International Society for Rock Mechanics

CONTENT
- ROCK MATERIAL, ROCK MASS AND SIZE OF THE PROBLEM IN ROCK ENGINEERING
- MAIN DESIGN AND MODELLING METHODOLOGIES IN ROCK ENGINEERING

Rock Properties and Their Role in Rock Characterization, Modelling and Design Prof. Dr. Reat Ulusay
Hacettepe University, Turkey

President of the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods

- ACCESS TO THE ROCK - THE USE OF ROCK PROPERTIES IN CHARACTERIZATION, DESIGN AND MODELLING IN ROCK ENGINEERING

Despite the global nature of todays problems, Geotechnology also including ROCK ENGINEERING has remained divided into disciplines such as mining, civil and petroleum engineering, geology and geophysics. REMIFICATINOS OF GEOTECHNOLOGY

MAIN ARAES OF INTEREST IN ROCK ENGINEERING

Rock ) ySlopes Shafts & Tunnels Foundations Dams

Caverns

Mining

Geothermal Energy

Radioactive Waste Disposal

(Rearranged from Hudson, 1989)

(Amadei et al., 2000)

Rocks and rock-hewn openings have been used as a construction material and settlement since down of civilization.
Historical and recent man-made underground and semi-underground rock structures and settlements in the soft tuffs of the Cappadocia Region of Turkey

Different structures have been built on, in or of rock, including houses, bridges, dams, tunnels and caverns.
Saint Gotthardt Tunnel (Alps) Hoosac Tunnel (USA)

Underground city

Rock-hewn hotel

Cliff settlement Church

Congress center under construction

Police office in a fairy chimney

Vaiont dam (Italy) Millau Viaduct (France)

(Photos: R. Ulusay)

. Homogeneous . Continuous . Isotropic

When dealing with the mechanical behaviour of solids, a commom assumption is that they are:

ROCK MATERIAL A continium or polycrystalline solid between discontinuities consisting of an aggregate of minerals or grains. Its properties are governed by the physical properties of the materials of which it is composed. Terzaghis intact rock

But rocks are much more complex and their physical and mechanical properteis vary according to scale.

Tunnel

(Eberhartd, 2009)

Rocks differ from most engineering materials because they contain discontinuities. Therefore, a clear distinction must be made between rock material and rock mass.

ROCK MASS An assemblage of rock blocks separated by different types of geological discontinuities.

Rock mass
Intact rock

Discontinuity

Because rock masses are discontinuous and varibale in space, it is important to choose the right domain that is representative of the rock mass affected by the structure analyzed.

JOINTED OR BLOCKY ROCK

Rock masses with moderate number of discontinuities Excavation dimension > discontinuity spacing

. Rock masses with few discontinuities,

Excavation dimension < discontinuity spacing

MASSIVE ROCK
OR

HEAVILY JOINTED ROCK

Rock masses with a large number of discontinuities Excavation dimension >> discontinuity spacing

Relation of Discontinuity Spacing and Size of the Problem

Discontinuity properties govern When the problem domain is much smaller than rock blocks (excavation of rock by drilling) Intact rock material

MAIN DESIGN AND MODELLING METHODOLOGIES IN ROCK ENGINEERING

NUMERICAL METHODS/ MODELLING

OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH

EMPIRICAL METHODS

ANALYTICAL METHODS

If necessary, as a Logistic Tool

(Arranged from Hoek & Brown, 1980)

KINEMATIC ANALYSIS

When the structure is much larger than the blocks Rock mass properties

1. OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH
The term observational method appears to have been coined by Terzaghi in the 1940s. OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH provides a Learn as you go alternative.

Example: Numerical modelling and performance monitoring for a tunnel.

