles. Thus, since its creation in 1985, the FILC has participated in a process of revitalizing of traditional sports and games in Europe. This democratic movement, born following the reappropriation of regional cultures which took place in the 1970's, was directly descended from civil society. Its object was to demonstrate that traditional sports, games and recreations, transmit indispensable values to our future societies. Indeed, in the 1980's, a report stated that the very existence of these festive cultures was threatened, and sociologists confirmed that it would accentuate the loss of roots, the rupture of local communities, and the disappearance of our traditional social values, all this without the commercial values of the "Market" could compensate such social fractures. Traditional play culture is a tool of "Future" for our societies, to transmit culture, bodily experience and learning to children, for a physical and social education in harmony with their environment. Concretely, for the FILC, it meant that our organizations (regional or national), managing traditional wrestling, have had to fight determinedly to claim for official recognition as institutional actors"7. The traditional wrestling styles have refused to become simple tourist attractions.
67 Most of modern sports had chosen another way where they evacuated all local culture to concentrate better on the unique sporting result.

Ill

Recognition at the state level has to be at the same level as the globalized sports, and this in a framework where the traditional cultural environment is freely able to express itself, in for example, music, gastronomy or dance. Since the end of the 1980's numerous international gatherings and symposia have been organized on the theme of 'Traditional Sports and Games'. These democratic demonstrations probably had some echoes at the international level, permitting a certain institutional awareness with sometimes new ministerial regulations and, little by little, a change of attitude for example by teachers about the educational use of traditional games in schools. In November 1989 UNESCO"" adopted a text recognizing popular and traditional culture, until then totally ignored, and its forms of expression: "language, literature, music, dance, games, mythology, rituals, customs, handicrafts, architecture and other arts". In May 1994, following a symposium co-organized by the FILC, a resolution in favor of regional sports was voted by the European Parliament. In December 1999, this movement led to the UNESCO recommendations of Punta Del Este"9 (Uruguay), which saw sixty four ministers and 1.0. representatives express their wish that all countries work together "to combat unethical behavior, including doping, in sport" and also to support a policy "of preserving and enhancing traditional and indigenous sports based on the cultural heritage of regions and nations". It was therefore possible to perceive that an awareness was developing, and that the demand was justified that the practice of traditional sports and games, of which wrestling is one, should be raised to the position of a 'World Cultural Heritage'. FILA also evolved in the same direction in the 1990's by a change of denomination. From the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling it changed to 'the International Federation of Associated Wrestling styles', which included the traditional styles. Earlier in 1984 the FILA Charter of development had foreseen the promotion and development of traditional wrestling. This was made concrete in March of 2006 by the signing of an agreement between FILA and the FILC. But the major text, voted by the International community, was in 2001 the 7 Universal Declaration of UNESCO on cultural diversity ". This text, accepted unanimously by those members present, "reaffirmed that culture should be regarded as a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or of a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition, art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs." As we entered the 21st century, for the first time, the international community was provided with a far-reaching regulatory instrument, to build on the conviction that respect for cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue are two of the best guarantees of balanced development and peace. The title of it's article one is "Cultural diversity: the Common Heritage of Humanity" and
68 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 69 http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/eps/EPSanglais/MINEPS ANG/declaration of punta del estea ana.htm 70 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271 /127160m.pdf

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declared the fundamental following elements: "As a source of exchange innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized, and affirmed, for the benefit of present and future generations." This is completed in the UNESCO web site which specifies "The preservation and promotion of traditional games and sports is a fundamental contribution for the valorization of such an important and essential field for the intangible world cultural heritage." Anticipating all these proceedings where cultural diversity also represents a guarantee for human rights and democracy, inseparable elements of human personal dignity, the FILC has always organized competitions where the sporting result must not over dominate the other human objectives of wrestling. Our tournaments are first of all places of exchange between leaders and wrestlers of different styles, places of human and cultural contact between people of different cultures. The objective is that when the competition has finished the adversaries become friends again. It is this humanist spirit which persuaded the FILC to not use the anthems, rituals which too often emphasize nationalism, since its foundation. In the same way the "competition rules" ask the organizing federation to have a traditional cultural evening after the final ceremony of the championship (meal, music, and dance). This is particularly suited to wrestling, a sport which almost represents a zero recourse to technology, as traditional wrestling is still practiced on sand or on grass. We are aware that every human group probably has had its own style of wrestling, modeled according to its culture as it had modeled its speech expressions, because wrestling is also a language in which the population recognizes itself. It is a sort of concentration of its collective representations, accentuated by the atmosphere of feasting and music. Traditional wrestling is part of a whole; it is part of a culture and refers to a history, to a people. Each wrestling style has its own characteristics, its rules, its ritual, its rhythm. Following the 1980's report on the disappearance of many styles or of their alienation in folk practices, there was therefore an awareness that traditional wrestling styles are not a simple festive or sporting amusements, but rather they are the demonstration of a culture that finds its roots in its original soil. It is this movement that allows us to see today a revival of traditional wrestling, thus, beside the "Celtic" wrestling styles Lucha Leonesa from Spain, Icelandic Glima, Ranggeln from the Austrian Alps are also driven by this dynamic of re-conquest. In Italy this dynamism of the FILC has greatly aided the regeneration of S'Istrumpa, the wrestling style of the Sardinia. In Spain, Lucha Canaria is accepted as the "national sport" of the Canary Islands, as is Schwingen, in Switzerland, and Yagle Gures in Turkey, which has the fantastic Kirkpinar tournament in Edirne as its showpiece. However, other traditional wrestling styles show a dynamism celebrated by all supporters of "Cultural Sports". Examples are wrestling in Senegal, in Niger, in the Balkans, the Aba wrestling in Southern Turkey, the Kurash, jacket wrestling of the Uzbeks or the

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Tataro-Bashkir Kuresh belt wrestling, and many others. This book is dedicated to all the people who work to promote these wrestling styles. Traditional wrestling styles, as are many other elements of traditional culture, language, gastronomy, clothing, music, dance, or the arts, are indeed among the elements that can serve as democratic indicators to our modern societies. As the past President of FILA, Milan Ercegan said, "the future of (traditional) wrestling is not a function of its glorious past (...) It is necessary to look towards the future!" Like all social phenomenon, wrestling needs therefore to ponder fundamental questions about the problems regarding the transmission of its practice to the 21st century generations. This is for example the question on how to facilitate entry of traditional wrestling into the school system, and therefore how to adjust the practice for the youth, as well as for females. How not to fall into the trap of "folklorism" or again how to see the link between school practices and the "traditional" continue to exist naturally? These are some of the major challenges and fundamental questions for the future. From our point of view, we say that the future of traditional wrestling -and more particularly the Celtic Jacket and Celtic Belt wrestling styles we would like to see a development among the descendants of former immigrants to the new world- is at the same time in their desire, their wish to be open to, and to have knowledge of other cultures (including of course the challenges of modern technology) while embracing the preservation of their own cultural roots, because to know where one is going, it is necessary to know first where one comes from. Guy Jaouen, Founder secretary of the FILC, founder president of the Confederation FALSAB7'.

71 In 1994 this body became the Confederation FALSAB. The constitution was modify to welcome all the traditional games, and currently it gathers fourteen federations from Brittany. In 2001 the FILC, the Confederation FALSAB and nineteen other organizations created the European Traditional Sports and Games Association and the author was elected the 1st president.

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PART II TECHNIQUES OF CORNU-BRETON WRESTLING

Introduction
Here are the main techniques of the Cornu-Breton holds. Some have been illustrated by step-by-step photos and others by just a single one when we have thought that the movements were very similar. The holds could have been slightly different without changing the techniques, and many other variations exist. The techniques are demonstrated with the Breton jacket, but all of them could have been performed with the Cornish one. Indeed this work required about twenty five Sundays afternoon of repetition and photos sessions during two years, and it was the only acceptable solution to achieve the task. Currently the Breton dress no longer includes shorts, but rather has adopted a bragou72 (See the two girls at the end of the color pages). This handbook does not, however, claim to be an exhaustive nor an official guide of Gouren or of Cornish wrestling. It is first of all a manual with techniques which are common to the two brother styles, proved by the historical references. We also know that today the two styles have adapted a few other techniques, influenced by the different jacket or by other styles of current fighting sports. Of course, the throws can evolve in function of the different areas and according to the technical maturity and roots of wrestlers. To make the initiation accessible to everyone in a training session, eighteen throws representing most of the main techniques are fully demonstrated in a homogeneous way. The handbook also proposes some ideas of counter-throws and variations to encourage technical research and progress. In other words, as Celtic jacket wrestling is still alive, there is an ample scope for wrestlers to develop their own techniques and to improve certain holds, and even to invent new ones. The last point concerns the names of the techniques, and the chart showing the different groups of throws gives the correspondences found in various descriptions or manuals we have studied since the 18th century. Otherwise the technical pages gives the Cornish name first, for linguistic reasons, in order to facilitate the pronunciation. We know that sometimes the names appear slightly rustic, but the names of techniques are everywhere examples of a specific language, a sort of concentration of a gesture and of a textual explanation.
72 This bragou is a modern representation of the trousers the people wore in the 18th century, and it is a resurgence of the former breeches (French Braies, loaned to the Gaulish Bracano; Latin braca).

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Important technical points

1. All holds are demonstrated by right-handed wrestlers. 2. The holds are placed in different groups. 3. Some important points are not repeated for each technique. They do, however, still apply in most cases: - It is taken for granted that previous unbalance is necessary in all attacks. - Pulling by the arm to unbalance an opponent is effected parallel to the ground and with a force F whose vector is the forearm. - When doing an attack, the feet are positioned according to the direction of the fall (to not block the movement). - According to the last point, during holds, it is important to look at the spot onto which the opponent is to be projected, otherwise the movement risks being restricted. 4. Technical expressions are used and must be fully understood for: - Mowing means that the leg forcibly hits the opponent's leg that is to be pushed out of the way. - Barring means that the leg or foot comes into contact with a leg or foot 'to block' a motion or body movement. It is usually followed by a strong thrust of the leg or with the sole of the foot and, often, by the attacker's sacrifice of his own balance. This is done in order to unbalance and drag the partner in the fall, the later no longer being able to dodge because of his blocked limb. - Sweeping means mowing hard with the sole of the foot and the leg.

Board legend
Number T' line - Names of the techniques in the book Explanation The first name are a synthesis of names found in different documents or books on Cornish Wrestling and that correspond to similar techniques done with the Breton wrestling jacket. The second name is the one used by the Federation of Gouren in Brittany. It is the names given to the Gouren techniques in the book published in 1985 Gouren - Breton and Celtic wrestling. It is the different names of equivalent techniques in Cornish Wrestling, especially theses used in the 1978's book The art of Cornish wrestling.

