PSS Lab Manual PDF

Power Systems Simulation Lab
GRIET/EEE
POWER SYSTEMS SIMULATION LAB
IV YEAR I SEM
EEE
By
Dr. J. Sridevi
Syed Sarfaraz Nawaz
G.Sandhya Rani
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering &

Technology
Bachupally
1
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GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous)
Bachupally , Hyderabad-500 072
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that it is a record of practical work done in
the Power Systems Simulation Laboratory in I sem of
IV
year during the year ________________________

Name:
Roll No:
Branch: EEE
Signature of staff member

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INDEX
S.No
Date
Topic
Page no.
Signature of
the Faculty
1.
Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
2.
Equivalent circuit of a Transformer
3.
Determination of voltage and power at
14
the sending end, voltage regulation using

medium line model
4.
Determination of line performance when
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loaded at receiving end

5.
Formation of bus Admittance matrix
25
6.
Load flow Solution using Gauss Seidel
30
Method
7.
Load flow solution using Newton
37
Raphson method in Rectangular

Coordinates
8.
a) Optimal dispatch neglecting Losses
41
b) Optimal dispatch including Losses
47
9.
Transient Response of an RLC Circuit
51
10.
Three phase short circuit analysis in a
57
Synchronous Machine
11.
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis
63
12.
Zbus Building Algorithm
73

13.
a) Obtain Symmetrical components of a
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set of Unbalanced currents

b) Obtain the original Unbalanced phase
voltages from Symmetrical Components
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14.
Short Circuit Analysis of 14 bus system
86
15.
Load Frequency control of a single area
90
system
16.
Load frequency control of a two area
95
system
17.
Step response of rotor angle and
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generator frequency of a Synchronous

Machine
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Date:
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Experiment-1
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Aim: To determine sinusoidal voltages and currents

Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : The RMS Voltage of an AC Waveform
The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the squared function of the
instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
The term RMS, refers to time-varying sinusoidal voltages, currents or complex waveforms were
the magnitude of the waveform changes over time and is not used in DC circuit analysis or
calculations were the magnitude is always constant. When used to compare the equivalent RMS
voltage value of an alternating sinusoidal waveform that supplies the same electrical power to a
given load as an equivalent DC circuit, the RMS value is called the effective value and is
presented as: Veffor Ieff.
In other words, the effective value is an equivalent DC value which tells you how many volts or
amps of DC that a time-varying sinusoidal waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to produce
the same power. For example, the domestic mains supply in the United Kingdom is 240Vac. This
value is assumed to indicate an effective value of 240 Volts RMS. This means then that the
sinusoidal RMS voltage from the wall sockets of a UK home is capable of producing the same
average positive power as 240 volts of steady DC voltage as shown below.
RMS Voltage Equivalent
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Circuit diagram:
Fig: Simulink model for voltage and current measurement

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model

Open Simulink Library and browse the components
Connect the components as per circuit diagram
Set the desired voltage and required frequency
Simulate the circuit using MATLAB
Plot the waveforms.
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Graph:
Calculations:
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Result:
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Signature of the faculty

Date:
Experiment-2
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
Aim: To determine the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer from OC SC test

data
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of
electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement.
This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent
circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V 1 and

voltage across the primary winding is E 1. Total electric current
supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the
primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it
appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across
winding is countered by primary induced emf E 1. So voltage
equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total

primary current I1 has two components, one is no - load
component Io and the other is load component I2. As this
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primary current has two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with
primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of electric current is known as excitation
branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the
excitation circuit can be represented as
The load component I2 flows through the

primary winding of transformer and induced
voltage across the winding is E 1as shown in
the figure right. This induced voltage
E1 transforms to secondary and it is E2 and
load component of primary current I 2 is
transformed to secondary as secondary
current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the
voltage E2 across secondary winding is
partly
dropped
by I2Z2 or
I2R2 +
j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The load
voltage
is
V2 .
Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be K times
greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2.
Again I2.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
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From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure
below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of

Transformer
Since Io is very small compared to I1, it
is less than 5% of full load primary
current, Io changes the voltage drop
insignificantly. Hence, it is good
approximation to ignore the excitation
circuit in approximate equivalent circuit
of transformer. The winding resistance
and reactance being in series can now
be combined into equivalent resistance
and reactance of transformer, referred to
any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary side.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be
drawn.
Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as
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Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Set the desired voltage and current
Plot the waveforms
Graph:
Calculations:
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Result:

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Date:
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Experiment-3
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A MEDIUM LINE MODEL
Aim: To determine voltage and power at the sending end and to regulate the voltage using
medium line model.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: The transmission line having its effective length more than 80 km but less than
250 km, is generally referred to as a medium transmission line. Due to the line length being
considerably high, admittance Y of the network does play a role in calculating the effective
circuit parameters, unlike in the case of short transmission lines. For this reason the modelling
of a medium length transmission line is done using lumped shunt admittance along with the
lumped impedance in series to the circuit.
These lumped parameters of a medium length transmission line can be represented using two
different models, namely1)Nominal representation.
2)Nominal T representation.
Lets now go into the detailed discussion of these above mentioned models.
Nominal Representation of a Medium Transmission Line
In case of a nominal representation,
the lumped series impedance is placed
at the middle of the circuit where as
the shunt admittances are at the ends.
As we can see from the diagram of the
network below, the total lumped
shunt admittance is divided into 2
equal halves, and each half with value
Y 2 is placed at both the sending and the receiving end while the entire circuit impedance is
between the two. The shape of the circuit so formed resembles that of a symbol , and for
this reason it is known as the nominal representation of a medium transmission line. It is
mainly used for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow analysis.
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As we can see here, VS and VR is the supply and receiving end voltages respectively, and
Is is the current flowing through the supply end.
IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.
I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances. And
I2 is the current through the impedance Z.
Now applying KCL, at node P, we get.
..
Similarly applying KCL, to node Q.
.
Now substituting equation (2) to equation (1)
Now by applying KVL to the circuit,
Comparing equation (4) and (5) with the standard ABCD parameter equations
15

