The Transformer PART 1

(reference: C.Hubert, pg 49, 2.8)

i1 e1 N1 N2

i2 e2 R

The flux arises due to the current i1. This gives rise to an induced emf in coil 2, in such a direction as to tend to oppose the change of flux. Hence the current direction for i2 is as shown, in accordance with Lenzs Law. Assuming no leakage, the same flux links both coils, hence
e1 = N1 d dt

and

e2 = N 2

d dt

and hence:
e1 N1 = e2 N 2 The ratio of induced voltages between coils varies

as the turns ratio between the coils. In an IDEAL TRANSFORMER, there are no losses, hence the input power is equal to the output power,
e1 N1 = e2 N 2

P1 = P2

or

e1i1 = e2i2

since

we derive:

N1i1 = N2i2

The magnetomotive force on the primary winding equals the magnetomotive force of the secondary winding
xformer part1 pg 1

IMPEDANCE of an IDEAL TRANSFORMER (see C.H, 2.9)

An ideal transformer may be represented as a circuit as shown, with quantities in RMS values.
E1

N1

N2

E2

From the source end one can define an input impedance as:
E Z1 = 1 I1 E1 N1 Z2 = I1 N 2
2

or , combining with

N >> Z1 = 1 Z 2 N 2

this is the impedance seen by the source on the primary side We sometimes refer to this impedance as the SECONDARY IMPEDANCE (or LOAD IMPEDANCE) referred to the primary side.

REAL TRANSFORMER A transformer is a real magnetic device. Hence it has properties pertaining to all electrical devices. 1) Copper losses: When a current flows in a winding of resistance R, there are Ohmic losses P= RI2 . One can define an Ohmic voltage drop: VR= RI. 2) Core losses: We have defined the vector B as the product of the permeability of the material multiplied by the vector magnetic Field. Ferromagnetic materials are non linear, and hence their permeability is not constant. The curve B(H) is called the hysteresis curve of the material, and depends upon the peak value of the alternating excitation current. B The magnetic field is created by a current (Ni) on the core. The curve for ascending currents is different from the descending curve because there is a lag in the orientation of the magnetic moments in the material. For instance, when the current is removed, there is still a REMANENT (or residual) magnetism left, and this explains the magnets. When we come from the negative part of the curve, the value Hc is called coercive force, and is the force needed to overcome the residual magnetism. Note: H (A/m) B (Weber/m2) or (Tesla)

Br mean curve

H
Hc

xformer part1 pg 2

The energy stored in a magnetic field can be expressed as:

W =

1 2

BHdv
v

where (v) is the volume

Hence, each time the curve is traversed, there is loss of energy corresponding to (W) as above. (Loss through friction of magnetic domains). This is called HYSTERESIS LOSS and is proportional to the frequency of the excitation current . 3- Eddy Currents The steel parts of the transformer see a varying magnetic field. Hence there will be an induced current in those parts (since steel is a conductor), such that the flux they create opposes the flux that created them. These currents result in an Ohmic loss in the material. These losses are proportional to the square of the frequency. 4- Magnetizing inductance It takes some energy to build up a magnetic field in a core.. This occurs as a stored energy in the core:

Wstored =

1 2 LM I M 2u

where LM is the magnetizing inductance and IM is a portion of the primary current which establishes the magnetic filed in the core.

5- Leakage Inductance The total flux linkage in a coil is given by: A = L.i (or A=N)

In an ideal transformer, all the flux produced by the primary current links the secondary coil of the transformer. In fact, in a real transformer this is not true. Because the permeability of the material is not null, only part of the flux is linked, and some of the flux will flow outside the secondary coil. The flux that does not link the secondary coil is called leakage flux. 6- Leakage capacitance In higher frequencies, one detect a charge difference stored between the conductors in a coil. This will cause a capacitance between turns, and be viewed as another energy storage which results in losses. This effect is only perceived at audio transformers.

