SECTION 5: OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS

OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS In order to transmit signals over long distances (>100 km) it is necessary to compensate for attenuation losses within the fiber. Initially this was accomplished with an optoelectronic module consisting of an optical receiver, a regeneration and equalization system, and an optical transmitter to send the data. Although functional this arrangement is limited by the optical to electrical and electrical to optical conversions.

Fiber OE Rx Electronic Amp Equalization Regeneration OE Tx

Fiber

Optical Signal In

Optical Signal Out

Several types of optical amplifiers have since been demonstrated to replace the OE electronic regeneration systems. These systems eliminate the need for E-O and O-E conversions. This is one of the main reasons for the success of todays optical communications systems.

OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS The general form of an optical amplifier:

PUMP Power Fiber Weak Signal Amplified Signal Optical AMP Medium Optical Signal Out Fiber

Optical Signal In

Some types of OAs that have been demonstrated include: Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) Fiber Raman and Brillouin amplifiers Rare earth doped fiber amplifiers (erbium EDFA 1500 nm, praseodymium PDFA 1300 nm)

The most practical optical amplifiers to date include the SOA and EDFA types. New pumping methods and materials are also improving the performance of Raman amplifiers.

Characteristics of SOA types: Polarization dependent require polarization maintaining fiber Relatively high gain ~20 dB Output saturation power 5-10 dBm Large BW Can operate at 800, 1300, and 1500 nm wavelength regions. Compact and easily integrated with other devices Can be integrated into arrays High noise figure and cross-talk levels due to nonlinear phenomenon such as 4wave mixing. This last feature restricts the use of SOAs. Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) similar to a laser cavity. Used as a discrete amplifiers. They can be integrated into arrays of amplifying switching and gating devices. Finding application in all optical 3Rregeneration systems.
Electrical Drive Current

AR Weak Optical Signal In

AR Amplified Optical Signal

Semiconductor Cavity

Limited in operation below 10 Gb/s. (Higher rates are possible with lower gain.)

Rare Earth Doped Fiber Amplifier Characteristics: Rare earth doped fiber amplifiers are finding increasing importance in optical communications systems. Perhaps the most important version is erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) due to their ability to amplify signals at the low loss 1.55 mm wavelength range.

Characteristics of EDFAs (advantages): High power transfer efficiency from pump to signal power (> 50%). Wide spectral band amplification with relative flat gain (>20 dB) useful for WDM applications. Saturation output > 1 mW (10 to 25 dBm). Gain-time constant long (>100 msec) to overcome patterning effects and intermodulation distortions ( low noise). Large dynamic range. Low noise figure. Polarization independent. Suitable for long-haul applications.

Disadvantages of EDFAs: Relatively large devices (km lengths of fiber) not easily integrated with other devices. ASE amplified spontaneous emission. There is always some output even with no signal input due to some excitation of ions in the fiber spontaneous noise. Cross-talk effects. Gain saturation effects.

 An energy level diagram for Er doped silica is shown below.

4I (11/2)

0.98 um

4I (13/2) Pump Bands 1.48 um

1.53 um

Emission Wavelengths

4I (15/2)

Pumping is primarily done optically with the primary pump wavelengths at 1.48 mm and 0.98 mm. As indicated atoms pumped to the 4I (11/2) 0.98 mm band decays to the primary emission transition band. Pumping with 1.48 mm light is directly to the upper transition levels of the emission band. Semiconductor lasers have been developed for both pump wavelengths. 10-20 mW of absorbed pump power at these wavelengths can produce 30-40 dB of amplifier gain. Pump Efficiencies of 11 dB/mW achieved at 980 nm. Pumping can also be performed at 820 and 670 nm with GaAlAs laser diodes. Pump efficiencies are lower but these lasers can be made with high output power.

Typical Absorption/Gain Spectrum for Erbium Doped Fiber:

10

Absorption 5

Gain

1.51

1.53

1.55

Wavelength (um)

Since the gain spectrum of erbium resembles a 3-level atom it is possible to model the gain properties using this approach.