2nd - Other English names 3,d - Correspondent Cornish techniques

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List of the techniques and their correspondences

Crook group
1
BACK CROOK orKLlKED ADRENV Back Click Back Crook or Inside-Lock Backwards

5
BACK STEP or KROG DA ZONT Click on the side Back Step

BACK CROOK FORE CROOK FORE CROOK TWISTED or or TWISTED or KLIKET ARAOK KLIKED ARAOK orKLIKED ADRENV VRILL VRILL
1

Back Crook or Inside-Lock Backwards

Fore Click Fore Crook or Inside-Lock Forwards

'
Fore Crook or Inside-Lock Forwards

Shoulder group
6
THE FLYING MARE or TAOL SAMM MILINER Shoulder throw Flying mare

Hip and Leg group

7
FORE HIP or TAOL KORN REOR

8
HEAVE AND HIP or TAOL KORN REOR EN CHARGEANT

9
CROSSBUTTOCK or TAOL DREIST DIOU ARAOK Fore Mowing The Heel or Cross-Buttock

10
OUTSIDELOCK or BARRAGE DE CT
i

Fore hip Fore Hip or Buttock

'
Fore Hip

Outside-Lock

Foot roup
11 THE TOE or TAOL BIZ TROAD The Toe throw Toe 12 THE SWEEP or TAOL BIZ TROAD DA C'HOSTEZ Side sweeping The Knock-Back 13

Arm group
14 UNDERHEAVE or TAOL PERON DRE ZINDAN The under-heave Under-Heave

ARM-HEAVE or TAOL PEG ZAO Arm heave Under-Heave

Belt or Waist group

15 FORE-HEAVE or VRIAD ARAOK Fore waist lock Fore-Heave 16 CROSS-HEAVE or VRIAD DA C'HOSTEZ Side waist-lock Cross-Heave 17 BACK-HEAVE or VRIAD ADRENV Back waist-lock Back-Heave 18 BACK HEAVE ON A CROOK or VRIAD ADRENV JAMBE PRISE ' Back-Heave

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7 - BACK CROOK or KLIKED ADRENV

1 - Crip position: the attacker grips the roched (shirt) at the right shoulder with the right hand and at the belt with the left hand.

2 - The attacker steps forwards with the left foot a s he controls the opponent with his arms and simultaneously: - Winds his right leg around the opponent's left leg - Crips the opponent's belt at the back and draws him in close contact. The attacker pulls strongly with his left arm so that he has a good hold of his opponent who he throws off balance (the big toe bolts the winding of the leg). The supporting foot is parallel to the line of the feet.

Important Points - Bolt well with the big toe - Get and maintain a very strong contact - Twist once throwing off balance backwards - Do the quarter turn well on the supporting foot.

Bolting of the ankle, typical of the crook. 5 - The attacker draws out his right arm just before touching the ground. He turns over to control his partner better: Lamm or Backfall
120

3 - The attacker goes successively into: - a quarter of a turn inwards on the left foot (reception with the leg bent) He throws his body backwards, as he arches and twists, and raises the wound leg, high and forward. The arms still maintain strong contact.

4 - Continuation of the throw.

Blocking of the technique Left: the defender pushes the contact hack. His right arm pulls towards the mat. Right: The defender places his right leg to block on the inside, at the back of the attacker's lefleg.

Counter-throw When the attacker attacks backwards, he his unbalanced. At this moment the defender pulls with his right arm and places his right leg on the outside of the opponent's left leg. Then he continues forwards with a variant of the Fore-Heave. Note: Photo of the right above, the defender can do the same counterthrow. 121

2 - BACK CROOK TWISTED or KLIKED ADRENV VRILLE

1 - The attacker is on the left, in the Back Step position. He pushes his partner off balance forwards.

2 - Immediately, the attacker turns 90 inwards with his weight on his left foot, leg flexed. Then he pulls hard on his partner with his right arm to project him backwards.

Important points - Bolt well with the big toe - Maintain a very strong contact throughout the throw. The right hand grips in front of the corner of the opponent's right shoulder.

5 - Fall. Lamm

122

3 - Next part of movement started in plate 2. The attacker pushes hard on his left leg to straighten up and throws his wound leg upwards. As in a Back Crook, he thrusts backwards in an arc and twists to control the movement. He starts to unroll his right arm.

4 - Next part of the movement. The attacker continues to deploy his right arm to prepare the fall.

Detail of the hand positions.

Other possibility The attacker has his hands in the Back-Step grip. He pulls the opponent without turning 90 inwards to push the legs and avoid the counter-throw.

123

3 - FORE CROOK or KLIKED ARAOK'

1 - The attacker is on the right. He places his right hand at the collar and comes into a perpendicular position in relation to his opponent, stepping forward with his right foot, and backwards with the left one. Pulling with his left arm and pushing with the right one, he slightly breaks the opponent forward.

2 - The right leg winds the opponent's left leg. The movement of the arms causes a cramming of the opponent's weight on his right leg as well a s throwing him off balance in a forward direction.

Important points Continue pushing and pulling with the arms throughout the throw. -Trunk and wound leg must pivot together in regard to the supporting leg.

5 - The fall: Both hands push the opponent's shoulders down hard: Lamm or Backfall.

124

3 - The attacker quickly goes into a quarter of a turn by drawing back his left foot (with his leg bent) between the opponent's legs, so that his hip touches the opponent. He simultaneously throws the other leg backwards and up, at the same time as rocking his body forward.

4 - The attacker turns the opponent by pulling with the left arm.

Blocking The defender (on the left) puts his left arm on the attacker's shoulder, with his hand at the collar and his elbow wedged at the partner's right shoulder. Counter-throw If the tiefender abruptly loosens the blocking, he can sweep backwards the surprised attacker. His right hand pushes on the front of the left shoulder to turn his partner over.

125

4 - FORE CROOK TWISTED or KLIKED ARAOK VRILLE

MM

X 1
JL

I A

Jfain

1 - The attacker is on the left. He grasps the inside of his partner's jacket sleeves.

2 - The attacker moves his right foot forward and his arms to throw his partner off balance, right elbow upwards to push more efficiently.

Important points - The cutting movement of the leg will be more powerful if the right leg is raised slightly before being thrown backwards. - The left leg must be correctly moved backwards (in an arc) to get the right attacking position and to throw the partner off-balance properly.

5 - Attacker controls the throw with the arms: Lamm or Backfall

126

3 - As soon as his partner is off balance and the left foot is in position, the attacker throws his right leg hard and hits his partner's inside left thigh.

4 - Next part of the movement.

Other possibility Fore-Crook with the shoulder blocked with the arm.

127

5 - BACK STEP or KROC DA ZONT

1 - The attacker comes into a perpendicular position as regards his opponent. He winds his right leg around the opponent's left leg, while his right hand grips the shirt at the level of the right shoulder. His left arm pulls the opponent into contact whereas the right arm pulls backwards (twisting motion).

2 - This action of the arms and a slight straightening backwards of the body unbalances the opponent backwards, and crams him on his left leg. At this moment the attacker goes into a shifting movement on his left foot, which places him on his opponent's left side.

Important points - Hold tightly at hip level. - Throw the opponent off balance well - Performs phases 2 and 3 rapidly. - Stretch the right arm out, so that the opponent's back is well placed in the fall.

5 - Fall : the attacker keeps his right leg wound, as well as keeping his left leg on the ground for better control : Lamm.
128

3 - Once again, the attacker steps backwards with his left foot (leg bent), throws his body backwards and stretches his right arm out behind. Then he raises his wound leg.

4 - Continuation of the throw.

Blocking and counter-throw Left: To block, the defender puts his left elbow into the attacker's right armpit. Right: If the defender stops the blocking suddenly, he can throw the attacker backwards with a barring or a mowing. His left arm pushs backwards and he can also sweep with the foot.

Other possibility The attacker unbalances the opponent and sits on his left leg to stop him from recovering his balance. A rotation of the body and raising wound eg slightly is sufficient to throw the opponent.

129

6 - THE FLYING MARE or TAOL SAMM MILINER

1 - The attacker is on the right. He grips with his left hand at the belt on the belly and with his right hand on the collar of the right side.

2 - The attacker grips the opponent's collar with his left hand, on the right side which is above his right arm. He pulls with the arms to unbalance him and steps forward with his right leg opposite his opponent's right leg. He pulls with left arm (elbow raised), the right elbow comes under the armpit.

J"*Cj
Important points - Never stop pulling with the arms, otherwise the opponent can get back on his heels. - Maintain good contact at the back-shoulder level. Note: Taol Samm Miliner means the miller's load throw iwrf comes from the move of the miller when swinging a sack on his back.

5 - The fall: The attacker presses down with both arms to control the fall. Lamm or Backfall

130

3 - While bending, the attacker steps backwards with his left foot at the same level as his right one, and puts his hip slightly to the right side (weight on both legs). His right arm, set in the armpit, pushes upwards and forward.

4 - By straightening his legs and rocking his body forward, the attacker throws his opponent down, The arms follow the movement,

Blocking The defender slightly steps forward with his right foot, leg bent, and pulls the attacker backwards by his left shoulder (photo). Counter-throw He can carry on by barring or mowing backwards.

7 - FORE HIP or TAOL KORN REOR'

1 - Attacker is on the right. He grips at the opponent's right shoulder with his left hand and at the belt with his right one.

2 - When entering the throw, the attacker pulls with his left arm (elbow raised) to unbalance his opponent. While stepping forward with the right foot close to opponent's right one, he passes his right arm over the opponent's back and pulls.

Important points - Get a good unbalance. - Maintain good contact at the level of the hip. Bend the leg without bending the back.

5 - The fall : The attacker leans forward to control the fall better. He can also steps backwards on his right leg : Lamm (backfall)
132

3 - As he continues pulling with the help of his left arm, the attacker, bending both legs, steps backwards with his left foot close to his opponent's left foot and brings out his right hip. The right arm firmly hold the opponent in close contact.

4 - Still pulling with his arm, the attacker begins to straighten his legs and to bend forward.

Blocking and counter-throw The defender puts his left leg on the outside of the opponent's leg and pulls him backwards by the left shoulder. Anticipating the attack, the defender dodges by stepping slighly forward with his right foot and blocks with his belly, as he pulls the attacker backwards with his left arm. There he can perform a mowing or barring backwards.

8 - HEAVE AND HIP or TAOL KORN REOR EN CHARGEANT'

1 - Attacker on the right, slighly behind him (This can also be a counter-throw).

2 - The attacker bends his knees and lefts his partner by knocking hard his belly into his partner's hip, bending backwards. In so doing, he makes a space between his body and his partner's and has most of his weight on the left foot.

Important point This throw must be effected with speed and great coordination.

5 - Fall. Kostin

134

3 - Very quickly, the attacker increases this space by moving his hips towards the left so that he can move his partner's body backwards with the arms. Immediatly he moves his hip towards the right, put the weight on the two feet, and perform a Fore Hip throw.

4 - Continuation of the throw. The attacker follows his partner down during the fall.

Other possibility From plate 3, the attacker can throw his right leg and perform a forward mowing instead of putting his weight on both feet. This makes the hold more vigorous and prevents the partner from a counter-throw.

135

9 - CROSS BUTTOCK or TAOL DREIST DIOU ARAOK'

^ "W s

1 - The attacker is on the right.

2 - The attacker pulls the opponent with the arms to unbalance him. Upon stepping forward with his right foot, opposite the middle of the opponent's feet, he lets his right arm slip down the back. This arm pushes to accentuate the unbalance and pulls to force good contact on the hip.

Important points - Never relax the pulling of the arms (especially the left arm) - Turn the head in the direction of the fall - Don't pull too far over the hip

5 - Fall : The attacker leans forwards or steps backwards with his right foot (photo) to control the fall: Kostin or point.

136

3 - The attacker rotates on his right foot and steps back on his left one in support (leg slightly bent). Immediatly he throws his right leg forward (foot outstretched).

4 - The attacker's performs a strong mowing above the opponent's knee with his right thigh. The trunk follows the movement.

Blocking and counter-throw - The defender blocks the attack with the arm against the hip. There he can do a back sweeping. - The defender can also blocks the attack by pushing with the belly. There he can perform a back mowing or back barring.

Other possibility Instead of mowing, the attacker can perform a barring in which he must sacrifice his own balance and fall down with the opponent, by being dragged down in the fall.

137

IO-

OUTSIDE LOCK or BARRAGE DE CT'

1 - The attacker is on the right, with his right hand on the back belt and his left one on the right side belt. By using his arms and his legs, he forces his partner's weight onto the right foot.