Modelling

Monitoring

-The procedure is to base the design on whatever information can be secured - Make note of all possible diferrences between reality and the assumptions, then - Based on the original assumptions, compute various quantities that can be measured in the field - Based on the results of the measurements, gradually close the gaps in knowledge and, if necessary, modify the design during construction
(www.finesoftware.eu) (www.gpiko.ru)

IF NECESSARY CHANGE IN DESIGN

Rock Mass Characterization, Classification and Design

Classify the rock mass using: using:

DESIGN
Empirical database

2. EMPIRICAL METHODS
Mainly based on previous experience as derived from construction of rock structures having similar characteristics as the one to be designed ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION (such as RMR, Q, GSI)

Rock mass classification

Line survey/Boring

RMR or Q
Describe the discontnuities

Support requirements

RMCS today form an integral part of the most predominant design approach INDIRECT METHODS

Stand-up time (RMR)

(Bieniawski, 1989, DESIGN

Numerical Modelling, Modelling, LEM Analysis

GSI
Rock mass behaviour
-

H&B Failure Criterion m

ci

3. ANALYTICAL METHODS
(a) CHILE Complexity of the nature of stress has to be fully considered in the design of underground excavations. However The problem can be initilally simplified through the assumptions of Continuous, Homogenous, Isotropic, Linear Elastic behaviour (CHILE) Successfully used solutions, especially in those excavations at depth, where high stresses have closed the fractures and the rock mass is relatively homogeneous and isotropic.
Deep UG openings

EXAMPLES:

Estimation of Radius of Plastic Zone

However, for near surface excavations, where the rock stresses are lower, their fractures are more frequent,and the rock mass is disturbed and weathered, there is more concern about the validity of the CHILE.

Rock-support Interaction Analysis

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

(b) LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS (LEM) The most widely applied analytical technique used for slope stability assessments. Force and/or moment equilibrium conditions for different modes of failure are examined on the basis of statics. The typical output from LEM analyses is the Factor of Safety
Planar F. Wedge F.

4. NUMERICAL METHODS / MODELLING

These methods consist in applying the state of stress-strain in the engineering structure, with consideration given to the strength and deformability properties of the rock mass and of the discontinuities.
STRESS STRAIN DISPL. u

FS =

Resisting forces Driving forces Shear strength Shear stress

(a) Tansiyon atla ev tepesinin gerisinde
Tension crack Tansiyon atla

Useful for analysis and design in cases where analytical solutions are not available Examples
Design of high slopes, rock burst prone tunnels, soft rock slopes MAIN PURPOSES

FS =

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

ev Slope face aynasnda

Toppling F.

v H Kayma dzlemi Failure surface

f

Zw Z

u
R

- A way to gain understanding of governing deformation and failure mechanisms - Exploring alternatives rather than making absolute predictions - Making changes in the input data to see how the changes affect the overall response of rock structure (e.g. parametric studies).
Circular F.

Numerical methods of stress and deformation analysis fall into two categories

DIFFERENTIAL METHODS
Continuum Methods Discontinuum Methods
Rock mass is represented as assemblage of distinct interacting blocks or bodies that are subjected to external loads and are expected to undergo significant motion with time.
(Eberhardt, 2009)

INTEGRAL METHODS - Only problem boundary is defined and discretized - Restricted to elastic analyses
Boundary Element Method (BEM)

DIFFERENTIAL METHODS -Problem domain is defined and discretized -Non-linear and heterogeneous material properties accomodated
FEM, FDM, DEM

- Rock mass bahaviour is represented as a continuum - Approximations to the connectivity of elements, and continuity of displacements and stresses between elements

Time step 1

Time step 2

Time step 3

Time step 4

Time step 5

As a continuum, the failure path passes through the rock mass. As a discontinuum, the failure surface is dictated more directly by the presence of pre-existing discontinuities.
(Eberhardt, 2009)

Finite Element Method-FEM (PHASE) Finite Difference Method-FDM (FLAC)

Blocks are subdivided into finitedifference mesh which follows linaer or non-linear stress-strain laws

Distinct Element Method-DEM (UDEC)

Continuum

Discontinuum

Continuum

METHOD OF KINEMATIC ANALYSIS (A Logistic Tool)

Structurally-controlled

Rock Mass Failure Mechanisms

(Barton, 1998)

Stress-controlled

FEM-FDM

DEM

FEM-BEM

Structurally-controlled instability: Blocks formed by discontinuities may be free to either fall or slide from the excavation under a set of body forces. Analysis of kinematic addmissibility of poteantial wedges or planes intersecting the excavation face(s) KINEMATICAL ANALYSIS

