Lab # 4: Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests of Single-Phase

Transformer

Objectives
 To learn how to construct an equivalent circuit of a transformer on no-load.
 To learn how to predict the efficiency of a transformer over a range of loads.
 To learn how to make a complete equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Pre-Lab

Introduction
Many electrical machines, particularly transformers, ac motors and generators can be more easily analyzed and
their performance better understood with the aid of an equivalent circuit in which the effects of core loss,
copper loss, flux leakage, etc., are represented by electrical resistances and inductances. An equivalent circuit
will produce the same phasor diagram as the machine itself and the values used to construct either diagram are
derived from tests on the actual machine.

In this assignment, measured values of core loss, primary voltage and current will be used to construct an
equivalent circuit and a detailed phasor diagram.

The equivalent circuit

A real transformer with no-load on its secondary may be represented as an ideal transformer with no core loss
and which requires zero magnetizing current plus two parallel elements Rc and Xm as in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

The resistance Rc is the core loss element. The current through this will be in phase with the applied voltage and
will dissipate power equivalent to that of the core at a specified voltage and frequency. The reactance X m is the
magnetizing element. Its current will lag the applied voltage by 90°; i.e. it is in quadrature with the applied
voltage, and no power is dissipated. The current taken by X m produces the magneto motive force which sets up
the flux in the core.

By measuring the current and power taken from the supply, as shown in Figure 4.2, values for the elements of
the equivalent circuit can be derived and the phasor diagram constructed.

Figure 4.2 Open circuit

Using the test results obtained in this assignment a phasor diagram similar to that in Figure 4.3 can be
constructed.

Figure 4.3

We will first calculate the phase angle between the current I 1 and the primary voltage V1, then derive values for
the core loss and magnetizing currents.

Let P1 = Primary power input (Wattmeter W1)

V1 = Voltage applied to primary (Voltmeter V1)

V2 = Voltage across secondary (Voltmeter V2)

IO = Total primary current on no-load (Ammeter I1)

Ic = In phase component of current IO (core loss component)

Im = Quadrature component of current IO (magnetizing component)

Φ = Phase angle between V1 and IO.

We can now calculate the currents through the core loss resistance R c and the magnetizing reactance Xm also the
phase relationships between these currents and the primary voltage.
A word of explanation is needed as to why we refer to the total primary current on no-load as I O instead of I1. IO
represents the phasor sum of the core loss current I C and the magnetizing current I m as shown in Figure 4.3.
When the transformer is supplying no external load, this is the total current taken by the primary, therefore for
this condition IO = I1. When the transformer is supplying a load, there is a large additional current flowing in the
primary and in this case I1 is not equal to IO but to the phasor sum of IO and primary load current component.

The volt-amperes taken by the primary on no-load is:

The input power is:

Hence:

And:

Now that the currents Ic and Im have been evaluated we can find the values of the equivalent core loss resistance
Rc and magnetizing current Xm using the following equations:

Now suppose that a load current I2 flows in the secondary winding. It will tend to reduce the flux in the core and
hence the EMFs, including the back EMF in the primary. The result is an increase in primary current which can
be calculated from the changes in MMF (ampere-turns).

On no-load the primary MMF was IoN1. Additional MMF required is I2N2 to cancel the secondary's
demagnetizing MMF.

Thus the primary must supply a total MMF of:

The current in the N1 turns of the primary thus becomes:

From this we can see that the load on the secondary has in effect been transferred to the primary and the
additional primary current is taken from the power supply.

Each winding of a transformer has resistance. When a current flows this gives rise to a voltage drop and to a
power loss, usually referred to as the 'copper loss'.

The flux produced by current flow in the primary turns does not all link with the secondary turns, as shown in
Figure 4.4(a). Similarly, the counter-flux produced by load current in the secondary turns does not all link with
primary turns.

The effect of leakage flux in a real transformer is similar to having an ideal transformer in which all the flux
links both windings, plus separate inductors connected in series with the primary and secondary as in Figure
4.4(b). In the equivalent circuit, reactances X 1 and X2 will represent the leakage components in series with the
primary and secondary windings.

Figure 4.4

Completing the equivalent circuit

By adding the winding resistances and leakage reactances to the equivalent circuit of the transformer on no-
load, we can extend it to form a complete model of the transformer. The degree of complexity to which the
equivalent circuit is taken will depend on the particular application for which it is to be used. The complete
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5
The short circuit test
The magnitude of the total effective winding resistance and leakage reactance can be found by placing a short
circuit across the secondary and finding out how much voltage at the primary terminals is needed to drive rated
current through the transformer. This voltage will be quite small, so that the core losses (the effect of R c and Xm)
will be negligible. The required circuit is shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4. 6 Short Circuit Test (* Current Limit 0.43Amp)

There is, however, a preliminary test which we shall undertake in order to overcome some limitations in our
laboratory situation. In industry the testing of a transformer would be carried out with high accuracy
instruments, regularly recalibrated. Also it happens that in large transformers (for which open and short circuit
tests are most valuable) the results are not usually nearly as dependent on measurement errors as in our small
one. The reasons will become apparent later. But to ensure that you get good results it will be advisable to check
that the voltmeter, ammeter and Electrodynamic Wattmeter are consistent with one another if conventional
instrumentation is used.

Calculation of winding resistance and leakage reactance

The input power W1 which is measured in the short circuit test is unlikely to be the same as V 1I1calculated from
measurements. Let us suppose for the moment that the impedance at the primary terminals is a series
combination of resistance R1' and reactance X1'.