2 - At the same time the attacker: a) throws himself forward, b) moves his left foot backwards in between the partner's legs, c) places his right leg against the outside of the opponent's thigh to perform a barring.

Important points - Maintain a very tight contact - The attacker rotates his head to the left (the direction of the fall) as much as possible to drag his body in the throw.

Other possibility If the opponent resists to the attack, the attacker can reverse his action by turning to the right (he puts forward his left leg). There he can perform a back mowing.

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3 - Continuation of the movement. The attacker continues to twist and turn the back of the opponent to the ground.

4 - Fall. Lamm

Other posibilities

(continued)

- From a Fore-Crook position, the attacker lift the leg of the partner (leg bolted), then suddently place his right leg in a barring movement and fall down as in time 3. - In the Taol Le Bris position (photo of the left, above), the attacker can perform a variation of the Outside-Lock (photo of the right, above) with a forward mowing or a barring..

139

7 7 - THE TOE or TAOL BIZ TROAD'

1 - Attacker on the right. The two wrestlers have an identical grip, right hand at the front belt and left hand on the right shoulder.

2 - The attacker either causes or takes advantage of a shifting forward of the opponent's right foot. He follows the movement by stepping backwards on his left foot. The left arm keep pulling slighly to 'cram' the opponent on his right foot.

Important points - Unbalance the opponent on his right leg (stretched out). - Step forward with the right foot turned in the direction of the opponent's feet (to facilitate the rotation). - Pulling the opponent in a circular movement to the left (direction of the fall).

5 - Fall. The attacker bends and pushes the opponent's back down hard down to control the

fall.
140

3 - Subsequently to plate 2, the attacker swings his body to the right and comes to block the opponent's right ankle with the sole of the left foot (leg outstretched). The left arm pulls violently and parallel to the mat while the right hand pushes to the left in a rotating motion.

4 - The attacker follows the motion by pivoting on his right foot (he swings his left leg backwards).

Counter-throw At the beginning of the attack, the defender throws his body forward and performs a ForeHeave technique. Other possibility Heaving toe: In a static position, the attacker lifts and throws the partner by three points: the two arms as in plate 2, and the foot. The three actions perform a rotating movement (counterclockwise). The foot blocks the ankle while the leg pushes to keep the opponent's leg straight (that creates a unbalance).

141

12 - SIDE SWEEPING or TAOL BIZ TROAD DA C'HOSTE

1 - The wrestlers have an identical hold, left hand on the right side of the collar, right hand on the belt.

2A - 1 st possibility: Creating a reaction. The attacker overbalances his opponent by the action of the arms: left one pushing to the right, right one pulling to the left. Opponent's reaction is the opposite one, attempting to maintain his starting position.

Important points - Push well with the belly to keep the balance. - Sweep very hard with sole of the foot.

4 - During the fall, the action of the arms follows the throwing movment. Fall: The attacker pushes to maintain good control. Lamm or Backfall.
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2 - 2nd possibility: Creation a shifting movement. The opponent moves his right foot towards his left one. The attacker helps this action by a slight horizontal push of the left arm, his body following the motion.

3 - Taking advantage of one of these situation, the attacker performs 3 actions simultaneously: - He suddently reverses the motions of the arms, left arm and right arm pulling and pushing as if turning strongly a steering-wheel to the left. - With the left foot, he sweeps sideways the outside of the opponent's right ankle. - He pushes with the 'belly' to not bend himself forward with the weight of the opponent.

Other possibility Sweeping on a backwards motion. Left: 1 - The attacker goes under the opponent and sweeps while he pulls by the left arm and pushes to the left with the right one.

Right: 2 - The partner rolls over the attacker's left leg which continues to push and lift.

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13-ARM

HEAVE

TAOL PEG ZAO'

1 - The two wrestlers have an identical grip: the right hand on the back at the belt, the left one at the belly belt. The attacker wedges his head under the opponent's armpit.

2 - The attacker steps forward, legs bend, inside the opponent's legs. He puts his left elbow in the hollow of his hip while he pushes slighly with the belly as he pulls the opponent up with the right arm gripping the belt on the back.

Important points - Obtain a very good lock of the elbow in the belly or hip. - Arch backwards well to counter-balance the partner's body.

5 - Fall: The attacker draws the right arm out from the belt to the collar, and pushes to get a better control: Backfall.
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3 - Subsequently the attacker straightens his legs and arches backwards with the left elbow well wedged. This action lifts up the opponent.

4 - Having lifted the opponent, the attacker turns his body with a rotating motion to throw the legs bacwards and prepares the fall.

Blocking - The defender releases his hand position and straightens his body. Blocking and Counter-throw - The defender grips in a inside lock and there he can attack in a ForeCrook or Back-Crook.

Other possibilty with a sequence When the attacker lifts his opponent, he tightens his knee to oblige him to block the throw with a outside lock on the right leg. The attacker then changes his hand positions and tightens strongly the opponent's body against him. lmmediatly he lifts him, turns 90 on his left foot and dives down as if to do a roll, presenting the opponent's back to the fall.

145

14 - UNDER HEAVE or '

PERON DRE ZINDAN'

1 - The attacker places his left hand at the belt, with the arm across the belly; the right arm is at the collar and he pulls the opponent to himself.

2 - While keeping the opponent firmly against his chest, the attacker breaks him with the right arm pulling hard towards the mat. The left arm pulls upwards. The attacker is bent forward with the knees clasped tight under the opponent.

Important points - The arm which is across the belly should take up a grip as far as possible. - Break the opponent means to bend him by force.

5 - Fall. The attacker bends forward to control the fall: Lamm, Backfall.

il

3 - By straightening up his legs and arching backwards suddenly the attacker lifts up his opponent.

4 - The attacker leans forward rapidly and opens his arms out to turn the opponent over on his back.

Blocking and counter-throw - The defender blocks by gripping in a inside lock. - If the attacker relaxes the pulling of his arms, the defender can perform a Back-Crook or a variation of the ForeCrook.

Blocking und counter-throw - The defender blocks by doing an outside lock on the attacker's right leg, and he bends forward to prevent a sequence. - If the attacker relaxes the pulling of the arms or by straightening up his body, the defender can attack in a forward barring (Outside-Lock).

147

75 - FORE HEAVE or VRIAD ARAOK'

1 - The attacker, on the right, holds the opponent's belt on both sides.

2 - The attacker steps forward with the left and then right leg, between those of the opponent, and at the same time he pulls and lifts the opponent firmly. Subsequently he straightens up and arches slighly backwards as he opens out his knees to lift the opponent and push his legs away.

Important points - The arms are mainly used to keep the opponent in a very tight contact and not to heave him. - In entering the throw, press your chess to the opponent's one to stop him from turning. - In controling the fall to get a result, it is often necessary to fall with your opponent to stop him from turning.

Blocking and counter-throw Once the defender is lifted, he puts his right arm at the right side of the attacker's head and takes immediati}' an Inside Lock. There he can perforin a Back-Crook or attack with a barring.

148

3 - The attacker comes forward very fast, still keeping his partner in close contact, and bends forward.

4 - Fall. Lamm.

Other possibilities and sequence This hold permits many variations of attack forward, i.e. with an outside barring of the leg, or by pulling the opponent on the side of the attacker's body, etc. The two photos above show another technique with the same starting position (left). When the defender grips outside the head and blocks by bending his body, the attacker reverses the direction his attack and goes backwards (right). He controls the fall by arching and twisting himself.

149

16 - CROSS HEAVE or VRIAD DA C'HOSTEZ'

1 - The two wrestlers take up the same hold with both hands at the belt: right one on the back, left one on the belly.

2 - The attacker draws the opponent to himself with the arms and comes into position under him, legs bent, body upright. Instantaneously he seizes the opponent's body with his two arms around the waist and undbalances him foreward with the right arm, as he tackles him in a strong contact at the hip level.

Important points - Bend well, keeping the trunk straight while bending. - Put strong pressure on the opponent's back with the help of the right arm to break him. - Go into the rotating movement at the exact moment when the fall begins. - Don't go backwards without having heaved the opponent first.

5 - Fall: the attacker slightly turns over to control the fall. Lamm or Back.

150

' \ I

3 - The attacker heaves the opponent straightening his legs and arching backwards.

by

4 - The attacker carries on arching as he goes into a strong rotation to the right which allows him to present the opponent's back to the mat. He withdraws his right arm to prepare the fall.

f*T
" v -. r*

Blocking Left: The defender clings with his right leg inside the attacker's left leg (Photo). Counter-throws 1 - If the attacker loosens his pressure on the defender's back, this one can take off his blocking and perform the Cross-Heave. 2 - Left: When the attacker tries to perform his throw, the defender blocks the attacker's right leg by tightening his both knees, then he sweeps with his right leg (photo) and immediati)' throw his opponent by rolling sideways so as to present the attacker's back to the ground. Other possibility Instead of grasping the opponent around the waist, the attacker has left hand at the belly belt and right hand at the belly back. He can perforin a variation of the Cross-Heave by barring or sweeping (photo above) with the right leg or foot, or by barring or mowing with his right thigh on the opponent's left thigh.

1 $V
BwiMA

a-nm^m

151

VRIAD ADRENV

1 - The two wrestlers face each other and have an identical hold. The left hand is at the belt under the right arm of the opponent.

2 - The attacker steps forward in a double motion: left foot forward, right foot backwards, and again, so as to place himself sideways and under his opponent, legs bent. His left arm takes a waist-hold around the back and locks the opponent in a tight contact while his right arm unbalances him by pushing backwards.

Important points - Arch backwards as soon as the opponent is lifted up. - Try to turn the head in the direction of the fall to help the twisting motion. - Push hard with the right arm and block with the left one to create a rotating motion to present the opponent's back fall first.

5 - The attacker controls the fall of the opponent by keeping the feet in contact with the mat. Lamm or

152

3 - Immediately the attacker straightens up, which lifts the opponent, and arches backwards in a twisting motion of the body to the left.

4 - Continuing the action: the attacker increases the arching and twisting motion so as not to fall first.

Blocking 1 - The defender sets his elbow into the opponent's armpit (photo of the left). 2 - Being heaved, he can also take a Inside-Lock position, or a inside blocking behind the attacker's right leg (photo of the right). The defender must keep the left leg away to avoid a sequence from the attacker.

Counter-throw When the defender feels the initiation of the attack, immediati}' he turns over onto the attacker's body, pulling with his left arm, to unbalance the attacker backwards and create a situation where the attacker falls on his back instead.

153

78 - BACK HEAVE ON A CROOK

VRIAD ADRENV JAMBE PRISE

1 - The attacker is on the left, with his leg locked in the Back-Step hold.

2 - The attacker moves his right leg forward as far as he can, approximatively 90, movement which thiows the left leg of the opponent. At the same time he starts to arch backwards to throw the opponent.

Important points - To get a very perfect coordination of the forward movement of the leg (plate 2) and the one of arching backwards. - To move forward strongly (plate 2) in order to unbalance the opponent and to turn his back to the fall.

Other possibility - In a tight contact, the attacker (left) passes his left arm in front of his opponent's chest, and then pulls backwards with the left thigh in a barring position.

154

3 - Next part of the movement. The attacker's right foot stays on the mat to control the fall. The rotating motion has turned the opponent's back to the mat.

4 - Fall. Lamm. The attacker must remove his left arm just before the impact to get a better result and to not injure the opponent or himself.