Numerical methods include consideration of the followings, depending on the type of the model used (continuum or discontinuum):
Geology Discontinuities (spacing/persistence) Material and mass properties (intact/discontinuity) Constitutive equations & failure criteria Groundwater pressure/Seismic loading In-situ stresses and external loads

J1 J2

ROCK PROPERTIES

J1 J2

Wedge failure in slopes Block falls in underground openings

Stereographic Projection Technique:

ACCESS TO THE ROCK

Rock Exposures Borehole Cores Borehole Wall Images

Kinematic analysis of blocks in U/G openings

KZ

KZ

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

20 0

20

Intact rock Block samples for testing

Sreksizlik Discontinuity

Intact rock Cores for testing

ev Slope

(Norrish & Wyllie, 1996)

Kinematic analysis for rock slopes

f
p

Discontinuity masurements Measurement of disconttinuity for Rock Mass properties is limited and no possibility Indirect methods Characterization of measuring rock mass properties are nedded for assessing the Flat-jack stress determination, In situ stress on cores rock mass larger-scale modulus and can not be measured properties permeability tests There are always limitations on resources Therefore, when optimizing the rock characterization procedures it is necessary to consider the requirements and to choose the rock access method and testing techniques in accordance with the engineering objective.

INTACT ROCK AND ROCK MASS PROPERTIES COMMONLY USED IN ROCK ENGINEERING
1. Determined from laboratory tests (Intact Rock and Discontinuites): (a) Classification and characterization of intact rock (i) Porosity, unit weight, water content, absorbtion (ii) Hardness, abrasivity (iii) Durability (iv) Point load strength index (v) BPI (vi) UCS and deformability (viii) Sound velocity (vp, vs) (ix) Permeability (b) Rock engineering design (i) Shear strength of intact rock (ii) UCS and deformability (E, , G, K) (iii) Shear strength and stiffness of discontinuities (iv) Tensile strength (direct or indirect)
(www.sfu.ca/~tafgrc/Courses/Easc313)

2. Determined from in-situ measurements and tests (Rock Mass) (a) Characterization of rock mass (i) Properties of discontinuities (ii) In-situ sound velocity (iii) Properties obtained from geophysical borehole tests (b) Design (i) In-situ deformability (ii) Rock mass strength (iii) Field permeability (iv) In-situ stresses

(www.sfu.ca/~tafgrc/Courses/Easc313)

TAILORING TESTING TO ENGINEERING REQUIREMENT

Objective: To tailor the testing to the engineering objective by considering a number of testing methods.
Importance of rock mechanics parameters for HYDROELECTRIC SCHEME PRESSURE TUNNEL design
(Hudson & Harrison, 2000)

ANOTHER IMPORTANT ISSUE !

Rock engineer should consider whether emphasis is to be placed on INDEX TESTS, FUNDAMENTAL TESTS or COMBINATION OF THE TWO INDEX TESTS
Point Load Test

Cheap, performed quickly

Rock engineers must decide

Do not determine an intrinsic property

FUNDAMENTAL TESTS

In situ stress is most important and should be determined Slope or surface blasting case: Not an important parameter Whether they are going to make particular measurements on the basis of the overall objective

UCS= k Is50

More expensive, time consuming Measure the property directly UCS

Carry out a few UCS tests and more PLT, and use the calibrated values

HOW WE CAN CHARACTERIZE ROCK MASSES AND ESTIMATE THEIR STRENGTH?

For the determination of rock mass properties we have two alternative ways: (a) via the properties of the intact rock and the properties of the discontinuities which together make up the rock mass properties OR

A) ROCK MASS PROPERTIES DETERMINED FROM IN-SITU MEASUREMENTS Because rock masses are usually anisotropic, essential device must both apply load and measure displacement in different radial directions. Install some form of loading within the borehole to obtain force-displacement curve and estimate the associated elastic parameters of the rock
Testing of strength of rock mass is difficult because of the high loads involved. Also time consuming and expansive tests

GOODMAN BOREHOLE JACK

(b) Via the properties of the rock mass as measured or estimated directly (STRENGTH, DEFORMABILITY & PERMEABILITY)

(www.slopeindicator.com)

(Hudson & Harrison, 2000)

PLATE LOADING TEST

On a surface of rock exposure Underground

B) CHARACTERIZATION OF ROCK MASSES AND CLASSIFICATION

Depending on the rock mass classification used, determine discontinuity properties