Then since there is no power dissipated in the reactance:

So that:

Also, the total impedance is:

X1' can be calculated as:

Note that only a single resistance and a single reactance value are obtained from these calculations. We must
find out how they are related to the individual primary and secondary resistances and reactances.

Referred values
If the core magnetizing and loss components are neglected, the equivalent circuit of the transformer shown in
Figure 4.7 is valid. Figure 4.7 is the circuit relevant to your practical results, since if in this circuit the ideal
transformer is short circuited at the secondary terminals, the primary of it becomes effectively a short circuit
also since no voltage can exist across it.

The winding resistance and reactance referred to the primary are:

The complete equivalent circuit of course requires the components representing the core magnetization and
losses, Rcand Xm, to be added.

An exact analysis would show that slightly different values would be appropriate in each different equivalent
circuit, but in a typical transformer the values of R c and Xm are so much higher than the series impedances
referred to the primary that the same value very nearly is appropriate when added to any of the circuits in Figure
4.7.

Figure 4.7
Pre-Lab Tasks

1. What is short circuit and open circuit test of transformer?

The open circuit test, also known as the no-load test, measures the core loss and magnetizing current of the
transformer when the secondary winding is left open while the primary winding is energized with a rated
voltage. The short circuit test, also known as the impedance test, measures the winding resistance and
leakage reactance of the transformer when the secondary winding is short-circuited and a rated current is
passed through the primary winding

2. Define core and copper losses of transformer? Which losses are greater and why?

In a transformer, core and copper losses are two types of losses that occur. Core losses are due to hysteresis
and eddy currents in the core, while copper losses are due to the resistance of the windings. Copper losses
are greater than core losses in general because they increase with the square of the current, while core losses
are independent of the load. As the load on the transformer increases, the copper losses dominate, while at
lower loads, the core losses dominate.

In Lab Tasks

Lab Task 1

1. Make all connections as shown in Figure 4.8.

2. If virtual instrumentation is being used, set the 250 V/500 V range switches for the V1 and V2 channels
to ‘250 V’ on the Multichannel I/O Unit 68-500. This allows voltages of up to 250 V to be monitored
when the ‘500 V/250 V’ sockets are connected. Additionally, set the 1 A/10 A range switch for I1 and I2
to ‘1 A’. This allows currents of up to 1 A to be monitored when the 10 A/1 A socket is connected or
200 mA to be monitored when the 200 mA socket is connected.
3. On the Universal Power Supply 60-105, ensure the ‘variable output voltage’ control is set to 0%.
4. Set the ‘3 phase circuit breaker’ to the on position and then rotate the ‘variable output voltage’ control to
give a voltage on V1 of 230V (as read by virtual or conventional instrumentation).
5. Measure the primary current I1 and the secondary voltage V2, and record the results in copy of Practical
4.1, Results Table.
6. On virtual or conventional instrumentation, record the primary input power to the transformer in your
copy of the results table.
7. Turn the ‘variable output voltage’ control to 0% on the Universal Power Supply 60-105 and then switch
off the ‘3 phase circuit breaker’.
8. Calculate cosΦ, the angle Φ, I c and Im from the test results recorded in Practical 4.1 and construct the
phasor diagram. Now that the currents I c and Im have been evaluated, we can find the values of the
equivalent core loss resistance Rc and magnetizing reactance Xm. Draw the equivalent circuit for the
transformer on no-load and insert these values into it. The methods of calculating R c and Xm is detailed
in the introduction section of this assignment.

Figure 4. 8
Lab Implementation

Transformer Arrangement

Virtual Instrumentation
 Graphical Representation of Primary Voltage

Graphical Representation of Primary Current

Practical 4.1 Results Table

Primary volts Primary Secondary volts Input Power

(V) current (A) (A)
Lab Task 2

1. Make the connections shown in Figure4.9.

2. If virtual instrumentation is being used, set the 250 V/500 V range switches for the V1 and V2 channels
to ‘250 V’ on the Multichannel I/O Unit 68-500. This allows voltages of up to 250 V to be monitored
when the ‘500 V/250 V’ sockets are connected. Additionally, set the 1 A/10 A range switch for I1 and I2
to ‘1 A’. This allows currents of up to 1 A to be monitored when the 10 A/1 A socket is connected or
200 mA to be monitored when the 200 mA socket is connected.
3. On the Universal Power Supply 60-105, ensure the ‘variable output voltage’ control is set to 0%.
4. Set the ‘3 phase circuit breaker’ to the on position and then rotate the ‘variable output voltage’ control to
give a reading of 0.43 A (as read by I2 virtual or conventional instrumentation).
5. Measure the primary voltage V1 and current I1 using the virtual or conventional instrumentation.
Record the results in a copy of the appropriate Practical 8.1, Results Table. Include in your Practical 4.2,
Results Table the power value read on the virtual or conventional Electrodynamic Wattmeter.
6. Return the ‘variable output voltage’ control to zero (most anti-clockwise position) on the Universal
Power Supply 60-105 and switch off the ‘3 phase circuit breaker’.

Note: The students MUST ensure that voltage control knob on universal power supply 60-105 is at ZERO
(most anti-clockwise position) before energizing the supply to perform short circuit test. Failure to do so
may lead to damaging/loss of equipment.
Figure 4.9
Lab Implementation

Transformer Arrangement

Virtual Instrumentation
 Graphical Representation of Primary Voltage

Graphical Representation of Primary Current

Practical 4.2 Results Table

Primary volts Primary Secondary Input Power

(V) current (A) current (A)
Critical Analysis/Conclusion

Lab Assessment

Pre-Lab
/1

In Lab /10
/5

Post Lab /4

Instructor Signature and Comments