Other possibility - As a counter-attack. When the attacker (left) tries to enter into a hip throw, the defender moves forward his right leg (to cancel the unbalance the attacker tries to effect), and immediatly pulls his opponent in a leg barring position (left leg bent just behind both thighs). The fall is similar to plate 4.
155

Other possibility - With the two hands at the belly belt to impose a certain distance and block an Inside Lock from the opponent.

156

PART III 1928 - 2006 LIST OF WINNERS

The 1928 - 1980 Inter-Celtic championship list of winners

There is only one wrestler per category in the two teams. The principle of the competition was to determine by drawing, category by category, which style (Cornish or Breton) would be wrestle for the first bout. The revenge was for the second style. If each wrestlers had won by Back and Lamm, a third bout was automatically ordered with a drawing to decide the style. Other possibilities, like victories by points, had to be seen individually, with the referee-cards, but a victory by points against a victory by Lamm or Back gave the victory to the wrestler who had got the perfect result 1928 - QUIMPERLE, Brittany, August 19"', 6000 spectators V. J. B. Hooper (Cornwall) - 18 Baudic (Brittany) V. Walter Fish (Cornwall) Light weight Ren Scordia (Brittany) V. Vincent Berrou de Fouesnant Midle weight Franck Gay (Cornwall) V. Lavenir de Lannion (Brittany) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. Cloirec de Lorient (Brittany) All cat. Franck Gay (Cornwall) Draw with Ren Scordia (Brittany) All cat. Francis Gregory (Cornwall) 1929 - CAMBORNE, Cornwall, August 31', 3000 spectators Feather weight Chapman Maurice (Cornwall) V. Bourhis (Brittany) Light weight Franois Cadiou (Brittany) V. Fred Lean (Cornwall) Midle weight Harry Gregory (Cornwall) V. Yves Clment (Brittany) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. Joachim Gourlay (Brittany) 1930 - QUIMPERLE, Brittany, August 24"', 8000 spectators Robert Cadic (Brittany) V. James (Cornwall) - 18 Julien Cloirec (Brittany) V. Maurice Chapman (Cornwall) Light weight Jean Merrien (Brittany) V. Harry Gregory (Cornwall) Midle weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. T. Tyrant (Brittany) Heavy weight Robert Cadic (Brittany) V. Francis Gregory (Cornwall) All cat. Michel Ptillon (Brittany) V. E.J. Brewer (Cornwall) Catch 1932 - QUIMPERLE, Brittany, August 28" - 18 Laurent Cadiou (Brittany) Feather weight Le Tallec "jeune" (Brittany) Light weight Julien Cloirec (Brittany) Midle weight Jean Merrien (Brittany) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. L. Abbott (Cornwall) V. Trehin (Cornwall) V. J. Cundy (Cornwall) V. F. Bice (Cornwall) V. Robert Cadic (Brittany)

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The 1920's: Above: The standards wrestlers at the championship of Hennebont in 1926, two years before the lnterceltic competition. 1 Royer, 2 Crohennec, 3 Graignic, 4 Couric, 5 Cloirec, 6 Le Glent, 7 Boedec, 8 Le Cren, 9 Guirrinec, 10 Gandon, 11 egousse, 12 Jubin, 13 Lavenir 'Eldest', 14 Heuress, 15 Stephan, 16 Guillemot, 17 Prou, 18 Gourlay, 19 Lavenir 'Young', 20 Huellou, 21 Moello, 22 Menah'es, 23 Doussal, 24 Thierry, 25 Flcher, 26 Merrien. Below: The 1929 champions of Brittany at Quimperl, Brittany, August 11th. The lnterceltic championship of Camborne was held three weeks later. From left to right: Bourhis (beaten by Chapman), Franois Cadiou (defeated Lean), Joachim Gourlay (beaten by F. Gregory), Yves Clment (beaten by H. Gregor}').

158

The 1930's. Above: Cotonnec and the champions after the 1930 championship of Brittany at Fouesnant (south Cornouaille). The Breton team of the 1930 QuimperU lnterceltic championship is there around Cotonnec (who is in the center). Robert Cadic, the future champion, under 18 years and all weight, is at his left and Cloirec to his right. Tyrant is at the left of Cadic. lean Merrien, later the winner of harry Gregory had given his champion's scarf to the sheep ! Below: The Lavenir brothers, bull hunters of the 1930's. Bulls were often given as wrestling prizes in the north of Brittany, particularly at Belle Isle en Terre where they were offered by Lady Mond, the sister of the mayor, who was also married to a wealthy Englishman.

159

1933 - REDRUTH, Cornwall, August 28th, 4000 spectators V. John Chapman (Cornwall) - 18 Jean Le Tallec (Brittany) Feather weight Maurice Chapman (Cornwall) V.Joseph Guillou (Brittany) Light weight Julien Cloirec (Brittany) V. Bernard Chapman (Cornwall) Midle weight Louis Simon (Brittany) V. Harry Gregory (Cornwall) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. Robert Cadic de Guiscriff Catch Mathurin le Gall (Brittany) V. Roy Jennings (Cornwall) 1934 - QUIMPERLE, Brittany, September 2nd - 18 Mathurin Le Gall (Brittany) Light weight Jean Le Tallec (Brittany) Midle weight Louis Simon (Brittany) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) 1936 - NEWQUAY, Cornwall, August 3rd Feather weight Jean Le Tallec (Brittany) Light weight Louis Simon (Brittany) Midle weight Nicolas Clment (Brittany) Heavy weight Francis Gregory (Cornwall) V. Roy Jennings (Cornwall) V. John Chapman (Cornwall) V. Harry Gregory (Cornwall) V. Robert Cadic (Brittany) V. Jack Chapman (Cornwall) V. Bernard Chapman (Cornwall) V. Harry Gregory (Cornwall) V. Lonjgousse (Brittany)

Cotonnec died in 1935. The championship was cancelled in 1938, and W.W. II interrupted the meetings. 1947 - PLOUAY, Brittany, August 27,h
- 18 Light weight Midle weight Heavy weight Catch Jean Guillemot (Brittany) Charly Chapman (Cornwall) Bernard Chapman (Cornwall) William Chapman (Cornwall) Jean Herv (Brittany) V. Geffroi Menadue (Cornwall) V. Franois Salaun (Brittany) V. Samuel Rivoal (Brittany) V. Franois Guillemot (Brittany) V. K.J. Menadue (Cornwall) V. Pierre Flgeo (Brittany) V. Georges Brod (Brittany) V. Pierre Simon (Brittany) V. Jean Herv (Brittany) V. S. Trevena (Cornwall) V. Sydney Chapman (Cornwall) V. G.John Menadue (Cornwall) V. Charly Chapman (Cornwall) V. Th. Warne (Cornwall) V. K.J. Menadue (Cornwall) V. Edmond Huiban (Brittany) V. S. Trevena (Cornwall) V. K.F. Menadue (Cornwall) V. Franois Guillemot (Brittany) V. Jack Chapman (Cornwall)

1948 - NEWQUAY, Cornwall, August 14,h - 18 Sydney Chapman (Cornwall) Light weight Jack Chapman (Cornwall) Midle weight Charlie Chapman (Cornwall) Heavy weight William Chapman (Cornwall) Catch Louis Simon (Brittany) 1950 - QUIMPER, Brittany - 18 Raymond Bernard (Brittany) Light weight Georges Brod (Brittany) Midle weight Jean Guillermic (Brittany) Heavy weight Franois Guillemot (Brittany) Catch Franois Ollivier (Brittany) 1951 - NEWQUAY, Cornwall, August 6,h - 18 Sydney Chapman (Cornwall) Light weight Robert Sylvestre (Brittany) Midle weight Emile Le Foil (Brittany) Heavy weight William Chapman (Cornwall) Catch Franois Jamet (Brittany)

160

1952 - CALLAC, - 18 Light weight Midle weight Heavy weight Catch Catch

Brittany, August 7'" Auguste Fouler (Brittany) Mathurin Pron (Brittany) Le Roy (Brittany) Yves Vaucher (Brittany) Georges Brod (Brittany) Walter Chapman (Cornwall)

V.J. Cross (Cornwall) V. Th. Ford (Cornwall) V. Bob Chapman (Cornwall) V. Sydney Chapman (Cornwall) Draw with Charlie Chapman (Cornwall) V. Franois Guillemot (Brittany)

I n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e meetings after t h e d e a t h of Tregonning Hooper a n d a c h a n g e of leaders in t h e FALSAB. 1963 - BELLE-ILE EN TERRE, Brittany, August - 16 Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) - 18 Yvon Le Floc'h (Brittany) Light weight Marcel Gourlay (Brittany) Midle weight Michael Roberts (Cornwall) Heavy weight Andr Nestour (Brittany) S. heavy weight Yves Vaucher (Brittany) 1964 - PLOUARET, Brittany, August 9" - 16 Roger Skinner (Cornwall) - 18 Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) Light weight Jean Donval (Brittany) Midle weight Mikael Roberts (Cornwall) Heavy weight Andr Nestour (Brittany) S. heavy weight Yves Vaucher (Brittany) Catch John Venton (Cornwall) 1965 - WADEBRIDGE, Cornwall, August 2' - 16 Grard Le Bail (Brittany) - 18 Jean Baptiste Tanguy (Brittany) Light weight Georges Donval (Brittany) Midle weight Peter Nunnen (Cornwall) Heavy weight Peter Sheldon (Cornwall) S. heavy weight Yves Vaucher (Brittany) 1966 - LE FAOUET, Brittany, August 14"' - 16 Patrick Le Pesquer (Brittany) - 18 John Treglown (Cornwall) Light weight Ross Olliver (Cornwall) Midle weight Ren Simon (Brittany) Heavy weight Andr Nestour (Brittany) S. heavy weight Jean Guillemot (Brittany) IT" V. Patrig Le Goarnig (Brittany) V. John Venton (Cornwall) V. Lobb Vernon (Cornwall) V. Ren Simon de Motreff V. Peter Sheldon (Cornwall) V. Dennis Pashley (Cornwall)

V. Jean Ren Benoit (Brittany) V. Jean Baptiste Tanguy (Brittany) V. Ross Olliver (Cornwall) V. Pierre Qur (Brittany) V. Peter Sheldon (Cornwall) V. Robert Bridges (Cornwall) V. Louis Lachuer de Botsorhel

V. Simon Hick (Cornwall) V. John Treglown (Cornwall) V. N. Cattran (Cornwall) V. Ren Simon (Brittany) V. Pierre Qur (Brittany) V. Keith Hawkey (Cornwall)

V. R. Chapman (Cornwall) V. Jean Paul Menou (Brittany) V. Jean Baptiste Tanguy (Brittany) V. John Venton (Cornwall) V. Peter Sheldon (Cornwall) V. Michael Roberts (Cornwall)

1 9 7 0 - PLOUGONVER, Brittany, August 15 th , 2000 spectators Jol Pron (Brittany) V. Clyde Dingle (Cornwall) - 16 Rubben Chapman (Cornwall) V. Gilbert Donval (Brittany) - 18 Yves Jehanno (Brittany) V. Colin Meneer (Cornwall) Light weight Bernard Lzoray (Brittany) V. Douglas Yelland (Cornwall) Midle weight Jean Yves Leroux (Brittany) V.John Venton (Cornwall) Heavy weight V. Jol Madec Thomin (Brittany) S. heavy weight Keith Hawkey (Cornwall)

161

1972 - WADEBRIDGE, Cornwall, July 16 th - 16 Christian Abiven (Brittany) - 18 Jean Claude Daouben (Brittany) Jean Paul Menou (Brittany) Light weight Dick Rowe (Cornwall) Midle weight Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) Heavy weight Chris Hunt (Cornwall) S. heavy weight Guy Jaouen (Brittany) Catch