We
derive
the
parameters
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of
medium
transmission
line
as:
Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage from
no-load to full load condition.
Circuit Diagram:
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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Calculate the voltage regulation of medium line model.
Calculations:
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Result:
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Date:
Experiment-4
LINE PERFORMANCE WHEN LOADED AT RECEIVING END
Aim: To determine line performance when loaded at receiving end

Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : Nominal Representation of a Medium Transmission Line
In case of a nominal representation,
the lumped series impedance is placed
at the middle of the circuit where as
the shunt admittances are at the ends.
As we can see from the diagram of the
network below, the total lumped
shunt admittance is divided into 2
equal halves, and each half with value
Y 2 is placed at both the sending and the receiving end while the entire circuit impedance is
between the two. The shape of the circuit so formed resembles that of a symbol , and for
this reason it is known as the nominal representation of a medium transmission line. It is
mainly used for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow analysis.
As we can see here, VS and VR is the supply and receiving end voltages respectively, and
Is is the current flowing through the supply end.
IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.
I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances. And
I2 is the current through the impedance Z.
Now applying KCL, at node P, we get.
..........(1)
Similarly applying KCL, to node Q.
..........(2)
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Now substituting equation (2) to equation (1)
Now by applying KVL to the circuit,
Comparing equation (4) and (5) with the standard ABCD parameter equations
We
derive
the
parameters
of
medium
transmission
line
as:
Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage from
no-load to full load condition.
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Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Obtain the line performance of a line.
Graph:
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Result
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Date:
Experiment-5
FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX USING MATLAB

Aim: To determine the bus admittance matrix for the given power system Network
Apparatus: MATLAB 7.7
Theory:
Formation of Y BUS matrix
Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies.In most of power system
studies it is necessary to form Y-bus matrix of the system by considering certain power system
parameters depending upon the type of analysis. For example in load flow analysis it is necessary
to form Y-bus matrix without taking into account the generator impedance and load impedance.
In short circuit analysis the generator transient reactance and transformer impedance taken in
account, in addition to line data. Y-bus may be computed by inspection method only if there is
no natural coupling between the lines. Shunt admittance are added to the diagonal elements
corresponding to the buses at which these are connected. The off diagonal elements are
unaffected. The equivalent circuit of tap changing transformer may be considered in forming[ybus] matrix.
There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the bus vectors of currents
and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS
The relation of equation can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively.
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal to
the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present between the
buses I and j, if any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the rule of
inspection are obtained as:
Yii = yij (j = 1,2,.n)
Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,.n)
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For i = 1,2,.n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected
between bus i and ground (reference bus).
START
Read the no. Of buses , no of

lines and line data
Initialize the Y- BUS Matrix
Consider line l = 1
i = sb(1); I= eb(1)
Y(i,i) =Y(i,i)+Yseries(l) +0.5Yseries(l)

Y(j,j) =Y(j,j)+Yseries(l) +0.5Yseries(l)
Y(i,j) = -Yseries(l)
Y(j,i) =Y(i,j)
NO
l = l+1
Is l =NL?
YES
Print Y -Bus
Stop
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MATLAB PROGRAM
function[Ybus] = ybus(zdata)
nl=zdata(:,1); nr=zdata(:,2); R=zdata(:,3); X=zdata(:,4);
nbr=length(zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
Z = R + j*X; %branch impedance
y= ones(nbr,1)./Z; %branch admittance
Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus); % initialize Ybus to zero
for k = 1:nbr; % formation of the off diagonal elements
if nl(k) > 0 & nr(k) > 0
Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) - y(k);
Ybus(nr(k),nl(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k));
end
end
for n = 1:nbus % formation of the diagonal elements
for k = 1:nbr
if nl(k) == n | nr(k) == n
Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n) + y(k);
else, end
end
end
Calculations:
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Result:

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Date:
Experiment-6
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD
Aim:
To carry out load flow analysis of the given power system network by Gauss Seidel
method
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Load flow analysis is the study conducted to determine the steady state operating
condition of the given system under given conditions. A large number of numerical algorithms
have been developed and Gauss Seidel method is one of such algorithm.
Problem Formulation
The performance equation of the power system may be written of
[I bus] = [Y bus][V bus]
(1)
Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations. The bus
loading equations can be written as
Ii = Pi-jQi / Vi* (i=1,2,3,..n)
(2)
Where,
n
Pi=Re [ Vi*Yik Vk] .
(3)
k=1
n
Qi= -Im [ Vi*Yik Vk].
(4)
k=1
The bus voltage can be written in form of
n
Vi=(1.0/Yii)[Ii- Yij Vj]
(5)
j=1
ji(i=1,2,n)& islack bus
Substituting Ii in the expression for Vi, we get
n
Vi new=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi / Vio* - Yij Vio]
J=1
The latest available voltages are used in the above expression, we get
n
Vi new=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi /
Voi*
- YijVj - Yij Vio]