Scan-line survey

Hysteresis is directly associated with discontinuities

Borehole

Outcrop

(ISRM, 1981)

(Hudson, 1989)

RMR SYSTEM
A

S
Orientation Spacing Set number Persistence Aperture

Basic RMR = R ( ci) + R (RQD) + R (spacing) + R (JC) + R (GW) Adjustments (Orientation, blasting etc.) Final RMR

Q SYSTEM
Stand-up time

Q=(RQD/Jn) (Jr/Ja) (Jw/SRF)

RMR
(Serafim & Pereira, 1983)

Block size Weathering

(Bienaiwski, 1989)
KZ

(Support) Estimation of Erm from classification

Joint wall strength (JCS)

KZ

(Grimstad and Barton, 1993)

Roughness (JRC)

ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

(RMR, Q and others)

>10 cm

Q (Support & Span)

JRC, JCS Disc. Stiffness

RQD

C) ROCK MASS STRENGTH (Hoek & Brown Failure Criterion)

GEOLOGICAL STRENGTH INDEX (GSI)

Original GSI Chart
(Hoek, 1999)

Quantitative GSI Chart (Snmez & Ulusay, 2002)

Generalized H&B equation

' 3 m = + c b + s c ' 1 ' 3

GSI 100 m b = m i exp bm
(Barla & Barla, 2005)

GSI 100 s = exp bs

b m = 28 14D
b s = 9 3D

a=

1 1 GSI / 15 + e e 20 / 3 2 6

How to incorporate mode of failure and rock mass strength

ROCK MASS UG Slope Ground response

IN SITU SOUND VELOCITY

Closely reated to rock mass characteristics and one of the most important index properties Seismic Characterization Method

ROCK MASS

Slope

UG
(www.winona.edu)

Ground response
(Whitley, 1990)

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Vp-Q-RQD- relationships for hard, near-surface, low porosity rock masses

Dynamic E-Q-RMR

INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIAL

Intact samples of rock may be selected for index testing - To further aid in geological classification and as indicators of rock mass behavior - To provide a measure of the quality of the rock, - To indirectly estimate fundamental properties by empirical relationships - They are not directly used in design.
(Barton, 2007)

(Barton, 2007)

Water Content: Indirect indication of porosity of intact rock or clay content of sedimentary rock. Unit Weight: Indirect indication of weathering and soundness, and is used to estimate vertical stress Porosity: Indirect indication of weathering and soundness, and governs permeability h

(Barton, 1995)

Relationships between Vp and rock mass characteristics

(Barton, 2007)

v = h

Rebound Number: - Index of relative hardness and quality of rock mass on the exposed surface when the rock is fragmented - Relative hardness and indirect strength of intact rock

Point Load Strength Index: Indirect method to determine unconfined compressive strength (UCS)

c = kIs50

k=5-52 (?)

Weak and highly weathered rocks Care is necessary

As a classification parameter in RMR system Abrasivity: Measures the abrasiveness of a rock material against other materials e.g., steel. It is an important measure to estimate wear of rock drilling and boring equipment.
(Deere & Miller, 1966) (Bieniawski, 1989)

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Block Punch Strength Index (BPI): To indirectly estimate the UCS UCS= 5.1BPIc

Durability: Index of weatherability (degradability) of rock exposed in excavations.

Particularly important in soft and clay-bearing rocks (may cause collapse)

Outcrop

BPIc (MPa) <1 1- 5 5 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50 > 50

Strength Class Very weak Weak Moderate Medium High Very high

UG opening

The loss of sample weight is a measure of the susceptibility of the rock to the combined action of slaking and mechanical erosion.
SLAKE DURABILITY TEST
(Ulusay et al., 2001)

Pillar

Sound velocity: Closely reated to rock properties and one of the most important index properties. They provide estimates of rock properties and/or are used as an index in their own right indicating anisotropy and/or inhomogenity
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (Intact Rock)

- UCS is a rock property most oftenly used to characterize the mechanical behavior of rock. - It is most useful as a means for comparing rocks and classifying their likely behavior as an index property.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF INTACT ROCK

ci = F/A
Estimation of dynamic elastic properties:

(Vp)
(www.winona.edu) (Sassa et al., 1988) (Deere & Miller, 1966)

(Vs)

Primary index test for strength and deformability of intact rock

(field / lab)2 = velocity index (an indicator of intensity of discontinuities)

12

(a) Input Parameter for Rock Mass Classification

2. CHARACTERIZATION

(b) As an intact rock parameter to be used by the empirical rock mass failure criteria (ci) Generalized Hoek-Brown failure criterion:

RMR System (Bieniawaski, 1989)

1= 3+ ci (mb (3/ ci)+s))a

(Hudson, 1989)

(Bieniawski, 1989)

(c) First estimate of the tensile strength

t = - ci /10

(d) Estimation of UCS and deformation modulus of rock masses: UCS of rock mass:

3. IN DESIGN AND MODELLING

(a) As a design parameter of rock structures subjected to uniaxial compressive stresses, such as pillars (intact or rock mass UCS) Strength of pillar is a function of material strength and distribution of stresses in pillar.

crm = (sci)0.5

Deformation modulus of rock masses:

Erm= (ci / 10)0.5 10(GSI-10)/40 Erm = (1-(D/2)) (ci / 100)0.5

(Hoek & Brown, 1997)

10(GSI-10)/40

(Hoek et al., 2002)

Erm= 0.001 [ ((Ei/ ci) ((1+RQD/)100) /WD]1.5828

Erm = 10 (Qci /100)
1/3

(Gkeoglu et al., 2003) Pillar Pillar

(Barton, 2002)

(e) Estimation of the tensile strength of intact rock with the H-B strength criterion:

(Barla & Barla, 2005) (Hoek & Brown, 1980)

t = 0.5ci [mi- (mi2 + 4)0.5]

Compare the computed stresses with estimated rock mass strength in discontiuum media or intact rock strength in weak and not jointed media

Pillar stresses

13

(b) In numerical codes such as UDEC, simulating the response of discontinuous media (jointed rock mass) subjected to either static or dynamic loading UCS is as one of the parameters used by BartonBandis model.
(Zhang, 2005)

(c) Rock fragmentation and rock cutting

For estimation of initial normal stiffness

Fractures by disc cutters: -Effect of rock strength on tool forces Fnormal/c =0.15p-0.21
(Snowdoown et al., 1982)

(p:Penetration, mm)

Kni= -7.15+1.75 JRC+0.02 (JCS/e)

-The thrust force affecting penetration (Roxborough & Philips, 1975):

(D: Disc diameter, mm)

e (JRC (0.04 ci)-0.02)

Discontinuity aperture (mm)

Ft= 4 c tan (/2)(Dp3-p4))0.5

(d) Rock-support interaction analysis (as an input parameter)

Compression

In rock indentation assessments

TENSILE STRENGTH
For underground stability, the tensile strength is not as significant parameter as the UCS for rocks. Generally, tensile rock strength is low enough when rock is in tension, it splits and tensile stresses are relieved. ti = P/A

In jointed rock masses, the jointing may very well eliminate the tensile strength of the rock mass, in which case the in situ rock should be considered as having zero tensile strength.

1) DESIGN
(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

(a) Analysis of rock structures subjected to tensile stresses, such as wide roof spans
(Hudson & Harrison, 2000)

14

(b) Input parameter in numerical analyses:

DEFORMABILITY PROPERTIES
A) MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF INTACT ROCK AND MODULUS OF DEFORMATION OF THE ROCK MASS 1. CLASSIFICATION (Intact rock)

- In analysis of flexural toppling:

As an input parameter Bending of the slabs induces tensile cracking in their upper face.