V. Norman Hawkey (Cornwall) V. Philip Hawkey (Cornwall) V. Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) V Louis Demezet (Brittany) V Andr Nestour de Lorient V. Jean Pierre Jaouen (Brittany) V. Colin Menear (Cornwall)

1973 - LOCMARIA-BERRIEN, Brittany, August 15 ,h , 2500 spectators Feather weight Pierre Nouvel (Brittany) V. W. Thomas (Cornwall) Light weight Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) V. Jean Claude Le Normand (Brittany) Midle weight Louis Dmzet (Brittany) V. . Counter (Cornwall) Heavy weight Jean Yves Leroux (Brittany) V. Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) S. heavy weight Jean Pierre Jaouen (Brittany) V. Rubben Chapman (Cornwall) Catch Daniel Lochou (Brittany) V. Colin Meneer (Cornwall) Catch Guy Jaouen (Brittany) V. David Henwood (Cornwall) 1975 - NEWQUAY, Cornwall, August 27" - 16 light Yves Corrigou (Brittany) - 16 heavy Michel Andr (Brittany) - 18 light John Hancock (Cornwall) - 18 heavy Sylvain Le Pesquer (Brittany) Light weight J. Le Normand (Brittany) Midle weight Yves Jehanno (Brittany) Heavy weight Dick Rowe (Cornwall) Light weight Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) Rubben Chapman (Cornwall) S. heavy weight 1976 - LORIENT, Brittany, August 14" Cadet lger Richard Cawley (Cornwall) Cadet lourd David Henwood (Cornwall) Junior lger Yves Corrigou (Brittany) Junior lourd Jean Yves Pran (Brittany) Plume J. Le Normand de Quessoy Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) Light weight Louis Dmzet (Brittany) Midle weight Jean Yves Leroux (Brittany) Heavy weight Jol Madec Thomin (Brittany) S. heavy weight Jean Morvan (Brittany) Catch V. Jerry Cawley (Cornwall) V. Richard Cawley (Cornwall) V. Rmi Allain (Brittany) V. Michael Cawley (Cornwall) V. Charly Thomas (Cornwall) V. Norman Hawkey (Cornwall) V. Andr Gueguen (Brittany) V. Jean Yves Leroux (Brittany) V. Jean Pierre Jaouen (Brittany)

V. Andr Le Cam (Brittany) V. Michel Andr (Brittany) V. Norman Hawkey (Cornwall) V. John Hancock (Cornwall) V. Mervyn Brockelbank (Cornwall) V. Yves Jehanno (Brittany) V. Barry Counter (Cornwall) V. Dick Rowe (Cornwall) V. Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) V. Tim Mitchell (Cornwall)

1978 - MELLAC, Brittany, August 15 ,h , 1500 spectators Serge Gueguen (Brittany) V. Chris Keatley (Cornwall) - 16 light Rudolph Do Alto (Brittany) V. Brian Warne (Cornwall) - 16 heavy Gilbert Le Roux (Brittany) V. forfait - 18 light Jerry Cawley (Cornwall) - 18 heavy V. Philippe Coche (Brittany) Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) Feather weight V. J . Le Normand de Quessoy Jean Jacques Rolland (Brittany) Light weight V. Richard Cawley (Cornwall) Jean Yves Pran (Brittany) Midle weight V. David Henwood (Cornwall) Heavy weight Jean Paul Menou (Brittany) V. Michael Cawley (Cornwall) S. heavy weight Jol Madec Thomin (Brittany) V. Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) Catch Patrick Ollivier (Brittany) V. Mitchell Caol (Cornwall)

162

1979 - St STEPHENS, Cornwall, September 16"', 200 spectators V. Christian Lanoin (Brittany) - 16 Steven Bunt (Cornwall) V. Patrice Hourmant (Brittany) - 18 Jerry Cawley (Cornwall) V. Jean Paul Le Roy de Berrien Feather weight Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) Light weight Jean Franois Hubert (Brittany) V. John Hancock (Cornwall) V. David Henwood (Cornwall) Midle weight Jean Yves Pran (Brittany) V. Jean Paul Groix (Brittany) Heavy weight Keith Hawkey (Cornwall) V. Chris Hunt (Cornwall) S. heavy weight Jol Madec Thomin (Brittany) 1980 - SCRIGNAC, Brittany, August 15"' - 16 Olivier Guyader (Brittany) - 18 light Eric Weber (Brittany) - 18 heavy Rodolph Do Alto (Brittany) Feather weight Jean Paul Le Roy (Brittany) Light weight Henri Douet (Brittany) Midle weight Jerry Cawley (Cornwall) Heavy weight Jean Louis Deffains (Brittany) S. heavy weight Jol Madec Thomin (Brittany) V. Steve Bunt(Cornwall) V. Cole (Cornwall) V. Michael Cawley (Cornwall) V. Mervyn Brocklebank (Cornwall) V. Keith Sandercock (Cornwall) V. Patrick Ollivier (Brittany) V. David Henwood (Cornwall) V. Chris Hunt (Cornwall)

Interruption of the meetings following the renovation of the Gouren in 1980, with the creation of the Fdration de Gouren (fusion of the FALSAB with the Bodadeg ar Gourenerien federation). The old FALSAB became a confederation.

163

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:&&:1 l'louaret, Brittanv, 4b4. From 1. to .: Skinner, Donval, Roberts, Vaucher. Venton. Nestour, Hawkev.

The wrestlers during the oath at Wadebridge, Cornwall, 1972. Left: Jaouen J.P., Nestour, Oliver, Jaouen G., Daouben, Abiven. Right: Hawkey, Sundercock, Rowe, Hawkey, Treglown.

Winners at Carlisle (England), 1989. L. to .; 1st rank: Leroy, Foil, Puillandre, Volbeda, De Leeuw, Lefeuvre. 2nd rank: Devoy, L'Her, Threlfall, Scott, Hutton, Sveinbjornsson, Sigurdsson.

164

The 1985 - 2006 Celtic wrestling championship list of winners

There is only one wrestler registered per category and per team. Two styles of wrestling, a jacket style (Gouren) and a fixed-hold style (Back-Hold or Cumberland & Westmorland wrestling), are wrestle during two days, one for each style. The competition is individual and by team. In each individual category one have generally pools where the wrestlers do a round robin competition, then the first and second of each pool compete in a second competition to determine the winner. Predetermined points are given to every T', 2nd, 3rd, etc. Wrestlers. The team result is given by adding the points of all the wrestlers. By teams Year - Town
1986 - L0RIENT (Brittany) 1987 - GLASGOW (Scotland) 1988 - BREST (Brittany) 1989 - CARLISLE (England) 1990 - REYKJAVIK (Iceland) 1991 - LESNEVEN (Brittany) 1993 - GLASGOW (Scotland) 1995 - CARHAIX (Brittany) 1996 - LESNEVEN Under 21 (Brittany) 1997 - LEON (Spain) 1998 - LESNEVEN Under 21 (Brittany) 1999 - CARLISLE (England) 2000 - LEON Under 21 (Spain) 2001 - QUIMPER (Brittany) 2001 - QUIMPER Women 2002 - RENNES Under 21 (Brittany) 2002 - RENNES Women 2003 - OLLOLAI (Sardinia) 2004 - BRCK Under 21 (Austria) 2004 - BRCK Women 2005 - LANDERNEAU (Brittany) 2006 - CARLISLE Under 21 (England)

Results
1 - Brittany (58); 2- England (47); 3 - Scotland (33); 4-Cornwall (22) 1 - England (48); 2 - Brittany (43); 3 - Scotland (37); 4 - Fryslan (35) ; 5 - Island (29) 1 - England (44); 2 - Brittany (44); 3 - Fryslan (41); 4 - Island (27) ; 5 - Scotland (23) 1 - Brittany (53); 2- England (50); 3 - Island (34); 4 - Scotland (33) ; 5 - Fryslan (26) 1 - Brittany (56); 2 - England (52); 3 - Island (46); 4 - Scotland (24) ; 5 - Sweden (15) 1 Canaries (115); 2 - Island (111); 3 - Brittany (106); 4 - England (92); 5 - Scotland (64); 6 - Sweden (36); 7 - Fryslan (31) 1 - England (55.5); 2 - Brittany (54); 3 - Scotland (51); 4 - Ireland (21.5) ; 5 - Fryslan (18); 6 - Island 1- Brittany (75); 2 - Scotland (47); 3 - England (45); 4 - Fryslan (25) ; 5 Ireland and Sardinia (22). 1 Brittany A (73); 2 - Leon (66); 3 - Brittany (62); 4 - Fryslan (51.5); 5 - England (44); 6 - Ireland (25); 7 - Scotland (22.5) 1 - Scotland (95); 2 - Leon (93) ; 3 - Canaries (85); 3 - Brittany (85) 5 - England (66); 6 - Sardinia (17); 7 - Fryslan (22); 8 - Ireland (15) ; 9 - Sweden 1 - Brittany (66); 2 - Leon (60); 3 - Canaries (54); 4 - Fryslan (50); 5 - England (48); 6 - Scotland (46); 7 - Ireland (17). 1 - Leon (116); 2 - Scotland (112); 3 - England (102); 4 - Brittany (88); 5 - Canaries (68); 6 - Sardinia (30); 7 - Sweden (20); 8 - Ireland (14). 1 - Leon (88); 2 - Brittany (75); 3 - Canaries (72); 4 - Scotland (53); 5 - England (48). 1 - Leon (134); 2 - Scotland (120); 3 - England (112); 4 - Brittany (104); 5 - Salzburg (94); 6 - Fryslan (45); 7 - Sardinia (44); 8 - Sweden (25). 1 - Leon (86) ; 2 - Brittany (84) ; 3 - Scotland (40) ; 4 - Fryslan (24) ; 5 - Sweden (8) 1 Salzburg (84); 2 - Brittany (80); 3 - Leon (75); 4 - Scotland (45);5 - England (37). 1 - Leon (88) ; 2 - Brittany (82) ; 3 - Scotland (36) 1 6 1 6 1 - Sardinia (62); 2 - Brittany (55); 2 - Leon (55); 4 - England (50); 5 - Fryslan (39); - Scotland (9) - Salzburg (55) ; 2 - Brittany (54) ; 3 - Leon (48) ; 4 - Fryslan (42) ; 5 - England (34) ; - Scotland (6) - Leon (56) ; 2 - Brittany (50) ; 3 - Fryslan (30) ; 4 - Salzburg (17) ; 5 - Scotland (13)

1 - Leon (98) ; 2 - Brittany (95) ; 3 - Salzburg (87) ; 4 - Scotland (57) ; 5 - Island (53) ; 6 - England (52) ; 7 - Sardinia (52) 1 - Salzburg (56) ; 2 - Brittany (56) ; 3 - Leon (52) ; 4 - England (48) ; 5 - Scotland (6)

165

Individuals 1986 LORIENT, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs 90kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs 90kgs+ Brittany, France (August 16, 17 & 18). Seniors - Best wrestler H. L'Her 1st Donald Richardson, Scotland 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Benoit Foil, Breizh 1st Frank Menguy, Breizh 1st Jean Pierre Jaouen, Breizh 1st William MacNeil, Scotland 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd F Maze, Breizh W Prudham, England S McCarthy, Cornwall S Robson, England T Hodgson, England Ch. Le Goff, Breizh D Richardson, Scotland W Prudham, England Foil, Breizh I Mrzyk, Cornwall Younger, Scotland W MacNeil, Scotland A Davidson, England W Prudham, England J McCarthy, Cornwall F Menguy, Breizh T Hodgson, England J Threlfall, England