n
J=1
(6)
(7)
j=i+1
The above equation is the required formula .this equation can be solved for voltages in
interactive manner. During each iteration, we compute all the bus voltage and check for
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convergence is carried out by comparison with the voltages obtained at the end of previous
iteration. After the solutions is obtained. The stack bus real and reactive powers, the reactive
power generation at other generator buses and line flows can be calculated.
Algorithm
Step1: Read the data such as line data, specified power, specified voltages, Q limits at the
generator buses and tolerance for convergences
Step2: Compute Y-bus matrix.
Step3: Initialize all the bus voltages.
Step4: Iter=1
Step5: Consider i=2, where i is the bus number.
Step6: check whether this is PV bus or PQ bus. If it is PQ bus goto step 8 otherwise go to next
step.
Step7: Compute Qi check for q limit violation. QGi=Qi+QLi.
7).a).If QGi>Qi max ,equate QGi = Qimax. Then convert it into PQ bus.
7).b).If QGi<Qi min, equate QGi = Qi min. Then convert it into PQ bus.
Step8: Calculate the new value of the bus voltage using gauss seidal formula.
i=1
Vi=(1.0/Yii) [(Pi-j Qi)/vi0*- Yij Vj- YijVj0]

J=1
J=i+1
Adjust voltage magnitude of the bus to specify magnitude if Q limits are not violated.
Step9: If all buses are considered go to step 10 otherwise increments the bus no. i=i+1 and Go to
step6.
Step10: Check for convergence. If there is no convergence goes to step 11 otherwise go to
step12.
Step11: Update the bus voltage using the formula.
Vinew=Vi old+ (vinew-Viold) (i=1,2,..n) i slackbus , is the acceleration factor=1.4
Step12: Calculate the slack bus power, Q at P-V buses real and reactive give flows real and
reactance line losses and print all the results including all the bus voltages and all the
bus angles.
Step13: Stop.
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START
Read
1. Primitive Y matrix
2. Bus incidence matrix A
3. Slack bus voltages
4. Real and reactive bus powers Pi& Qi
5. Voltage magnitudes and their limits
Form Ybus
Make initial assumptions
Compute the parameters Ai for i=m+1,,n and Bik for i=1,2,,n;
k=1,2,,n
Set iteration count r=0
Set bus count i=2 and Vmax=0
Test for
type of bus
Compute Qi(r+1)
Qi(r+1) >Qi, max
Qi(r+1) < Qi,min
Qi(r+1) = Qi,max
Qi(r+1) = Qi,min
Compute Ai
Compute Vi(r+1)
Compute Ai(r+1)
Compute i(r+1) and

Vi(r+1) =|Vis|/i(r+1)
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r
(r+1)
Replace Vi by Vi
and
advance bus count i = i+1
Is i<=n
Advance iteration
count, r = r+1
Is
Vmax<=
Compute slack bus power P1+jQ1 and all line flows

FLOW CHART FOR GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD
Procedure
Enter the command window of the MATLAB.
Create a new M file by selecting File - New M File.
Type and save the program in the editor Window.
Execute the program by pressing Tools Run.
View the results.
MATLAB program
clear
basemva=100;
accuracy=0.001; maxiter=100;
%
no code mag degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Qmin Qmax Mvar
busdata=[1 1 1.05 0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 0 0 0
2 0 1.0
0.0 256.66
110.2 0.0 0.0 0 0
3 0 1.0
0.0 138.6
45.2
0];
0.0 0.0 0 0
% bus bus R X 1/2B =1 for lines

linedata=[1
0.02
0.04
0.0 1
0.01
0.03 0.0 1
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2
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0.0125 0.025 0.0 1];
lfybus
lfgauss
busout
lineflow
Calculations:
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Result

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Date:
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Experiment-7
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY NEWTON RAPSHON METHOD
Aim
To carry out load flow analysis of the given power system by Newton Raphson method.

Theory:
The Newton Raphson method of load flow analysis is an iterative method which approximates
the set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using
Taylors series expansion and the terms are limited to first order approximation. The load flow
equations for Newton Raphson method are non-linear equations in terms of real and imaginary
part of bus voltages.
where, ep = Real part of Vp

fp = Imaginary part of Vp
Gpq, Bpq = Conductance and Susceptances of admittance Ypq respectively.
Algorithm
Step1: Input the total number of buses. Input the details of series line impendence and line
charging admittance to calculate the Y-bus matrix.
Step2: Assume all bus voltage as 1 per unit except slack bus.
Step3: Set the iteration count as k=0 and bus count as p=1.
Step4: Calculate the real and reactive power pp and qp using the formula
P=vpqYpq*cos(Qpq+p-q)
Qp=VpqYpa*sin(qpq+p-a)
Evalute pp*=psp-pp*
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Step5: If the bus is generator (PV) bus, check the value of Qp*is within the limits.If it Violates
the limits, then equate the violated limit as reactive power and treat it as PQ bus. If limit is not
isolated then calculate,
|vp|^r=|vgp|^rspe-|vp|r ;
Qp*=qsp-qp*
Step6: Advance bus count by 1 and check if all the buses have been accounted if not go to step5.
Step7: Calculate the elements of Jacobean matrix.
Step8: Calculate new bus voltage increment pk and fpk
Step9: Calculate new bus voltage ep*h+ ep*
Fp^k+1=fpK+fpK
Step10: Advance iteration count by 1 and go to step3.
Step11: Evaluate bus voltage and power flows through the line .
Procedure
View the results.
MATLAB program:
clear
basemva=100;accuracy=0.001;maxiter=100;
% no code mag degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Qmin Qmax Mvar
busdata=[1 1 1.05 0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 0 0 0
2 0 1.0
0.0 256.66 110.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
30
0.0 138.6
1.0
45.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0];
% bus bus R X 1/2B =1 for lines