(Hutchinson et al., 2009)

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

Modulus Ratio

- Continuum models such as FLAC (Mohr-Coulomb model ) - Discontinuous model such as UDEC (Mohr-Coulomb model)
(Deere & Miller, 1966)

(b) Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus from that of intact rock

2. DESIGN
(a) Estimation of deformations in various rock engineering designs - Estimation of deformations around underground openings/Rock-support (analytical) interaction analysis (Analytical solutions)

Em = f(Ei)

Nicholson & Bieniawski (1983) Mitri et al. (1994)

Hoek and Diederichs (2006) Sonmez et al. (2006)

If the medium is jointed

rock mass

Use

Erm

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

Sonmez et al. (2004)

15

-Settlement for founadtions in homogeneous, isotropic rock conditions v = (CdqB(1-2))/E

(b) An important input parameter in numerical methods:

Depending on the continuum and discontinuum media under investigation, Youngs modulus of the intact rock or deformation modulus of rock mass is used by all models for stress and deformation analyses such as PHASE, FLAC and UDEC for different types of rock engineering problems - Other Elastic Properties:

G (Shear modulus)= E/2(1+)

Describes the material's response Shear stress to shearing strains. G
Shear strain

K (Bulk modulus)= E/(3(1-2)

Measures the substance's resistance to uniform compression

(Wyllie, 1992)

dx y

(B) POISSONS RATIO

It is a mechanical property playing a role in the deformation of elastic materials and utilized in rock engineering problems associated with the deformation of rocks such as an input parameter for the numerical stress analyses.

- There is no correlation between the values of Poissons ratio of rock mass and intact rock. - (rockmass) 1.2 (intact rock) (Kulatilake et al. (2004) The intact rock value constitutes a limit for the values that may be assumed by the jointed rock mass (Gercek, 2008)

1. CHARACTERIZATION
Intact rock classification (Gercek, 2008) can be useful for a qualitative assessment of labortaory test results. This classifications are applicable to isotropic rocks only.
(Gercek, 2008)

Category Very low Low Medium High Very high

Poisson Poissons ratio 0<0.1 0.1<0.2 0.2<0.3 0.3<0.4 0.4<0.5

(Gercek, 2008)

Lateral strain Axial strain

Poissons ratio for rock masses is not required in majority of rock engineering applications. Indeed, in Overcoring Methods employing CSIR doorstopper, USBR borehole deformation gauge, CSIR triaxial strain cell and CSIRO hollow incluison cell, the value of Poissons ratio of intact rock is required for evaluation and interpretation of mesaurements.

16

2. DESIGN (Analytical-Numerical) Poissons ratio of the medium influences the distribution of stresses in some solutions that are widely applied to geomechanics problem. (a) In analytical solutions: Estimation of deformations around underground openings Rock-support (analytical) interaction analysis ( of rock mass)

(d) An important input parameter used by numerical methods:

Depending on the continuum and discontinuum media under investigation, Poissons ratio of the intact rock and/or deformation modulus of rock mass is used by all models for stress and deformation analyses such as PHASE, FLAC and UDEC. Poissons ratio influences the normalized elastic radial displacements around the excavation face of a circular tunnel located in a hydrostatic in-situ stress field

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

SHEAR STRENGTH
A) SHEAR STRENGTH OF INTACT ROCK

B) SHEAR STRENGTH OF DISCONTINUITIES Cohesion and Friction Angle: Commonly used properties in dicontinuum media (both as peak cp & p, and residual cr & p)
Planar discontinuities

Peak Residual

- DESIGN: Particularly those of weak rocks in numerical methods

(Unlu & Gercek, 2003)

17

Bartons criteria

Input parameter for analytical, numerical and kinematic methods of analysis EXAMPLES
(a) Kinematic Analysis of Structurally-Controlled Slopes

Undulated discontinuities
(ISRM, 1981)

20
20 0

Sreksizlik Discontinuity

Slope ev

(Norrish & Wyllie, 1996)

f
p

In-situ shear strength determination

(b) Analysis of Structurally-Controlled Instabilities in Underground Openings

(c) In Analytical Methods: Example 1: Structurally-controlled rock slopes

Geometry of slope with tension crack in upper slope surface

(a) Tansiyon atla ev tepesinin gerisinde

of slope atla Tansiyon

Tension crack in upper surface

Slope face ev

aynasnda v Zw Z u

H
Failure surface

Kayma dzlemi
f

Discontinuity

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

(Ulusay, 1991)

Discontinuity

F=
(Hoek & Brown, 1981) (Hoeks Corner)

cA + ( WCos p u vSin p ) tan W sin p + vCos p

18

Example 2: Bearing capacity of shallow dipping bedded rocks

(d) In Numerical Analyses: Particularly in the analysis of rock engineering structures such as underground openings and slopes in discontinuum media (UDEC) shear strength of discontinuities are important parameters.