xformer part1 pg 3

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT of a REAL TRANSFORMER: The induced emfs (RMS) voltages) in a core is given by
E p = 4.44 N p f p and E s = 4.44 N s f s and s = M ls

hence due to core losses: p = M + lp

These leakage fluxes associated with the primary and secondary coils can be represented as voltage drops (flux that cannot be linked to the secondary and hence does not produce an output voltage. The following figure illustrates the components involved Rp, Rs= primary/secondary winding resistances lp, ls = leakage fluxes from primary/secondary m = magnetizing flux; Rfe= eddy current losses

Ip

Rp

Ip,load

Rs

Ip
Vf Rfe

Is m

Is

Zload

We can now propose the following equivalent circuit, which includes all of the components mentioned in our discussion as voltage drop components.

Ip

Rp

XIp

Ip,load

Rs

XIs

Vf

Rfe

Xm

Ep Np

Es Ns Is

Zload

xformer part1 pg 4

High Frequency Circuit Models In low frequencies we have seen that capacitances between coils are neglected. However, in audio and higher frequencies, we must take into consideration the inter winding capacitances. The figure below shows these lumped parameters on the equivalent circuit.

C12 XIp

Ip C1 Vf

Rp C2

Rs

XIs

Rfe

Xm

Ep Np

Es Ns Is

Zload

There are 3 components: - capacitance between turns on the primary windings (C1) - capacitance between turns on the secondary winding (C2) - capacitance between the primary and secondary windings (C12) For all practical purposes, one can simplify this circuit when one sees that the effects of Xm//Rfe can be ignored. One can also lump the 3 capacitances into one simplified value (C), and only the tuning effect of Xl and C is important. Similarly the secondary values R,X(2) can be neglected at higher frequencies.

Ip

XIp

C Vf

Ep Np

Es Ns Is

Zload

xformer part1 pg 5

The frequency response near the upper cutoff frequencies is shown below. It shows that the capacitor affects the upper range.
Es/Ep including (C) 1

0.5

neglecting (C) f f1 f2

Measuring Circuit Parameters: OPEN CIRCUIT TEST: If we open the secondary (unloaded transformer) we have the equivalent circuit shown below. We connect a wattmeter, Ammeter and Voltmeter as shown: We apply RATED VOLTAGE to the primary of the circuit and measure voltage (E1) current (I1) and power (Poc) as shown. We can assume that since the secondary current is NULL, all of the current is passing through the core. We can also make the assumption that Rp and Xlp are much smaller than Rfe and

Ip

Rp W V I

XIp I 2 =0 Rfe Xm Ep Np Ns Es

Vf

Xm, and therefore can be neglected. GC = Poc E12oc

is called the CONDUCTANCE or 1/Rfe

Y=

I1

E1oc

is called the ADMITTANCE

1 2 2 thus: BM = X = Y Gc M

is called the SUSCEPTANCE. These quantities are expressed in SIEMENS (1/Ohms)

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST: We now short circuit the secondary of the transformer and energize again the primary, but this time we have to stop at the RATED CURRENT value otherwise the transformer windings could not withstand the full short circuit current at rated voltage.
Ip W V I R fe Xm Ep Np E s =0 Ns Is= short circuit current Rp XIp Rs X Is

Vf

Because the short circuit current is much larger than the magnetizing reactance, one can make the assumption that Xm and Rfe can be neglected, and that the secondary current reflected to the primary is equal to the primary current. Hence we can redraw the equivalent circuit, by bringing the secondary quantities referred back to the primary:

Ip W V I

Rw

XL

I2

Ep Np

Es =0 Ns

Vf

and Rw Psc I12sc and Z E1sc I1sc with of course

xformer part1 pg 7

Transformer Connections and Operation

Polarity: Knowledge of transformer polarity is a MUST when connecting transformers together, in parallel or connecting to measuring instruments. NAME PLATE CONVENTION: The highest voltage winding is marked (Hi) H1 and H2. If there are multi windings, use X,Y,Z The numerals associated with a winding refer to the polarity.. It always assumes that the voltage is positive as the potential difference: H2-H1 Because a transformer is an energy converter, the convention of (primary power input) = (secondary power output) leads to the convention as depicted in the figure, where the primary current enters the winding at H2 and the secondary current exits the winding at X2. Another way to show polarity is
V1 I1 H2 X2 I2

V2

H1

X1

NAME PLATE: Voltages are no-load ratings NEMA rules are: (/) (x) i.e. 240/120:240- V primary winding has a center tap i.e. 240x120: 2 part winding that may be connected in series (240) or in parallel (120) i.e. 240-120: a 240V winding and a separate 120 V winding. a 4160V delta winding and a separate 480V Y connected winding with

(Y) i.e. 4160-480Y/277: neutral.

Other ratings are: Frequency and kVA Note: the power rating is NOT given since it will depend upon the power factor of the load. percent impedance, Temperature rise, CLASS and BIL
xformer part1 pg 8

Autotransformers Instead of having 2 separate windings, one MERGES part of a winding. V1 However, one has to be careful on the SIZE of the winding wires used. For instance the figure below shows a configuration. While winding Wa sees the primary current V2 of 15A, winding Wb will see the 15A primary, but also the 60A secondary in opposition of phase 15A (secondary leaves the terminal). Hence winding Wa 15A Wb should be rated 45A. Note this is a very economical way of building V2 transformers when isolation between primary and secondary is not needed.
120V
Load

60A Wb

15A

(Note: this can be used as BUCK or BOOST) The apparent power of a 2 winding transformer is: S 2W = V1 I1

But an autotransformer will have: S at = (V1 + V2 )I 2

S at = (1+ a ).S 2W where (a) is the turns ratio N1/N2. Example: N1/N2=1/2 >>> the autotransformer is rated at 1.5 times the rating of a 2 winding transformer carrying the same currents.

Parallel Operation Effect of the turns ration: if 2 transformers of different turns ratio are connected in parallel, a circulating current will be established according to Ohms law.
I circulating = E A EB Z A ZB

This ciculating current adds to the load current and is reflected in the

primary as an increase in primary current. The transformer with the higher secondary voltage will be overloaded, and the other underloaded. In-RUSH currents When an AC voltage source is connected to a transformer, there is a transient response. This response comes from he solution of a differential equation, and the result is the superposition of 1 forced response called the steady state and a transient current which is source free. Essentially these are 2 independent solutions to the equation as: 0 = f(y,y) (natural response) and the solution of the equation for t->infinity or steady state.
xformer part1 pg 9

If there is no residual magnetism, closing the switch at the maximum voltage peak, will cause a no load current to start flowing. However, if one closes the switch at the zero crossing, the build up of flux reinforces the residual flux. In this case the iron is saturated and the d / dt is reduced, hence decreasing the counter emf, and therefore creating a very high inrush current. When a capacitor is installed near a transformer (i.e. a breaker with a capacitive arc suppressor) and the transformer is energized, the transient may include a resonant circuit between the inductance of the transformer and the capacitance. Because there is little resistance in the circuit, there is minimal damping, and the high frequency oscillation resulting can mean extremely high voltages during these transients. Several mega volts were measured, causing major break downs of isolation and therefore major damages to equipment. This phenomena is called ferro-resonance and is very dangerous.

THREE PHASE CONNECTIONS

If we connect 3 transformers in a Y connection, each transformer having the same secondary voltage of course: Vline = 3.V phase
I line = I phase
C

I1 N I3 I2

If we connect in Delta: Ia I line = 3.I phase

Vba Ib

Special Connection V-V

If we take out 1 single phase transformer from a delta/delta connection, nothing is changed (only the rating of the load is decreased

Ic

Ia

Vba Ib Ic

xformer part1 pg 10