linedata=[1 2 0.02
0.04
0.0 1
0.03
0.0 1
1 3
0.01
2 3
0.0125 0.025
0.0 1];
lfybus
lfnewton
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busout
lineflow
Calculations:
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Result

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Date:
Experiment-8(a)
OPTIMAL DISPATCH NEGLECTING LOSSES

Aim : To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem without transmission
losses for a given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration method.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
As the losses are neglected, the system model can be understood as shown in Fig, here n number
of generating units are connected to a common bus bar, collectively meeting the total power
demand PD. It should be understood that share of power demand by the units does not involve
losses.
Since transmission losses are neglected, total demand PD is the sum of all generations of nnumber of units. For each unit, a cost functions Ci is assumed and the sum of all costs computed
from these cost functions gives the total cost of production CT.
Fig : System with n-generators

where the cost function of the ith unit, from Eq. (1.1) is:
Ci = i + iPi + iPi2
Now, the ED problem is to minimize CT, subject to the satisfaction of the following equality and
inequality constraints.
Equality constraint
The total power generation by all the generating units must be equal to the power demand.
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where Pi = power generated by ith unit

PD = total power demand.
Inequality constraint
Each generator should generate power within the limits imposed.
Pimin Pi Pimax i = 1, 2, , n
Economic dispatch problem can be carried out by excluding or including generator power
limits, i.e., the inequality constraint.
The constrained total cost function can be converted into an unconstrained function by using
the Lagrange multiplier as:
The conditions for minimization of objective function can be found by equating partial
differentials of the unconstrained function to zero as
Since Ci = C1 + C2++Cn
From the above equation the coordinate equations can be written as:
The second condition can be obtained from the following equation:

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Equations Required for the ED solution

For a known value of , the power generated by the ith unit from can be written as:
which can be written as:
The required value of is:
The value of can be calculated and compute the values of Pi for i = 1, 2,, n for optimal
scheduling of generation.
POWER WORLD bus diagram:
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Procedure :
Create a new file in edit mode by selecting File - New File.
Browse the components and build the bus sytem
Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-opf areas-select opf
Run the primal lp
View the results in case information-Generator fuel costs.
Tabulate the results.
Results:
Generator
Name
1
2
3
Gen
MW
79.52
126
114
IOA
150
600
335
IOB
5
1.2
1
IOC
0.11
0.085
0.1225
Min
MW
10
10
10
Max
MW
250
300
270
Cost
$/Hr
1243.12
2100.66
2041.01
Lambda
22.49
22.62
28.93
Total Cost = 5384. 79$/hr

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Calculations
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Result

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Date:
Experiment-8(b)
OPTIMAL DISPATCH INCLUDING LOSSES

Aim : To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem including transmission
losses for a given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration method.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : When the transmission losses are included in the economic dispatch problem, we can
modify (5.4) as
PT P1 P2 PN PLOSS
where PLOSS is the total line loss. Since PT is assumed to be constant, we have
0 dP1 dP2 dPN dPLOSS
In the above equation dPLOSS includes the power loss due to every generator, i.e.,
dPLOSS
PLOSS
P
P
dP1 LOSS dP2 LOSS dPN
P1
P2
PN
Also minimum generation cost implies dfT = 0 as given Multiplying by and combing we get
P
0 LOSS dP1 LOSS dP2 LOSS dPN

P1
P2
PN
Adding with we obtain

N
f
P
0 T LOSS dPi
Pi
i 1 Pi
The above equation satisfies when
fT
P
LOSS 0, i 1,, N
Pi
Pi
Again since
fT dfT
, i 1,, N
Pi Pi
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we get
df1
df
df
L1 2 L2 N LN
dPi
dP2
dPN
where Li is called the penalty factor of load-i and is given by
Li
, i 1,, N
1 PLOSS Pi
Consider an area with N number of units. The power generated are defined by the vector
P P1
P2 PN
Then the transmission losses are expressed in general as

PLOSS PT BP
where B is a symmetric matrix given by

B11
B
B 12

B1N
B12
B22
B2 N
B1N
B2 N

BNN
The elements Bij of the matrix B are called the loss coefficients. These coefficients are not
constant but vary with plant loading. However for the simplified calculation of the penalty factor
Li these coefficients are often assumed to be constant.
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Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure :
Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-opf areas-select opf
Run the primal lp
View the results in case information-Generator fuel costs.
Results:
Generator
Name
1
2
3
Gen
MW
106.38
126
86.22
IOA
150
600
335
IOB
5
1.2
1
IOC
0.11
0.085
0.1225
IOD
0
0
0
Min
MW
10
10
10
Max
MW
250
300
270
Cost
$/Hr
Lambda
1926.66
28.4
2100.66
22.62
1331.84
22.12
Total Cost =
5359.15$/hr
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Result