1st Andrew Davidson, England 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Seamus McCarthy, Cornwall 1st Simon Robson, England 1st Trevor Hodgson, England 1st Joe Threlfall, England Cornish Wrestling 1st Fanch Maze, Breizh 62kgs 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 68kgs 1st Benoit Foil, Breizh 74kgs 1st Simon Robson, England 81kgs 1st Jean Pierre Jaouen, Breizh 90kgs 1st W MacNeil, Scotland 90kgs+

1987 GLASGOW, Scotland (November 20 & 21). Seniors - Best wrestler Herv L'Her Gouren 2nd F Maze, Breizh IstDries Poelstra, Fryslan 62kgs 2nd P Lozac'h, Fryslan 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 68kgs 2nd Threlfall, England 1st Jean Francois Pibouleau, Bzh 74kgs 2nd J Rodenburg, Fryslan 81kgs 1st Guy Jaouen, Breizh 2nd T Hodgson, England 90kgs 1st Inno De Leeuw, Fryslan 2nd G English, Scotland lOOkgs 1st Gilbert Niger, England 2nd W MacNeil, Scotland 100kgs+ 1st G Wiljalmsson, Iceland Back Hold 62kgs 1st Andrew Davidson, England 2nd Devoy, Scotland 68kgs 1st Willie Prudham, England 2nd H L'Her, Breizh 74kgs 1st Chris Threlfall, England 2nd MacKay, Scotland 81kgs 1st Simon Robson, England 2nd L Watson, Scotland 90kgs 1st Trevor Hodgson, England 2nd I De Leeuw, Fryslan lOOkgs 1st Joe Threlfall, England 2nd P Yngvarsson, Island 100kgs+ 1st G Wilhjalmsson, Island 2nd W MacNeil, Scotland 1988 BREST, Brittany, France (August 13 & 14). Seniors - Best wrestler Jo Threlfall Gouren 62kgs 1st Jean Paul Leroy, Breizh 2nd R Meyer, Fryslan 2nd P Lozac'h, Fryslan 68kgs 1st Pascal Tanguy, Breizh 2nd lain Armstrong, Scotland 74kgs 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 2nd S Robson, England 81kgs 1st Jean Paul Menou, Breizh 2nd M Boudeau, Breizh 90kgs 1st Inno De Leeuw, Fryslan

166

lOOkgs 100kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+

lst Anton Marteinsson, Island 1 st J Threlfall, England 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Romy Meyer, Fryslan Chris Threlfall, England Iain Armstrong, Scotland Simon Robson, England Duncan Hutton, England Trevor Hodgson, England Joe Threlfall, England

2nd R Le Feuvre, Breizh 2nd J Niemeyer, Fryslan 2nd JP Leroy, Breizh 2nd Devoy, Scotland 2nd R Threlfall, England 2nd JB Valsson, Iceland 2nd A MacDonald, Scotland 2nd A Marteinsson, Island 2nd J Niemeyer, Fryslan

1989 CARLISLE, England (November 25 & 26). Seniors - Best wrestler Herv L'Her Gouren 2nd Devoy, Scotland 62kgs 1st Jean Paul Leroy, Breizh 2nd W Prudham, England 68kgs 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 2nd H Augustsson, Island 74kgs 1st Benoit Foil, Breizh 2nd S Robson, England 81kgs 1st Erwan Puillandre, Breizh 2nd F Menguy, Breizh 90kgs 1st Bran Volbeda, Fryslan 2nd M Boudeau, Breizh lOOkgs 1st Inno De Leeuw, Fryslan 2nd J Threlfall, England 100kgs+ 1st Rmi Le Feuvre, Breizh Back Hold 62kgs 2nd JP Leroy, Breizh 1st Kenneth Devoy, England 68kgs 2nd W Prudham, England 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 74kgs 2nd Foil, Breizh 1st Chris Threlfall, England 81kgs 2nd S Robson, England 1st Walter Scott, Scotland 90kgs 2nd Viggosson, Island 1st Duncan Hutton, England lOOkgs 1st Johannes Sveinbjornsson, Island2nd T Hodgson, England 100kgs+ 1st Gudbrander Sigurdsson, Island 2nd J Watt, Scotland 1990 REYKJAVIK, Iceland (June 29 & 30). Seniors - Best wrestler Keneth Devoy Gouren 2nd Devoy, Scotland 1st Jean Paul Leroy, Breizh 62kgs 2nd Erlingsson, Island 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 68kgs 2nd A Fridriksson, Island 1st Erwan Puillandre, Breizh 74kgs 2nd A Jones, England 1st Jean Paul Menou, Breizh 81kgs 2nd S Robson, England 1st Michel Boudeau, Breizh 90kgs 2nd Viggosson, Island 1st Rmi Lefeuvre, Breizh lOOkgs 1st Johannes Sveinbjornsson, Island 2nd J Watt, Scotland 100kgs4Back Hold 62kgs 2nd L Wall, England 1st Kenneth Devoy, Scotland 68kgs 2nd Erlingsson, Iceland 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 74kgs 2nd E Puillandre, Breizh 1st Chris Threlfall, England 81kgs 2nd H Agustsson, Iceland 1st Alan Jones, England 90kgs 2nd S Robson, England 1st John Clelland, Scotland lOOkgs 2nd R Lefeuvre, Breizh 1st Duncan Hutton, England 100kgs+ 1st Johannes Sveinbjornsson, Island 2nd D Bowman, England

167

1991 LESNEVEN, Sigurdsson Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ Glima 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ 1993 GLASGOW, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs lOOkgs + Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+

Brittany, France (Nov. 30, Dec.Ol). Seniors - Best wrestler I.

1st Jean Yves L'Her, Breizh 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Erwan Puillandre, Breizh 1st Leopoldo Taraconte, Canaria 1st Jean Paul Menou, Breizh 1st Jean Yves Richard, Breizh 1st Emilio Monzn, Canaria 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Kenneth Devoy, Scotland Herv L'Her, Breizh Tom Harrington, England Walter Scott, Scotland Ingibergur Sigurdsson, Island Duncan Hutton, England Emilio Monzn, Canaria

2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd

Devoy, Scotland Ramos, Canaria A Fridriksson, Island T Marc, Breizh D Whitfield, England H Split, Fryslan S DeVries, Fryslan

2nd JY L'Her, Breizh 2nd L Wall, England 2nd E Puillandre, Breizh 2nd A Jones, England 2nd D Whitfield, England 2nd A Martin, Canaria 2nd J Watt, Scotland 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd G Thorvaldsson, Island H L'Her, Breizh A Fridriksson, Island L Taraconte, Canaria D Izquierdo, Canaria A Martin, Canaria E Monzn, Canaria

1st Jos Jimenez, Canaria 1st Cristobal Ramos, Canaria 1st Miguel Ramos, Canaria 1st Jon Birgirvalsson, Iceland 1st Ingibergur Sigurdsson, Island 1st Orri Bjomsson, Island 1st Petur Yngvasson, Island

Scotland (December 4 & 5). Seniors - Best wrestler F. Boixire 1st Jean Paul Leroy, Breizh 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Frdric Boixiere, Breizh 1st Frdric Thpaut, Breizh 1st Herbert Albers, Fryslan 1st Jean Yves Richard, Breizh 1st John Watt, Scotland 1st Steven Ward, Scotland 1st W Prudham, England 1st Lee Wall, England 1st Alan Jones, England 1st Jason Davidson, England 1st Roy Grant, Scotland 1st David Bowman, England 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd S Ward, Scotland W Prudham, England L Wall, England W Scott, Scotland S Le Guern, Breizh T Hodgson, England D Bowman, England A Davidson, England H L'Her, Breizh F Boixire, Breizh W Scott, Scotland S Le Guern, Breizh T Hodgson, England J Watt, Scotland

168

1995 CARHAIX, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs4Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+

Brittany, France (April 16 & 17). Seniors - Best wrestler E. Puillandre 1st Yann Jaffrennou, Breizh 1st Hrv L'Her, Breizh 1st Erwan Puillandre, Breizh 1st Frdric Thpaut, Breizh 1st Hugh Ferns, Scotland 1st Inno De Leeuw, Fryslan 1st John Watt, Scotland 1st Yann Jaffrennou, Breizh 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Erwan Puillandre, Breizh 1st Alan Jones, England 1st Simon Robson, England 1st Darren Whitfield, England 1st John Watt, Scotland 2nd R Clark, Scotland 2nd J M O'Flaherty, Eire 2nd H Tegelaar, Fryslan 2nd Marc, Eire 2nd M Scouarnec, Breizh 2nd D Nicol, Breizh 2nd Y Talarmin, Breizh 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd P Ladu, Sardegna M Columbu, Sardegna G Columbu, Sardegna F Thpaut, Breizh M Scouarnec, Breizh I De Leeuw, Fryslan D Hutton, England

1996 LESNEVEN, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 81kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 81kgS4-

Brittany, France (April 13 & 14) - Under 21 years 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Sylvain Bonnefoy, Breizh Mickael Coadic, Breizh A Laurent Scouarnec, Breizh Rienk Boonstra, Fryslan Sebastien Labbat, Breizh A 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd M. Liechty, Breizh A M. Durand, Breizh H. Tegelaar, Fryslan J. Yugueros, Leon J. Warton, England . Elliot, Scotland M. Coadic, Breizh A M. Pollier, Breizh A R. Boonstra, Fryslan S. Labbat, Breizh A

1st Sylvain Bonnefoy, Breizh 1st Yvan Alonso, Leon 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 1st Jorge Yugueros, Leon 1st John Warton, England

1997 LEON, Leon, Spain (April 11 & 12) - Seniors Gouren lst Saturnino Miguelez, Leon 62kgs 1st Hrv L'Her, Breizh 68kgs 1st Brian Long, Scotland 74kgs 81kgs 1st Jorge Yugueros, Leon 90kgs 1st Emilio Santana, Canaria lOOkgs 1st Juan Lozano, Canaria 100kgs+ 1st Gustavo Hernandez, Canaria Back Hold 62kgs 1st Robert Clark, Scotland 68kgs 1st Marino Columbu, Sardegna 74kgs 1st Tom Harrington, England 81kgs 1st Victor Dmaso, Canaria 90kgs 1st Jason Davidson, England lOOkgs 1st Alberto Rodriguez, Leon 100kgs+ 1st Robert McNamara, Scotland

- Best wrestler Brian Long 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd F Almeida, Canaria M Fernandez, Leon S Hughes, Eire JY Chausse, Breizh J Davidson, England H Ferns, Scotland S Coll, Breizh A Carlisle, England H L'Her, Breizh Long, Scotland G Neilson, Scotland A Gonzales, Leon J J Lozano, Canaria J Alverez, Leon

169

1998 LESNEVEN, Brittany, France (May 2 & 3) - Under 21 years Gouren 2nd I. Garcia, Leon 1st Samuel Lasy, Breizh 62kgs 2nd R. van Aken, Fryslan 1st Sylvain Begoc, Breizh 68kgs 2nd W. Hensema, Fryslan 1st Eddy Ollivier, Breizh 74kgs 2nd T. Fulup, Breizh 1st Edwin Boonstra, Fryslan 81kgs 2nd F. Padilla, Canaria 1st Eduardio Diez, Leon 81kgs+ Back Hold 2nd S. Lasy, Breizh 62kgs 1st Kevin Ballantyne, Scotland 2nd S. Donelly, Scotland 68kgs 1st Andrew Carlisle's, England 2nd E. Ollivier, Breizh 74kgs 1st Alex Rodriguez, Canaria 2nd A. Olmo, Leon 81kgs 1st Fernando Avila, Canaria 2nd F. Padilla, Canaria 81kgs+ 1st Eduardio Diez, Leon 1999 CARLISLE, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ England (July 15 & 16). Seniors - Best wrestler K. Ballantyne 1st Kevin Ballantyne, Scotland 1st Herv L'Her, Breizh 1st Eddy Olivier, Breizh 1st Gary Neilson, Scotland 1st Rogelio Ramos, Canaria 1st D Lubin, Breizh 1st Julio Alverez, Leon 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Kevin Ballantyne, Scotland David Atkinson, England Alan Walton, England Armando Avila, Canaria Robert Leiper, England Francisco Escanciano, Leon Robert McNamara, Scotland 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd S Miguelez, Leon J Oblanca, Leon E Gonzalez, Leon JY Chausse, Breizh S Labbat, Breizh F Escanciano, Leon R McNamara, Scotland