(Wyllie, 1992)

C) SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK MASS

(a) Analytical and numerical methods
TUNNEL SLOPE

3A = (B/2tan1) N2 + (c2/tan 1) (N2 - 1)

c1, 1, c2, 2
qa= F

Discontinuity shear strength parameters

(Allowable bearing capacity)

3N1 + (c1/tan 1 ) (N1 -1)

ci

Bearing capacity of foundations on rock masses: The usual method to determine allowable bearing pressures Use published tables or building codes HOWEVER Where the rock conditions do not match descriptions in the codes Use analytical or numerical methods and rock mass strength Fractured rock: Cf1s0.5u(r) [1+(ms0.5+1)0.5] qa= F Weak rock with little fracturing:
(Wyllie, 1992)

(D) JOINT STIFFNESS

The mechanical behaviour of discontinuities in generally plotted in the form of stress-displacement curves with the result that discvontinuity stiffness (MPa/m) and strength (kPa) can be measured. Normal stiffness:

kn= n/ un
Shear stiffness:

qa=

dependent

(Zhang, 2005)

Cf1cNc + Cf2 (B/2) N + DNq

ks = / us

19

Normal and shear joint stiffnes values are used in discontinuum models such as UDEC (in Barton and Bandis Model)

PERMEABILITY

DEM Terminology

Hydraulic gradient (Eberhardt, 2009)

Permeability is concerned with fluid flow through a material or rocks and rock masses, and is one of the most difficiult topics facing the practicing rock engineers.

(Eberhardt, 2009)

Because of the presence of discontinuities in rock mass, two types of permeability are considered: (i) PRIMARY, (ii) SECONDARY (a) Permeability of Intact Rock (PRIMARY PERMEABILITY): Refers to matrix permeability and except in petroleum engineering, prime consideration is not paid to this type of permeability in rock engineering. Porosity Governed by Geological history In-situ stress K also varies with grain size

(b) Permeability of Discontinuities: Infilled discontinuity Unfilled discontinuities Permeability of the infill material. for a set of parallel discontinuities K:

K=

g (e)3 12 vb

v: Kinematic viscosity (10-6 m2/s) b: Spacing e: Aperture

K is very sensitive to small changes in e Variation of dfiscontinuity set permeability as a function of the aperture and discontiuity frequencey

PERMEAMETER

Permeability vs. porosity for intact rocks

(www.searchanddiscovery.com)

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

20

(c) Permeability of Rock Mass (Secondary Permeability): In rock masses consisting of discontinuities terminating against another, computatins are not only made for the permeability of a set of parallel discontinuties but also for the discontinuities meeting.
Single set

WHY WE DETERMINE IN SITU STRESS?

The basic reasons for in situ stress determination
Engineering analyses require boundary conditions. In situ stress is one of the most important boundary conditions for the analyses of U/G excavations

Failure FOS= Strength Stress

In situ stress state

3 ortogonal sets
(Zhang, 2005)

K in x-direction

Commonly discontinuity permeability dominates over the intact rock permeability, and therefore, the second term may often be neglected.

To have basic knowledge of the stress state (e.g. direction and magnitude of the major principal stresses, the direction in which the rock is most likely to fail)
Civil & Mining Engg. Stability of U/G excavations Drilling & blasting Pillar design Design of support systems Prediction of rock burst Dams Slope stability

2 1 3 2 3

1
Energy Development Borehole stability Fracturing & fracture propogation Fluid flow and geothermal problems Reservoir production management Energy extraction and storage

In-situ messurement of K

Packer Test

STANDARDIZED TESTS
Determination of properties of intact rock and rock mass is the integral part of rock engineering studies. Although the strategy of rock characterization is a function of the engineering objectives, the tactical approach to individual tests can be standardized. The advantages of standardization are as follows (Hudson & Harrison, 2000): The standardization guidance is helpful to anyone conducting the test, The results obtained by different organizations on rocks at different sites can be compared in the knowledge that like is being compared with like, There is a source of recommended procedures for use in contracts, if required. The use of some form of standard procedures provides rock engineers to determine the quality objectively Such as ISRM SUGGESTED METHODS produced by the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods for rock testing and characterization since 1978

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

THE END

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