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Date:
Experiment-9
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF A RLC CIRCUIT

Aim:
To obtain the transient response of an RLC circuit with its damping frequency and
damping ratio using MATLAB
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in
communications systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical
applications, etc. The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have
seen in the previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the
previously studied RC or RL circuits. A summary of the response is given below.
Lets assume a series RLC circuit. The discussion is also applicable to other RLC circuits such as
the parallel circuit.
Figure 1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two parts:
x(t) = xn(t) + xp(t),
in which xn(t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential equation
also called the natural response) and a xp(t) is the particular solution (also called forced
response). Lets focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution depends on the
roots of the characteristic equation,
in which is the damping ratio and
quadratic equation are equal to,
is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for the
current iL(t) or vC(t),
s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0.
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:
Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2
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The total response consists of the sum of the

complementary and the particular solution. The case of
a critically damped response to a unit input step
function.
Case 2: Overdamped response: two real and unequal roots s1 and
s2
Case 3: Underdamped response: two complex roots
Procedure:
View the results.
MATLAB Program:
wn = input('Enter value of undamped natural frequency')
z = input('Enter value of damping ratio')
n = [wn*wn]
p = sqrt(1-z^2)
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wd = wn*p;
h = [p/z];
k = atan(h)
m = pi-k;
tr = [m/wd]
tp = [pi/wd]
q = z*wn
ts = [4/q]
r = z*pi
f = [r/p]
mp = exp(-f)
num = [0 0 n]
den = [1 z*z*wn n]
s = tf(num,den)
hold on
step(s)
impulse(s)
hold off
Result:
Enter value of undamped natural frequency 16
wn =
16
Enter value of damping ratio0.5

z=
0.5000
n = 256
55

p=
0.8660
k=
1.0472
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tr = 0.1511
tp =
0.2267
q=
ts = 0.5000
r = 1.5708
f=
1.8138
mp =
0.1630
num =
den =
0
1
0 256
4 256
Transfer function:
256
--------------s^2 + 4 s + 256
Graph:
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Calculations:
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Result

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Date:
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Experiment-10
THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINE
Aim: To Analyze symmetrical fault
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: The response of the armature current when a three-phase symmetrical short circuit
occurs at the terminals of an unloaded synchronous generator.
It is assumed that there is no dc offset in the armature current. The magnitude of the current
decreases exponentially from a high initial value. The instantaneous expression for the fault
current is given by
where Vt is the magnitude of the terminal voltage, is its phase angle and
is the direct axis subtransient reactance
is the direct axis transient reactance
is the direct axis synchronous reactance
with
The time constants are
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is the direct axis subtransient time constant

is the direct axis transient time constant
we have neglected the effect of the armature resistance hence = /2. Let us assume that the
fault occurs at time t = 0. From
(6.9) we get the rms value of the
current as
which is called the subtransient fault current. The duration of the subtransient current is
dictated by the time constant Td . As the time progresses and Td < t < Td , the first
exponential term will start decaying and will eventually vanish. However since t is still nearly
equal to zero, we have the following rms value of the current
This is called the transient fault current. Now as the time progress further and the second
exponential term also decays, we get the following rms value of the current for the sinusoidal
steady state
In addition to the ac, the fault currents will also contain the dc offset. Note that a symmetrical
fault occurs when three different phases are in three different locations in the ac cycle.
Therefore the dc offsets in the three phases are different. The maximum value of the dc offset
is given by
where TA is the armature time constant.
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6. Plot the waveforms
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Circuit Diagram:
Graph:
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Calculations:
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Result

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Date:
Experiment-11
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS
Aim: To analyze unsymmetrical fault

Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Single Line-to-Ground Fault
The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as short circuit fault and occurs when one
conductor falls to ground or makes contact with the neutral wire. The general representation
of a single line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.10 where F is the fault point with
impedances Zf. Figure 3.11 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase a is usually
assumed to be the faulted phase, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations. [1]
Ia0
F0
+
Va0
Iaf
Z0
N0
Ia1
a
b
c
+
Vaf
3Zf
+
Va1
-
N1
F1
Z1
+
1.0
-
Iaf
Ibf = 0
Ia2
Icf = 0
Zf
F2
+
Va2
-
Z2
N2
n
General representation of a single
line-to-ground fault.
Sequence network diagram of a

single line-to-ground fault
Since the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence currents are equals as it can be observed
in Figure 3.11. Therefore,
I a 0 I a1 I a 2
1.00
Z 0 Z1 Z 2 3Z f
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With the results obtained for sequence currents, the sequence voltages can be obtained
from
Va 0 0 1 1
V 1.00 1 a 2
b1

Vc 2 0 1 a
1 Ia0
a I a1
a 2 I a 2
By solving Equation
Va 0 Z 0 I a 0
Va1 1.0 Z1 I a1
Va 2 Z 2 I a 2
If the single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase b or c, the voltages can be found by the
relation that exists to the known phase voltage components,
Vaf 1 1

