Experiment No: 2

Open circuit and short circuit tests on single phase transformer 1 Aim
To understand the basic working principle of a transformer. To obtain the equivalent circuit parameters from OC and SC tests, and to estimate eciency & regulation at various loads.

Theory

The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic eld. Transformer is required to pass electrical energy from one circuit to another, via the medium of the pulsating magnetic eld, as eciently and economically as possible. This could be achieved using either iron or steel which serves as a good permeable path for the mutual magnetic ux. An elementary linked circuit is shown in Fig.1. The principle of operation of this circuit can be explained as follows: Let an alternating voltage v1 be applied to a primary coil of N1 turns linking a suitable iron core. A current ows in the coil, establishing a ux p in the core. This ux induces an emf e1 in the coil to counterbalance the applied voltage v1 . This e.m.f. is
p e1 = N1 d . dt

Assuming sinusoidal time variation of the ux, let p = m sin t. Then, e1 = N1 m cos t, The r.m.s. value of this voltage is given by: E1 = 4.44F N1 m Now if there is a secondary coil of N2 turns, wound on the same core, then by mutual induction an emf e2 is developed therein. The r.m.s. value of this voltage is given by: E2 = 4.44F N2 m where m is the maximum value of the (sinusoidal) ux linking the secondary coil (s ). If it is assumed that p = s then the primary and secondary e.m.f.s bear the following ratio:
e1 e2

where

= 2F

E2 E1

N2 N1

Note that in actual practice, p = s since some of the ux paths linking the primary coil do not link the secondary coil and similarly some of the ux paths linking the secondary coil do not link the primary coil. The uxes which do not link both the coils are called the leakage uxes of the primary and secondary coil.

In a practical transformer a very large proportion of the primary and secondary ux paths are common and leakage uxes are comparatively small. Therefore p s = mutual and therefore m m . If in addition, winding resistances are neglected being usually small in a practical transformer, then V 1 E1 Similarly, V 2 E2 Although the iron core is highly permeable, it is not possible to generate a magnetic eld in it without the application of a small m.m.f.(magneto-motive force), denoted by Mm . Thus even when the secondary winding is open circuited, a small magnetizing current (im ) is needed to maintain the magnetic ux. The current of the primary circuit on no-load is of the order of 5% of full load current. Also, the pulsation of ux in the core is productive of core loss, due to hysteresis and eddy currents. These losses are given by:
1.6 Ph = Kh Bmax F, 2 Pe = Ke Bmax F2

and Pc = Ph + Pe

where Ph , Pe and Pc are hysteresis, eddy current and core losses respectively, Kh and Ke are constants which depend on the magnetic material, and Bmax is the maximum ux density in the core. These losses will remain almost constant if the supply voltage and frequency are held constant. The continuous loss of energy in the core requires a continuous supply from the electrical source to which the primary is connected. Therefore, there must be a current component ic which accounts for these losses. It should be noted that magnetizing current (im ) and core loss component of current(ic ) are in phase quadrature. The resultant of these two currents is the no-load current io . Generally the magnitude of this current is very small compared to that of the rated current of the transformer ( may be of the order of 5% of the rated). This current makes a phase angle o of the order of (cos 1 (0.2)) with the applied voltage. If a load of nite impedance is connected across the second coil, a current i2 will ow through it. This tends to alter the mmf and thereby the ux in the core. But this is prevented by an immediate and automatic adjustment of the primary current i1 , thereby maintaining the ux at the original value. This value of ux is required to produce the emf of self induction e1 . Any reduction of the ux would cause a reduction of e1 , leaving a voltage dierence between v1 and e1 which would be sucient to increase the primary current and thereby re-establish the ux. Thus any current which ows in the secondary causes its counterpart to ow in the primary so that the ux (and therefore the mmf Mm ) shall always be maintained at a value such that the voltage applied v1 to the primary terminals shall be balanced by the induced emf e1 (neglecting voltage drops due to resistance and leakage ux 2 i so that eective mmf in the eects). Thus if current ows in the secondary (i2 ), then i1 = io + N N1 2 core remains at Mm . In phasor notation: I1 = Io +
N2 I N1 2

I o is quite small compared to the rated current and is usually neglected if transformer is loaded. Thus: I1
N2 I N1 2

It is therefore, evident that energy is conveyed from the primary to secondary by the ux: the primary stores the energy in the magnetic eld, and an extraction of some of this for the secondary load is made up by the addition of energy from the primary, which consequently takes an increased current.