Several different wavelength bands have been designated for wavelength division multiplexing and EDFAs have been designed to operate in these bands. The divisions have been designated as*: S-Band 1480-1520 nm C-Band 1521-1560 nm L-Band 1561-1620 nm
(* Note some variability in these values is common.)

Cross Section (X 10^(-25)m^2)

6
Loss/Gain (dB/m)

General EDFA Amplifier Configuration:

980 or 1480 pump laser Isolator EDFA Weak Input Signal Coupler Narrow Band Filter

Amplified Output Signal

Basic Amplifier Characteristics Optical Gain Rare earth doped optical amplifiers work much like a laser. The primary difference is that they do not have a resonator. Amplification occurs primarily through the stimulated emission process. The medium is pumped until a population inversion state is achieved. Pump powers are typically several 20-250 mW. An isolator is used to reduce reflections at the input to the amplifier. A narrow band optical filter is used to reduce transmission of amplified spontaneous emission frequency components. The resultant optical gain depends both on the optical frequency and the local beam intensity within the amplifier section. For basic discussion consider a two-level homogeneously broadened medium.

 The gain coefficient can be expressed as:

g (w ) =

go 1 + (w - w o ) 2 T22 + P / Ps

go is the peak gain, w is the optical frequency of the incident signal, wo is the transition frequency, P is the optical power of the incident signal, T2 is the dipole relaxation time, and Ps is the saturation power. Typically T2 is small < 1 ps, and the saturation power Ps depends on gain medium parameters such as the fluorescence time and the transition cross section.

_____________________________________________________________ Gain Spectrum and BW: When not saturated (i.e. P/Ps <<1) the gain coefficient g(w) becomes:

g (w ) =

go . 1 + (w - w o ) 2 T22

Gain is maximum when w = wo (i.e. the gain coefficient is at resonance). At non-resonant frequencies the gain follows the homogeneously broadened characteristics of a two level atom (i.e. Lorentzian profile). The gain BW for this spectrum is typically expressed as the (Full Width at Half Maximum) FWHM

Dw g = 2 T2 .
Dn g =
with T2 ; 0.1 ps

Dw g 2p

Dn g ; 3THz
Large Spectral BW amplifiers are preferred for fiber optic systems to make them less sensitive to dispersed transmitted signals and useful for WDM systems. EDFA Gain Spectrum: The gain spectrum of erbium ions alone is homogeneously broadened and the BW is determined by the dipole relaxation time T2. However when placed in a glass host the spectrum is influenced both by the silica and any other dopants. This can result in inhomogeneous broadening contributions. The combined homogeneous and inhomogeneous BW of EDFAs: ~ 30 nm.

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Amplification factor: Define as: G = Pout/Pin

Pout is the amplifier output power and Pin the input power of a CW input signal.

Pump P N2 N1 z=0 P

in

Gain Medium z=L

out

From the previous discussion of the laser the gain in optical power per length of gain medium (z) with gain g is

dP = gP . dz
Integrating over a length z of amplifier medium gives the resultant optical power

P( z ) = P(0) exp( gz ) .

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The amplification factor after a length L of OAM (optical amplifier medium) is

G (w ) = exp[g (w ) L]
Both g(w) and G(w) are a maximum when the frequency is at resonance w = w o and decrease when the frequency is detuned from resonance. However the amplifier factor(G) decreases much faster than the gain coefficient(g). The amplifier BW DnA is defined as the FWHM of G(w)

ln 2 Dn A = Dn g ln(G / 2) o

0.5

where Dng is the gain BW, and Go = exp(goL). The amplifier BW is smaller than the gain BW. The difference depends on the amplifier gain characteristics. If Go = 10, Dn A = 0.656 Dn g

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Gain Saturation: Since g(w) depends on the incident optical power when P PS, G will start to decrease with an increase in optical power P. Assume that the incident frequency is tuned for peak gain (w = wo)

go P dP = . dz 1 + P / Ps
With the conditions P(0) = Pinc and P(L) = Pout = GPinc the large signal amplifier gain becomes

G - 1 Pout G = Go exp - G P S

This expression shows how the amplifier gain decreases when Pout Ps. Output saturation power the optical power at which G is reduced to Go/2 (3 dB)

out Psat =

Go ln 2 Ps . Go - 2

Typically Go =1000 (30 dB),

s \ Pout (ln 2) Ps 0.69 Ps .