2
Vbf 1 a
Vcf 1 a

1 Va 0
a Va1
a 2 Va 2
as
Vbf Va 0 a 2Va1 aVa 2

Vcf Va 0 aVa1 a 2Va 2
Line-to-Line Fault
A line-to-line fault may take place either on an overhead and/or underground
transmission system and occurs when two conductors are short-circuited. One of the
characteristic of this type of fault is that its fault impedance magnitude could vary over a wide
range making very hard to predict its upper and lower limits. It is when the fault impedance is
zero that the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault occurs
The general representation of a line-to-line fault is shown in Figure 3.12 where F is the
fault point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.13 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and
c are usually assumed to be the faulted phases; this is for simplicity in the fault analysis
calculations [1],
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Zf
Ia0 = 0
a
b
c
+
Va0 = 0
-
Iaf = 0
Ibf
Icf = -Ibf
Ia1
F0
Z0
N0
+
Va1
-
N1
Ia2
F1
+
Z1
Va2
+
1.0 0o -
F2
Z2
N2
Zf
Sequence network diagram of a line-to-line fault Sequence network diagram of a single

line-to-line fault.
It can be noticed that
I af 0
Ibf I cf
Vbc Z f Ibf
And the sequence currents can be obtained as

Ia0 0
I a1 I a 2
1.00
Z1 Z 2 Z f
If Zf = 0,
I a1 I a 2
1.00
Z1 Z 2
The fault currents for phase b and c can be obtained as
Ibf I cf 3 I a1 90
The sequence voltages can be found as
Va 0 0
Va1 1.0 - Z1 I a1
Va 2 Z 2 I a 2 Z 2 I a1
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Finally, the line-to-line voltages for a line-to-line fault can be expressed as

Vab Vaf Vbf
Vbc Vbf Vcf
Vca Vcf Vaf
Double Line-to-Ground Fault

A double line-to-ground fault represents a serious event that causes a significant
asymmetry in a three-phase symmetrical system and it may spread into a three-phase fault when
not clear in appropriate time. The major problem when analyzing this type of fault is the
assumption of the fault impedance Zf , and the value of the impedance towards the ground Zg.
The general representation of a double line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.14 where
F is the fault point with impedances Z f and the impedance from line to ground Zg . Figure 3.15
shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and c are assumed to be the faulted phases, this is
for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations.
a
b
c
F
Ia0
Iaf = 0 Ibf
Zf
Icf
Zf
+
Va0
-
Zg
Ibf +Icf
Zf +3Zg
F0
Z0
N0
Ia1
+
Va1
-
N1
Zf
Ia2
F1
+
Z1
Va2
+
1.0 0o -
Zf
F2
Z2
N2
General representation of a
double line-to-ground fault.
Sequence network diagram

of a double line-to-ground fault
It can be observed that
I af 0
Vbf ( Zf Zg ) Ibf ZgIcf
Vcf ( Zf Zg ) Icf ZgIbf
The positive-sequence currents can be found as
Ia1
1.00
( Z 2 Zf )( Z 0 Zf 3Zg )
( Z 1 Zf )
( Z 2 Zf ) ( Z 0 Zf 3Zg )
68
Ia 2 [
( Z 0 Zf 3Zg )
]Ia1
( Z 2 Zf ) ( Z 0 Zf 3Zg )
Ia 0 [
( Z 2 Zf )
]Ia1
( Z 2 Zf ) ( Z 0 Zf 3Zg )
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An alternative method is,

Iaf 0 Ia 0 Ia1 Ia 2
Ia 0 ( Ia1 Ia 2)
If Zf and Zg are both equal to zero, then the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequences can
be obtained from
Ia1
1.00
( Z 2)( Z 0)
( Z 1)
( Z 2 Z 0)
Ia 2 [
( Z 0)
]Ia1
( Z 2 Z 0)
Ia 0 [
( Z 2)
]Ia1
( Z 2 Z 0)
The current for phase a is

I af 0
I bf I a 0 a 2 I a1 aI a 2
I cf I a 0 aI a1 a 2 I a 2
The total fault current flowing into the neutral is
I n 3I a 0 Ibf I cf
The resultant phase voltages from the relationship given in Equation 3.78 can be
expressed as
Vaf Va 0 Va1 Va 2 3Va1

Vbf Vcf 0
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And the line-to-line voltages are

Vabf Vaf Vbf Vaf
Vbcf Vbf Vcf 0
Vcaf Vcf Vaf Vaf
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6. Plot the waveforms
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Graph:
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Result
74
Date:
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Experiment-12
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX USING MATLAB

Aim: To determine the bus impedance matrix for the given power system Network
Theory:
Formation of Z BUS matrix
Z-bus matrix is an important matrix used in different kinds of power system study such as
short circuit study, load flow study etc. In short circuit analysis the generator uses transformer
impedance must be taken into account. In quality analysis the two-short element are neglected by
forming the z-bus matrix which is used to compute the voltage distribution factor. This can be
largely obtained by reversing the y-bus formed by inspection method or by analytical method.
Taking inverse of the y-bus for large system in time consuming; Moreover modification in the
system requires whole process to be repeated to reflect the changes in the system. In such cases
is computed by z-bus building algorithm.
Algorithm
Step 1: Read the values such as number of lines, number of buses and line data, generator data
and transformer data.
Step 2: Initialize y-bus matrix y-bus[i] [j] =complex.(0.0,0.0)
Step 3: Compute y-bus matrix by considering only line data.
Step 4: Modifies the y-bus matrix by adding the transformer and the generator admittance to the
respective diagonal elements of y-bus matrix.
Step 5: Compute the z-bus matrix by inverting the modified y-bus matrix.
Step 6: Check the inversion by multiplying modified y-bus and z-bus matrices to check whether
the resulting matrix is unit matrix or not.
Step 7: Print the z-bus matrix.
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START
Read the no. Of buses , no of