Thus by making the assumptions : Winding resistances are small Magnetising current is small Core losses are small Leakage uxes are small we can infer that (for an ideal transformer): I1 N2 E2 V2 = = = N1 I2 E1 V1 (1)

2.1

Equivalent Circuit of a practical Transformer

The practical transformer has coils of nite resistance. Though this resistance is actually distributed uniformly, it can be conceived as concentrated. Also, all the ux produced by the primary current cannot be conned into a desired path completely as an electric current. Though a greater proportion links both the coils( known as mutual ux), a small proportion called the leakage ux links one or other winding, but not both. It does not contribute to the transfer of energy from primary to secondary. On account of the leakage ux, both the windings have a voltage drop which is due to leakage reactance. The transformer shown in Fig.1 can be resolved into an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.2 (a) in which the resistance and leakage reactance of primary and secondary respectively are represented by lumped R1 , X1 , R2 and X2 . This equivalent circuit can be further simplied by referring all quantities in the secondary side of the transformer to primary side and is shown in Fig.2(b). These referred quantities are given by:
1 2 ) R2 = R2 ( N N2 1 2 X2 = X2 ( N ) N2

N2 I2 = I2 ( N ) 1

N1 V2 = V2 ( N ) 2

Generally the voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X1 are small and magnitude of E 1 is approximately equal to that of V 1 . Under this condition, the shunt branch (comprising Xm and Ro ) can be connected across the supply terminals. This approximate equivalent circuit ( shown in Fig.3) simplies the computation of currents and other performance characteristics of a practical transformer.

2.2

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters

The equivalent circuit shown in g.2(b) or 3 can be used to predict the performance of the transformer. All the circuit parameters must be known so that the equivalent circuit can be used for the above purpose. These parameters can be easily determined by performing tests that involve little power consumption. Two tests, a no-load test( or open circuit test) and short circuit test will provide information for determining the parameters of the equivalent circuit. 2.2.1 Open circuit (OC) test

The shunt branch parameters can be determined by performing this test. Since, the core loss and the magnetizing current depend on applied voltage, this test is performed by applying the rated voltage to one of the windings keeping the other winding open (generally HV winding is kept open and rated voltage is applied to LV winding). The circuit diagram to conduct this test is shown in Fig.4. Since, the secondary terminals are open (no load is connected across the secondary), current drawn from the 3

source is called as no load current. On no-load, the approximate equivalent circuit shown in Fig.3 can be further reduced and is shown in Fig.5 (a). Under no-load condition the power input to the transformer is equal to the sum of losses in the primary winding resistance R1 , (refer g.2b) and core loss. Since, no load current is very small, the loss in winding resistance is neglected. Hence, on no load the power drawn from the source is dissipated as heat in the core. If Io and Pi are the current and input power drawn by the transformer at rated voltage V1 respectively, then cos o = From g.5(b), Ic =I0 cos o , Therefore, R0 = V1 /Ic , 2.2.2 Short circuit (SC) test Xm = V1 /Im Im =I0 sin o ,
Pi V1 .I0

Consider the circuit shown in Fig.3. Suppose the input voltage is reduced to a small fraction of rated value and secondary terminals are short-circuited. A current will circulate in the secondary winding. Since a small fraction of rated voltage is applied to the primary winding, the ux in the core and hence the core loss is very small. Hence, the power input on short circuit is dissipated as heat in the winding. The circuit diagram to conduct this test is shown in Fig.6 (a). In this test, the LV terminals of the transformer are short circuited. The primary voltage is gradually applied till the rated current ows in the winding. Since, the applied voltage is very small ( may be of the order of 5 8%), the magnetizing branch can now be eliminated from the equivalent circuit. The modied equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.6(b). If Vsc is the applied voltage to circulate the rated current (I2 ) on short circuit, and Pc is the power input to the transformer then, Zsc = Therefore, (R1 + R2 ) = Zsc cos , (X1 + X2 ) = Zsc sin
Vsc I2

cos =

Pc Vsc .I2

2.3

Eciency
power = output input power

Eciency of the transformer is dened as:

Interms of losses, power = output poweroutput + iron losses+copper losses Let S be the rated VA of the transformer, x is the fraction of full load the transformer is supplying, and is the load power factor angle. Under this condition the output power of the transformer is = x.S. cos . If Pc is the copper loss (loss in winding resistance) at rated current, the corresponding loss while supplying the fraction of load is = x2 .Pc . With transformers of normal design, the ux in the core varies only a few percent between no-load to full load. Consequently it is permissible to regard the core loss ( iron loss) as constant, regardless of load. Let this loss be Pi . Therefore equation becomes : =
x.S. cos x.S. cos +Pi +Pc .x2