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Amplifier Noise: Spontaneous emission in the amplifier will degrade the SNR by adding to the noise during the amplification process. SNR degradation is quantified through the amplifier noise figure Fn
Fn =

(SNR )in (SNR )out

where the SNR is based on the electrical power after converting the optical signal to an electrical current. Therefore Fn is referenced to the detection process and depends on parameters such as detector bandwidth (Be) and thermal and shot noise. Consider a simple case with an ideal detector with performance limited by shot noise. The amplifier has an amplification factor G (Pout = G Pin). SNR of the input signal:

SNRin =

s s2

(RPin )2 = 2q( RPin )Be

Pin , 2hnBe

s s2 = 2q (RPin )Be .
The spontaneous emission contribution is amplified along with the signal. The Spectral density of the spontaneous emission induced noise is nearly constant (white noise) and can be expressed as: S sp (n ) = (G - 1)n sp hn Spontaneous emission population inversion factor nsp is given by:
N2 . N 2 - N1 N2 and N1 are the population densities for the excited and ground states of the amplifying medium. n sp =

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 Alternatively can express the spontaneous emission power within the receiver bandwidth Be as:

Psp = 2 S sp Be
Spontaneous emission adds fluctuations to the amplified power and is converted to current fluctuations at the detector output. Major contribution to receiver noise results from coherent interference (beating) between the spontaneous emission with the signal. This results in a noise current given by

DI = 2 R(GPin Psp )1/ 2 cos q

The variance in the photocurrent after the signal is passed through the amplifier is

s 2 4( RGPin ) (RS sp )Be

where cos2 q is replaced with its average value of . (Note that this relation assumes several idealizations on the detection process i.e. other noise sources are negligible.) The SNR of the amplified signal becomes

SNRout =
and the amplifier noise figure is

(RGPin )2
s2

GPin 4 S sp Be

Fn = 2n sp (G - 1) / G 2n sp .
For most amplifiers Fn > 3 dB and can be 6-8 dB.

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 Characteristic plot of gain and noise figure for an erbium doped fiber amplifier pumped ~30 mW at 980 nm.
40 40

30
Noise Figure

30
Gain (dB)

20

20

10

10

0 1510 1520 Wavelength (nm) 1530 1540

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EDFA Gain Equalization

10 Unflattened EDFA Gain

Loss/Gain (dB/m)

Flattened EDFA Gain

1.51

1.53

1.55

1.56

Wavelength (um)

Gain equalization can be accomplished in several ways: a. Thin film filters b. Long period fiber gratings c. Chirped fiber Bragg gratings

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Raman Scattering, Stimulated Raman Scattering, and Raman Amplifiers: Raman scattering is an elastic scattering mechanism. Does not require a population inversion. A photon with energy hn1 traveling through a material can excite a vibrational transition of the material forming an optical phonon with energy hnp and a photon with slightly reduced energy hn2 given by

n 2 = n1 -n p

Energy

hn1

hn

hnp

Molecule is raised to a new vibrational state and the energy of the photon is reduced. There is a large difference between the photon and phonon energies. Raman scattering is weak effect. It occurs through a slight modulation of the refractive index through molecular vibrations of the material. Can derive the effect through a discussion of polarizability of a material.