2nd A Carlisle, England 2nd R Clark, Scotland 2nd S Rodriguez, Canaria 2nd A Jones, England 2nd J Yugueros, Leon 2nd J Davidson, England 2nd J Alvarez, Leon

2000 LEON, Leon, Spain (April 20 & 21) - Under 21 years Gouren 2nd P. Lesage, Breizh 1st Victor O'Blanca, Leon 57kgs 2nd R. Llamazares, Leon 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 62kgs 2nd J.J. Gonzales, Canaria 1st Gwendal Evenou, Breizh 68kgs 2nd . Fuertes, Leon 1st Sylvain Begoc, Breizh 74kgs 2nd M. Mndez, Canaria 1st Mathieu Le Dour, Breizh 81kgs 2nd E. Diez, Leon 1st Adei Barbuzano, Canaria 81kgs+ Back Hold 57kgs 2nd D. Dorta,Canaria 1st Victor O'Blanca, Leon 62kgs 2nd R. Llamazares, Leon 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 68kgs 2nd . Ballantyne, Scotland 1st Andrew Carlisle's 74kgs 2nd D. Atkinson, England 1st Clemente Fuertes, Leon 81kgs 2nd M. mendez, Canaria 1st Daniel Gonzales, Leon 95kgs 2nd A. Barbuzano, Canaria 1st Eduardo Diez, Leon

170

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Brest 1988. Champions of the 2nd day. Standing up: .Threlfall, Marteinsson, De Leeuw, Menou, Armstrong. Knelt: R.Trelfall and Meyer.

Leon 1997. The Scottish team, winner of the championship, with W. Baxter.

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Carhaix 2007. The FILC also organises Back-Hold wrestling competition, as here the open championship of Brittany, with 160 wrestlers from England, Scotland, Niger, the Netherlands, Italy, Sweden, Wales, France and Brittany.

171

2001 QUIMPER, Brittany, France (April 28 & 29) Seniors & women- Best wrestler H. Garcia
Gouren 62kgs 1st Yann Jaffrennou, Breizh 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 68kgs 74kgs 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 1st John MacDonald, Scotland 81kgs 1st Jorge Yugueros,Leon 90kgs 1st Helmut Kendler, Salzburg lOOkgs 1st Stefan Riedlsperger, Salzburg 100kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 1st Kevin Ballantyne, Scotland 68kgs 1st Robert Clark, Scotland 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 74kgs 81kgs 1st Oscar Vinuela, Leon 90kgs 1st Jorge Yugueros, Leon 1st Helmut Kendler, Salzburg lOOkgs 100kgs+ 1st Alberto Rodriguez, Leon Women / Gouren 1st Gwnola Evenou, Breizh 50kgs 1st Sandra Le Manchec, Breizh 56kgs 1st Virginie Kerjean, Breizh 63kgs 1st Isabel Chamora, Leon 70kgs 80kgs 1st Maryline Bregeot, Breizh 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd Ballantyne, Scotland P Aschaber, Salzburg D Atkinson, England W Hensema, Fryslan L Orgler, Salzburg

2nd S Coll, Breizh 2nd A Rodriguez, Leon 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd A Carlisle, England W Prudham, England D Atkinson, England R Wharton, England S Labat, Breizh FJ Escanciano, Leon D Whitfield, England E Domnguez, Leon S Avila, Leon M Marcos, Leon M Hettema, Fryslan S Briersley, Scotland

Women / Back Hold 50kgs 1st Eva Domnguez, Leon 56kgs 1st Michelle Carroll, Scotland 63kgs 1st Miriam Marcos, Leon 70kgs 1st Isabel Chamoro, Leon 80kgs 1st Maryline Bregeot, Breizh 2002 RENNES, Brittany (March 30 & 31) Under Gouren 57kgs 1st John Dolan, Scotland 62kgs 1st Mathieu Salaun, Breizh 68kgs 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 74kgs 1st Kevin Garello, Breizh 81kgs 1st Hermann Esterbauer, Salzburg 95kgs 1st Ludwig Orgler, Salzburg
Back Hold 57kgs 62kgs

2nd A Lundin, Swerige 2nd S Avila, Leon 2nd V Kerjean, Breizh 2nd R Le Bloas, Breizh 2nd V Gutierrez, Leon 21 years & women 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd V. O'Blanca, Leon A. Herzog, Salzburg S. Garcia, Leon D. Atkinson, England P. Llamas, Leon C. Fernandez, Leon

68kgs
74kgs

81kgs 95kgs Women / Gouren

50kgs 56kgs 63kgs

1st Victor O'Blanca, Leon 1st Andrea Herzog, Salzburg 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 1st Kevin Garello, Breizh 1st Hermann Esterbauer, Salzburg 1st Ludwig Orgler, Salzburg 1st Eva Domnguez 1st Carine Amiset, Breizh 1st Miriam Marcos, Leon

2ndJ. Dolan, Scotland 2nd M. Salaun, Breizh 2nd S. Garcia, Leon 2nd Ch. Moro, Leon 2nd P. Llamas, Leon 2nd A. Bentham, England

2nd S. Abila, Leon 2nd V. Kerjean, Breizh

172

70kgs 1st Isabel Chamora, Leon 80kgs 1st Maryline Bregeot, Breizh Women / Back Hold 50kgs 1st Eva Domnguez, Leon 56kgs 1st Silvia Abila, Leon 63kgs 1st Miriam Marcos, Leon 70kgs 1st Isabel Chamoro, Leon 80kgs 1st Maryline Bregeot, Breizh 2003 OLLOLAI, Gouren 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+ Back Hold 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs lOOkgs 100kgs+

2nd A.M. Smith, Scotland 2nd S Briersley, Scotland

2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd

C. Amiset, Breizh V Kerjean, Breizh R Le Bloas, Breizh S Briersley, Scotland

Sardinia (July). Seniors - Best wrestler David Atkinson lst Kevin Jerome, Breizh 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 1st Gwendal Evenou, Breizh 1st Edwin Steringa, Fryslan 1st Marcel Naumann, Fryslan 1st Stipano Dipuccio, Sardegna 1st Carlo Scognamiglio, Sardegna 1st Marco Columbu, Sardegna 1st Andrew Carlisle, England 1st D Atkinson, England 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 1st Joseph Robson, England 1st Stipano Dipuccio, Sardegna 1st Alberto Rodriguez, Leon 2nd V. O'Blanca, Leon 2nd A. Carlisle, England 2nd D Atkinson, England 2nd M. Le Dour, Breizh 2nd S. Labat, Breizh 2nd Jorge Yugueros, Leon 2nd A Rodriguez, Leon 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd V. O'Blanca, Leon R. Clark, Scotland M. Columbu, Sardegna E. Steringa, Fryslan S Labat, Breizh R. Leiper, England Carlo Scognamiglio, Sardegna

2004 BRCK, Salzburg, Austria ( April 10 & 11) Gouren 1st Lionel Le Pahun, Breizh 57kgs 1st Andreas Herzog, Salzburg 62kgs 1st Ewen Salaun, Breizh 68kgs 1st Wolter Tiekstra, Fryslan 74kgs 1st Markuss Wimberger, Salzburg 81kgs 1st Yoann Gabillard, Breizh 90kgs 1st Martin Hinterbich, Salzburg 90kgs+ Back Hold 57kgs 1st A.L. Carrizo, Leon 62kgs 1st Mathieu Salaun, Breizh 68kgs 1st John Harrington, England 74kgs 1st Luis Miguel Robles, Leon 81kgs 1st Seye Gorter, Fryslan 90kgs 1st Alois Dum, Salzburg 1st Rssel Housby, England 90kgs+ Women / Gouren 50kgs 1st Karine Van Kmmen, Fryslan 56kgs 1st Virginie Kerjean, Breizh 63kgs 1st Inge Elsinga, Fryslan 70kgs 1st Rgine Le Bloas, Breizh

Under 21 years & women 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd A.L. Carrizo, Leon S. Dijkstra, Fryslan H. Hollwarth, Salzburg Ch. Riess, Salzburg S. Gorter, Fryslan A. Fernandez, Leon R. Housby, England Lionel Le Pahun, Breizh V. O'Blanca, Leon P. Barnes, England Ch. Riess, Salzburg A. Calvez, Breizh A. Fernandez, Leon M. Hinterbich, Salzburg T. Gomez, Leon M. Marcos, Leon J. Le Bloas, Breizh L. Pichler, Salzburg

173

80kgs 1st Cintia De Saa, Leon Women / Back Hold 50kgs 1st Tamara Gomez, Leon 56kgs 1st Miriam Marcos, Leon 63kgs 1st Jolle Le Bloas, Breizh 70kgs 1st Rgine Le Bloas, Breizh 80kgs 1st Cintia De Saa, Leon

2nd A. Kerjean, Breizh 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd K. Van Kmmen, Fryslan V. Kerjean, Breizh V. Molinero, Leon I. Chamoro, Leon A. Kerjean, Breizh

2005 LANDERNEAU, Brittany, France (May 8 & 9). Seniors - Best wrestler M. Le Dour Gouren 2nd V. O'Blanca, Leon 62kgs 1st Kevin Jerome, Breizh 2nd A. Herzog, Salzburg 68kgs 1st Tudy Le Meur, Breizh 2nd G. Evenou, Breizh 74kgs 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 2nd M. Wimberger, Salzburg 81kgs 1st Mathieu Le Dour, Breizh 2nd Yoann Salaun, Breizh 90kgs 1st Ludwig Orgler, Salzburg 2nd H. Kendler, Salzburg lOOkgs 1st J. Aegir Stefansson, Island 2nd S. Riedlsperger, Salzburg 100kgs+ 1st Paul Madec Thomin, Breizh Back Hold 62kgs 2nd V. O'Blanca, Leon 1st John Dolan, Scotland 68kgs 2nd J. O'Blanca, Leon 1st Robert Clark, Scotland 74kgs 2nd S. Pili, Sardegna 1st Hector Garcia, Leon 81kgs 2nd J. Taylor, Scotland 1st Mathieu Le Dour, Breizh 90kgs 2nd D. Gonzalez, Leon 1st Joseph Robson, England lOOkgs 2nd S. Di Puccio, Sardegna 1st Robert Leiper, England 100kgs+ 2nd P. Madec thomin, Breizh 1st Avelino Garcia, Leon 2006 CARLISLE, Gouren 57kgs 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs 90kgs+ Back Hold 57kgs 62kgs 68kgs 74kgs 81kgs 90kgs 90kgs+ England (October 25 & 26) - Under 21 years 1st Ewen Schvartz, Breizh 1st David Zehentner, Salzburg 1st Ewen Salaun, Breizh 1st Christian Riess, Salzburg 1 st Sylvain Corvez, Breizh 1st Georg Langreiter, Salzburg 1st Christian Pirchner, Salzburg 1st Emilio Cano Pinto, Leon 1st Adrian Tejerina Diez, Leon 1st Ewen Salaun, Breizh 1st John Harrington, England 1st Richard Fox, England 1st Sergio Perez Lopez, Leon 1st Johannes Steger, Salzburg 2nd Emilio Cano Pinto, Leon 2nd Clment Le Gall, Breizh 2nd Richard Dixon, England 2nd John Harrington, England 2nd Richard Fox, England 2nd Sergio Perez Lopez, Leon 2nd Frederic vaillant, Breizh 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd 2nd Ewen Schvartz, Breizh Clment Le Gali, Breizh Alberto Marquiegui Garcia, Leon Adrian Garcia Nicolas, Leon Sylvain Corvez, Breizh A. Bentham, England Sergio Temprano Gago, Leon