lines and line data
Form Y bus matrix using the algorithm

Y(i,i) =Y(i,i)+Yseries(l) +0.5Yseries(l)
Y(j,j) =Y(j,j)+Yseries(l) +0.5Yseries(l)
Y(i,j) = -Yseries(l)
Y(j,i) =Y(i,j)
Modifying the y bus by adding generator

and transformer admittances to respective
diagonal elements
Compute Z bus matrix by inverting

modified Y bus
Multiply modified Y bus and Z bus and check

whether the product is a unity matrix
Print all the results
STOP
Procedure:
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View the results.
MATLAB Program:
function[Ybus] = ybus(zdata)
zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
Z = R + j*X;
y= ones(nbr,1)./Z;
Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k = 1:nbr;
if nl(k) > 0 & nr(k) > 0
Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) - y(k);
Ybus(nr(k),nl(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k));
end
end
for n = 1:nbus
for k = 1:nbr
if nl(k) == n | nr(k) == n
Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n) + y(k);
else, end
end
end
Zbus= inv(Y)
Ibus=[-j*1.1;-j*1.25;0;0]
Vbus=Zbus*Ibus
%branch impedance
%branch admittance
% initialize Ybus to zero
% formation of the off diagonal elements
% formation of the diagonal elements
OUTPUT:
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Result:

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Date:
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Experiment-13(a)
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Aim: To obtain symmetrical components of set of unbalanced currents

Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Before we discuss the symmetrical component transformation, let us first define the aoperator.
0
1
3
a e j 120 j
2
2
Note that for the above operator the following relations hold
0
1
3
a 2 e j 240 j
a
2
2
a 3 e j 360 1
0
a 4 e j 480 e j 360 e j 120 a

0
a 5 e j 600 e j 360 e j 240 a 2 and so on

0
Also note that we have

1 a a2 1
1
3 1
3
j
j
0
2
2 2
2
Using the a-operator we can write from Fig. 7.1 (b)

Vb1 a 2Va1 and Vc1 aVa1
Similarly
Vb 2 aVa 2 and Vc 2 a 2Va 2
Finally
Va 0 Vb 0 Vc 0
The symmetrical component transformation matrix is then given by
80

Va 0
1 1
V 1 1 a
a1 3
Va 2
1 a 2
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1 Va
a 2 Vb
a Vc
Defining the vectors Va012 and Vabc as

Va 0
Va
Va 012 Va1 , Vabc Vb

Va 2
Vc
Program:
V012 = [0.6 90
1.0 30
0.8 -30];
rankV012=length(V012(1,:));
if rankV012 == 2
mag= V012(:,1); ang=pi/180*V012(:,2);
V012r=mag.*(cos(ang)+j*sin(ang));
elseif rankV012 ==1
V012r=V012;
else
fprintf('\n Symmetrical components must be expressed in a one column array in rectangular
complex form \n')
fprintf(' or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column magnitude & 2nd column
\n')
fprintf(' phase angle in degree. \n')
return, end
a=cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
A = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
Vabc= A*V012r
Vabcp= [abs(Vabc) 180/pi*angle(Vabc)];
fprintf(' \n Unbalanced phasors \n')
fprintf(' Magnitude Angle Deg.\n')
disp(Vabcp)
Vabc0=V012r(1)*[1; 1; 1];
Vabc1=V012r(2)*[1; a^2; a];
Vabc2=V012r(3)*[1; a; a^2];
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Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open Matlab--> File ---> New---> Script

Write the program
Enter F5 to run the program
Observe the results in MATLAB command window.
Result:
Vabc =
1.5588 + 0.7000i
-0.0000 + 0.4000i
-1.5588 + 0.7000i
Unbalanced phasors
Magnitude Angle Deg.
1.7088 24.1825
0.4000 90.0000
1.7088 155.8175
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Result
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Date:
Experiment-13(b)
UNBALANCED VOLTAGES FROM SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Aim: To obtain the original unbalanced phase voltages from symmetrical components
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Va 012 CVabc
where C is the symmetrical component transformation matrix and is given by

1 1
1
C 1 a
3
1 a 2
1
a 2
a
The original phasor components can also be obtained from the inverse symmetrical
component transformation, i.e.,
Vabc C 1Va 012
Inverting the matrix C we get

Va 1 1
V 1 a 2
b
Vc 1 a
1 Va 0
Va 0
1
a Va1 C Va1
Va 2
a 2 Va 2
Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2
Vb Va 0 a 2Va1 aVa 2 Vb0 Vb1 Vb 2