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 The electric field induces a dipole moment of the molecule

p = qx
or

p =aE
where a is the complex polarizability of the molecule.
x +q E

o -q

The bulk polarizability of a material is expressed as

P = eo c ( ) E
1

with c (1) the linear susceptibility of the material. Response of a to an incident harmonic electric field:

a ( x ) = ao +

a x

dx
xo

dx is the displacement from the equilibrium molecular length xo

d x ( t ) = d xo e

jw p t

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p(t ) = a (t ) E (t )

a = ao + x

d xo e
xo

jw p t

E e jw1t o
j w1 w p t

= a o Eo e jw1t +

a x

d xo Eo e
xo

There are two frequency components: a) w1 ; b) w1 w p The second component is nonlinear the output frequency is different from the input frequency.

Stokes

Anti-Stokes

Energy

hn1

hn2

Energy

hn1

hn

hnp

hnp

Scattered light with lower energy (n 2 < n 1 ) Stokes Scattering. Scattered light with higher energy (n 2 > n 1 ) Anti-Stokes Scattering. Stokes scattering typically dominates due to greater population of the ground state relative to the vibrational state when the system is in thermal equilibrium. At low illumination levels the Raman process results in low scattering levels. The molecules contributing to the process are vibrating independently and the scattered light is non-directional. Spontaneous Raman Scattering.
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 At higher intensity levels the generated photons begin to act in phase or coherently i.e. the molecules oscillate as an array of vibrating oscillators. This gives rise to Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). SRS can be can be a problem but it can also be used as a signal amplification process. On the negative side it contributes to dispersion and places an operational limit on the amount of power that can be transmitted through a fiber. The Stokes wave is amplified as it propagates through the medium

dI 2 = Gr I 2 I1 dz
I2 is the intensity of the Stokes shifted light (w s = w1 - wvib ) ; I1 is the intensity of the pump beam (w1); and Gr is the Raman gain term that includes material factors such as a / x and varies as 1/l2. For I2 <<I1 and cases where the pump beam is not significantly depleted:

I 2 ( z ) = I 2 ( 0 ) eGr I1 z

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Properties of Raman Amplifiers: The peak resonance in silica fibers occurs about 13 THz from the pump wavelength. At 1550 nm this corresponds to a shift of about 100 nm.

Raman Gain Coefficient

l p = 1550 nm

24 13 Frequency Shift (THz)

As indicated power is transferred from shorter wavelengths to longer wavelengths. Coupling with the pump wavelength can be accomplished either in the forward or counter propagating direction. Power is coupled from the pump only if the signal channel is sending a 1 bit.

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Pump Arrangement to Extend the Range for Stimulated Raman Amplification: An array of laser diodes can be used to provide the Raman pump. The beams are combined and then coupled to the transmission fiber. The pump beams can counter propagate to the direction of the signal beams.

Transmission Fiber

14xx/1550 nm WDM Coupler

Raman Pump Block Laser Diode Array

1430 nm 1450 nm 1470 nm 1490 nm

14xx nm

Combiner

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Difficulties with Raman Amplifiers: The Pump and amplified signals are at different wavelengths. Therefore the signal and the pump pulses will separate due to dispersion (waveguide dispersion) after a certain propagation distance. The difference in propagation time is given by:

d t = ( L / c ) l 2 d 2 n / d l 2 (d n / n )
L is the fiber length. A 1 psec pump pulse at 600 nm separates from a 1 psec Stokes pulse in ~ 30 cm. A second problem is that the pump power decreases along the fiber length due to linear absorption and scattering Raman gain is greater at the input end. A final problem results from amplifying spontaneous Raman photons. This occurs when the pump power is increased to offset attenuation losses and spontaneous Raman photons are coupled into the guided mode all along the length of the fiber. This increases noise. Upper limit on the power into a communications signal from SRS amplification can be defined as the point at which the Stokes power Pr equals the signal power Psig.
2 16p wo P= Gr Leff

Leff
Example:

1 - e -a L = a

l p = 1.55m m wo 5m m Amod e 80 m m2 a linear 0.2dB / km Leff 20km 700 mW Gr = 9 10-12 m / W

QUITE LARGE compared to normal optical signal powers (~1 mW).
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