174

175

176

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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populaire (ethnology). "Fdration de Gouren" and Dastum. Jaouen Guy, Baxter Willie, 1990. Celtic Wrestling, Our Culture. FILC. Jaouen Guy, Cloarec Philippe, 1992. Ar Gouren, Adal an amzerioit kentan betek hiziv an deiz. ICB. Jaouen Guy, Lagadec Andr (Editors), 1992. Manuel de l'ducateur de Gouren. F. de Gouren. Jaouen Guy, 1997. Sports et Jeux traditionnels de Bretagne. In "Lo Joa e les Omo". Aosta, It. Jaouen Guy, 1998. La lutte bretonne, in "Armen" 92 Jaouen Guy, Liponski Wojciech. (Editors), 2003. Ethnology of sport, Special issue of "Studies in physical culture & tourism", Poznan, Poland. Jaouen Guy, 2006. Les luttes celtiques de Bretagne et du Cornwall. Falsab, Noyai Pontivy. Jenkin Hamilton, 1934. The story of Cornwall. London, Thomas Neilson & sons. Jusserand Jean Jacques, 1901. Les sports et les jeux d'exercice dans l'ancienne France. PlonNourrit. Jusserand Jean Jacques, 1911. Histoire littraire du peuple anglais. "Librairie de Paris". Kendall Brian Henri,1978. The Art of Cornish Wrestling. CWA Kent Greame, 1968. A Pictorial History of Wrestling. London, Spring books. Layton's Charles, 1740. The Whole Art of Norfolk Wrestling. Norwich library. Le Folc'h Moan, Jean, 1962. La gense des sports. "Petite bibliothque" Payot, Paris. Le Joncour Paul, Jaouen Guy, 1984. La lutte bretonne des origines nos jours. ICB. Litt William, 1823. Wrestliana;Or, An Historical Account of Ancient and Modem Wrestling. Gibson, Whitehaven. MacAloon John, 1981. This great symbol, P. de Coubertin and the origins of the Modern Olympic Games. University of Chicago. Machell Hugh, 1911. Some records of the annual Grasmere sports. Londres, Simpkin & Marchall Martin Per, 1911. Skaer ha Guiskri. Text from 1889, Bayon - an Oriant. Mauss Marcel, 1950. Sociologie et Anthropologic PUF. Parkyns Sir Thomas, Editions 1713, 1714 & 1728. The Inn-Play or the Cornish-Hugg Wrestler. Goodwin bookseller, Nottingham. Parlebas Pierre, 2005. Le destin des jeux, hritage etfiliation,in "Jeux Traditionnels, quels loisirs sportifs pour la socit de demain" (actas from the Nantes conference in 2002), Jaouen Guy & Guibert Jol Editors. ICB Pascoe Henri, 1928. Cornish wrestling, " Old Cornwall ". Truro. Petrov Rajko, 1993. La lutte Olympique travers les millnaires. FILA, Lausanne. Pons Paul, 1903. Lutte et lutteurs. Paris, "bibliothque des sports", Naud. Pons Paul, 1909. Vingt ans de lutte. Paris, "Bibliothque de l'auto". Pons Paul, 1913. La Lutte. Sports - Bibliothque. Pierre Lafitte, paris. Remnant G.L., 1969. A catalogue of misericords in great Britain. Oxford University Press. Robinson J. et Gilpin S., 1893. Wrestling and Wrestlers. London, Bemrose & sons. Smith Horotio, 1831. Festivals, Games and Amusements. London, Colburn et Bentley Souvestre Emile, 1836. Les derniers Bretons. Charpentier. Strutt Joseph, 1810. The sports and pastimes of the people of England. London. Talhoffer Hans, 1467, translated by Mark Rector, 2000. Medieval Combat. Greenhill Books, London; Stackpole Books, Pennsylvania. Ville Lon, 1891. La lutte et les lutteurs. Paris, Rothschild. Ville Lon, 1895. Lutteurs et gladiateurs. Paris, Tolra. Von Auerswald Fabian, 1539. Reprint of 1987. Ringer Kunst. Leipzig.

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Walker Donald, 1840. Defensives Exercices, with sections on Wrestling, Boxing and StickFencing. Thomas Hurst, London. Reprint if 2004 by John Walter Hurley. Whitfield Christopher, 1962. Robert Dover and the Cotswold Games. London, Sotheran Ltd. Wilson Charles Morrow, 1959. The Magnificent Scufflers. The Stephen Greene Press, Vermont. Wurm Hans, 1500. Reprint of 1969. Das lanshuter ringerbuch. Sddeutscher verlag, Mnchen. Wymer Norman, 1949. Sport in England. London, Harrap & Co. Magazines - The every-day book and table book, sports, pastimes, ceremonies, manners, custums and events. Published as a newspaper from 1825 to 1828 and as a book in 1841 by Thomas Teggs. - The Bretagne Touristique - The Le Consortium Breton, then An Oaled, beginning of the 20"1 - Dihunamb (in breton language), beginning of the 20'h - Parishes bulletins from Finistre - Bulletins diocsains d'histoire et d'archologie du Finistre - Hekleo ar C'hoariou, since 1995, annual magazine of the FALSAB - Gouren Info - since 1971, published by BAG the by the E of Gouren - The Cornish Magazine Newspapers - The West Briton, from the end of the 18"' (Cornwall) - The Ouest Eclair, end of 19'" and beginning of the 20th (Brittany) - The La Dpche de Brest et de l'Ouest, end of 19'" and beginning of the 20'" (Brittany) - The La Libert du Morbihan, end of 19th and beginning of the 20,h (Brittany) Archives Archives of Finistre, Ctes d'Armor and Morbihan dpartements, France National Library of France National library of Ireland, Dublin Cornwall County Archives, Redruth, England Museum of Truro, Cornwall, England Carlisle municipality archives Doris Foley Historical Research Library, Nevada City, California

BOOKS ON TRADITIONAL WRESTLING

GOUREN, Breton and Celtic wrestling - 1985, Guy Jaouen & Henri Beon Edt. Institut Culturel de Bretagne 86 p (In English) Les LUTTES CELTIQUES
e Bretagne et du Cornwall
Ou Ait au Spuri ?

Les LUTTES CELTIQUES de Bretagne et du Cornwall, du jeu au sport ? Guy Jaouen, 2005 Edt Confdration Falsab 228 p (In French)

Guy

JAOUEN

GLIMA, Icelandic wrestling Matthew Bennett Nichols-1999Published by the author60 p (In English)

AR GOUREN, Adal an amzeriou kentan betek hiziv an deiz Guy Jaouen & Philippe Cloarec, 1992 - Edt. Breton Cultural Institute 32 p (In Breton)

LA LUCHA LEONESA DE HOY - Cesreo Lpez Rodrguez y M. Antonia Flrez de Celis - 1995 Deputacin Provincial de Len -lSOpfln Spanish)

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND WRESTLING

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND WRESTLING Roger Robson 1999 - Bookcase, 17 Castle street, Carlisle, UK 114 p (In English)

MANUAL COMPLETO
>

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MANUAL COMPLETO de LUCHA CANARIA - Fernando Amador Ramirez 1996 - Ediciones Deportivas Canaria -368p (In Spanish)

DAS RANGGELN IM PINZGAU -Ilka Peter - 1981Edt. Verlag Der Salzburger Druckerei - 184 p. (In German)

ferrando Rimira

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LES RACINES DE LA LUTTE, les luttes traditionnelles Rako Petrov 2004 - Edt FILA 160 p (In French + the same edition in English) ZAMMGREIFN LOS, Krnten Ringen - 1990 Hans Walcher, Alois Huber - Edt. Carinthia Verlag Klagenfurt 94 p. (In German)

0 Jal

Eidgenssischer Schwingerverband
1895-1995

100 jahre Eidgenssischer Schwingerverban, 1895- 1995Eidgenssischer Schwingerverband - 1995 - 328 p. (In German French)

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ISLENSK GLIMA OG GLIMUMENN, Kjartan Bergmann Gudjnsson - 1993, author publication. 460 p (In Icelandic)

The ART of CORNISH WRESTLING

DIMENSION histrica, cultural y deportiva de las Luchas, U. Castro Nez, F. Amador Ramrez, J. M. Alamo Mendoza 2005, 580 p (In Spanish)

ABA GURESI, Trk sport kltrnde H. Murat Sahin, 1999 - Gaziantep Universitesi, Ankara - 192 p (In Turkish)

181

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AR GOUREN, la lutte bretonne Guy Jaouen, Editor, 1984 - Edt. Breton Cultural Institute 86 p - (In French)
MANUEL DE L'EDUCATEUR DE GOUREN

Sfidai t^f.
ei.

MANUEL DE L'EDUCATEUR DE GOUREN (photographies) G. Jaouen, A. Lagadec, Editors, 1992 - Edt. Fed. of Gouren - 100 p. (In French)

Penaos beznrnaoutwar ar Gouren

FEDERATION DE COUREN - FALSAB

AR GOUREN, des origines nos jours - Paul Le Joncour & Guy Jaouen, 1984 Edit. Breton Cultural Institute 32 p (In French)

Gouren

MANUAL
COMPLETO DEL

INICIACIN A LA LUCHA LEONESA - . Lpez Rodrguez, Editor, 1999 - Diputacin de Leon y Fed. de Lucha Leonesa206 p. - (In Spanish)

a
If

GOUREN, lutte et dfis d'un sport breton - L. Gourmelen e t j . D. Bourdenay photos E. Legret, 2005 - Edt. Coop Breizh - 144 p - (In French)

LA LUTTE SUISSE
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Association da LuKe Suisse

LA LUTTE SUISSE, Manuel - Collectif - Edt. Ass. Fdrale de Lutte Suisse, 1980 - Translation in French of the 1978 German Edt. - 128 p. (In French).

MONITOR
MANAS DE LA LUCHA CANARIE -Borito (S. Snchez garca), 1990 - Edt. Cab. Insular de Gran Canaria - 212 p. (In Spanish)

Ik

jU LA LUCHA CANARIA, J. V. Morales Magyn, J. M.Palenzuela Cabrera, 2004 Cabildo de Tenerife. 170 p. (In Spanish)

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All rights reserved - February 2007

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And The authors, Guy JAOUEN & Matthew Bennett NICHOLS With the support of The FILC (International Federation of Celtic Wrestling) 13, Balvie Road - G62 7TB Milngavie - Glasgow (Scotland) Tel: (00 44) 141 956 4873 jugajefo'wanadoo.fr

ISBN 978-2-9504402-9-0 Printed and bound in Brittany, France by Clotre Imprimeurs, on aprii 2007 29800 - St Thonan

Price : 18 euros

Page 1, European under 21 years championship of 1996 at Lesneven (Brittany) Page 4, Modern wrestlers on the top of a menhir (standing stone) of 5,000 years old at Cornac, South Brittany

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To know where one is going, it is necessary to know first where one comes from..
(Wrestlers & 5,000 year old standing stones of Carnac)