Vc Va 0 aVa1 a 2Va 2 Vc 0 Vc1 Vc 2
Finally, if we define a set of unbalanced current phasors as Iabc and their symmetrical
components as Ia012, we can then define
I a 012 CI abc
I abc C 1I a 012
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Program:
Iabc = [1.6 25
1.0 180
0.9 132];
rankIabc=length(Iabc(1,:));
if rankIabc == 2
mag= Iabc(:,1); ang=pi/180*Iabc(:,2);
Iabcr=mag.*(cos(ang)+j*sin(ang));
elseif rankIabc ==1
Iabcr=Iabc;
else
fprintf('\n Three phasors must be expressed in a one column array in rectangular complex
form \n')
fprintf(' or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column magnitude & 2nd column
\n')
fprintf(' phase angle in degree. \n')
return, end
a=cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
A = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
I012=inv(A)*Iabcr;
symcomp= I012
I012p = [abs(I012) 180/pi*angle(I012)];
fprintf(' \n Symmetrical components \n')
fprintf(' Magnitude Angle Deg.\n')
disp(I012p)
Iabc0=I012(1)*[1; 1; 1];
Iabc1=I012(2)*[1; a^2; a];
Iabc2=I012(3)*[1; a; a^2];
Result:
symcomp =
-0.0507 + 0.4483i
0.9435 - 0.0009i
0.5573 + 0.2288i
Symmetrical components
Magnitude Angle Deg.
0.4512 96.4529
0.9435 -0.0550
0.6024 22.3157
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Result
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Date:
Experiment-14
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF 14 BUS SYSTEM

Aim:
To obtain the short circuit analysis for a IEEE 14 bus system
Apparatus: POWERWORLD
Theory:
V f Z 44I f
Vi Zi 4 I f
Zi 4
V f , i 1,2,3
Z 44
We further assume that the system is unloaded before the fault occurs and that the magnitude and
phase angles of all the generator internal emfs are the same. Then there will be no current
circulating anywhere in the network and the bus voltages of all the nodes before the fault will be
same and equal to Vf. Then the new altered bus voltages due to the fault will be given from by
Z
Vi V f Vi 1 i 4 V f , i 1,,4
Z 44
14 bus system :
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Procedure :
Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-fault analysis
Select the fault on which bus and calculate
Results : 3-phase fault is applied on bus 3

Bus
Number
1
2
3
4
5
Va
0.41937
0.34862
0
0.29602
0.32956
Vb
0.41937
0.34862
0
0.29602
0.32956
Vc
0.41937
0.34862
0
0.29602
0.32956
Ang A
19.64
10.87
0
-2.25
0.58
Ang B
-100.36
-109.13
0
-122.25
-119.42
Ang C
139.64
130.87
0
117.75
120.58
89

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Fault current = 4.45 p.u
0.47538
0.42742
0.55864
0.41373
0.42145
0.44639
0.46474
0.45879
0.42532
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0.47538
0.42742
0.55864
0.41373
0.42145
0.44639
0.46474
0.45879
0.42532
0.47538
0.42742
0.55864
0.41373
0.42145
0.44639
0.46474
0.45879
0.42532
-10.63
-8.44
-10.06
-9.5
-9.94
-10.37
-11.44
-11.27
-11.3
-130.63
-128.44
-130.06
-129.5
-129.94
-130.37
-131.44
-131.27
-131.3
109.37
111.56
109.94
110.5
110.06
109.63
108.56
108.73
108.7
= 1861.67 A
Fault current angle = -77.74 deg
90
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Result

91

Date:
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Experiment-15
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF A SINGLE AREA POWER SYSTEM

Aim: To obtain the frequency response of single and two area power system using MATLAB
Formula used:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Where
D = damping coefficient
GG gain of generator
GT - gain of turbine
GP - gain of power
KP power system constant
KT- turbine constant
KG- generator constant
TP power system time constant
TG- generator time constant
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Plot the waveforms
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SIMULINK RESULTS:
Single Area Power System Block Diagram
Graph:
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RESULT
96

Date:
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Experiment-16
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF A TWO AREA POWER SYSTEM

Aim: To obtain the frequency response of two area power system using MATLAB
Apparatus: MATLAB
Formula used:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Where
D = damping coefficient
GG gain of generator
GT - gain of turbine
GP - gain of power
KP power system constant
KT- turbine constant
KG- generator constant
TP power system time constant
TG- generator time constant
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Plot the waveforms
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SIMULINK RESULTS:
Single Area Power System Block Diagram
Graphs:
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Result

101
Date:
GRIET/EEE
Experiment-17
STEP RESPONSE OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Aim: To obtain step response of rotor angle and generator frequency of a synchronous
machine
Apparatus: MATLAB
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Open File ---> New---> Model

Plot the waveforms
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Graph:
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Result

105

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Power Systems Simulation Lab

POWER SYSTEMS SIMULATION LAB

Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering &

Power Systems Simulation Lab

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF

year during the year ________________________

Signature of staff member

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

Equivalent circuit of a Transformer

Determination of voltage and power at

the sending end, voltage regulation using

Determination of line performance when

loaded at receiving end

Formation of bus Admittance matrix

Load flow Solution using Gauss Seidel

Load flow solution using Newton

Raphson method in Rectangular

a) Optimal dispatch neglecting Losses

b) Optimal dispatch including Losses

Transient Response of an RLC Circuit

Three phase short circuit analysis in a

Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis

Zbus Building Algorithm

Power Systems Simulation Lab

a) Obtain Symmetrical components of a

set of Unbalanced currents

Short Circuit Analysis of 14 bus system

Load Frequency control of a single area

Load frequency control of a two area

Step response of rotor angle and

generator frequency of a Synchronous

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Aim: To determine sinusoidal voltages and currents

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Fig: Simulink model for voltage and current measurement

Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Signature of the faculty

Aim: To determine the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer from OC SC test

In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V 1 and

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total

Power Systems Simulation Lab

The load component I2 flows through the

Power Systems Simulation Lab

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Power Systems Simulation Lab

Signature of the faculty