2.4

Regulation

From Fig.3 it can be seen that if the input voltage is held constant, the voltage at the secondary terminals varies with load. Regulation is dened as the change in magnitude of secondary (terminal) voltage, when the load is thrown o with primary voltage held constant. Since, the change in secondary voltage depends only on the load current, the equivalent circuit is further simplied and is shown in Fig.7. The vector diagrams for lagging, unity and leading powerfactor loads are shown in Fig.8. It can be proved that angle is very small and can be neglected. In that case, the expression for regulation is given by %regulation = where I2 =load current, Req = R1 + R2 , I2 .Req . cos I2 .Xeq . sin 100 V2 (2)

Xeq = X1 + X2 ,

+ sign for lagging pf & - for leading pf.

Note to TAs/RAs: Open the cover of the transformer and show the students HV and LV terminals, conductors used for LV and HV winding. Also show them E & I laminations, and ferrite core.

Procedure

Note down the name plate readings and determine the rated currents for both the windings.

3.1

No-Load Test:

Connect the circuit as shown in g.4. Apply voltage to the LV side in steps upto the rated voltage and for each case record primary current and power drawn from the source. Also, observe the current waveform on the power analyzer. Increase the applied voltage by 10% and repeat the above step. Reduce the output voltage of the variac to zero and switch-o the supply.

3.2

Short-Circuit Test:

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.6(a). Set the autotransformer output to zero. It is extremely important to note that a low voltage is to be applied to the primary winding. Adjust the output of the autotransformer such that rated current ows through the windings. Record the applied voltage, current and input power. Reduce the output voltage of the autotransformer to zero and put o the supply.

Report
Determine the equivalent circuit parameters from the test results. Using equivalent circuit parameters compute the following:

 regulation at 25%, 75% and full load for powerfactor = 1, 0.6 lag and 0.6 lead. eciency at 25%, 50%, 75% and full load for powerfactor = 1, 0.8 lag, and 0.6 lead. Plot the variation of Eciency with load VA for each power factor Regulation with powerfactor.

Questions to be answered
Which winding ( LV or HV) should be kept open while conducting OC test? Justify your answer. Assume that the transformer has the following name plate ratings: 40 kVA, 440 V/ 11 kV, 50 Hz what do these numbers imply? Comment on the nature of the current waveform drawn from the source during OC test for (i) 50%, (ii) 100% and (iii) 110% of the rated voltage. Can the regulation be negative? What does it signify? Assume that you have been given a transformer manufactured in the US ( The supply voltage and frequency are 110 V and 60 Hz respectively). What voltage will you apply if this transformer is to be used in this country? Justify your answer. Assume that you have been given two transformers of identical VA, and voltage ratings. But one of them is a 10 kHz transformer and another is a 100 Hz transformer. Just by inspection, how would you identify which one is the high frequency transformer? Justify your answer.

 mutual I1 V1 N1 E1 E2 I2 N2 V2 LOAD

Fig.1 Elementary Transformer

I1

R1

X1 Io

I2

V1

Xm

E1 Ro

E2

V2

IDEAL TRANSFORMER (a)

I1

R1

X1 Io

R2

X2

I2 L O A D

V1

Xm

Ro

V2

(b) Fig.2 Development of Transformer Equivalent Circuit

1 I

I o

R +R 1 2

X 1+ X 2

V1

V2

L O A D

Fig.3 Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer

Variac L 230 V 1phase 50hz supply

Power Analyzer A M C L V V 115/230V

N Fig.4 Circuit Diagram for NoLoad Test

Ic Io Im V1 Xm 0 Ic Ro

V1

Io Fig.5(a) Equivalent Circuit on NoLoad

Im

Fig.5(b) Phasor Diagram on NoLoad

Variac L 230 V 1phase 50hz supply A

Power Analyzer M C L V V 230/115V

N Fig.6(a) Circuit Diagram for ShortCircuit Test

R1 + R2 I 2 Vsc

X1 + X2

Fig.6(b) Equivalent Circuit on Short Circuit

R1 + R2 I 2 V1

X1 + X2

V2

LOAD

Fig.7 Equivalent Circuit to determine Regulation

V1 I2 (a) Lagging Power Factor V2 I2 X eq I2 R eq

2 V2

V 1 I2Xeq I2 R eq

(b) Leading Power Factor

V1

I2X eq I2 V2 I2R eq

(c) Unity Power Factor Fig.8 Vector diagram for various load conditions

10