Diodes

Diode
Class of non-linear circuits
having non-linear v-i Characteristics

Uses
Generation of :
DC voltage from the ac power supply Different wave (square wave, pulse) form generation

Protection Circuits
Digital logic & memory circuits

Creating a Diode
A diode allows current to flow in one direction but not the other. When you put N-type and P-type silicon together gives a diode its unique properties.

Diode

Equivalent circuit in the reverse direction Equivalent circuit in the forward direction.

Operation

Reverse Bias
-ve voltage is applied to Anode Current through diode = 0 (cut off
operation)

Diode act as open circuit

Forward Bias
+ve voltage applied to Anode Current flows through diode voltage Drop is zero (Turned on)

The two modes of operation of ideal diodes

Forward biased Forward Current 10 mA

Reverse biased Reverse Voltage 10 V

Ex 3.2
1 1

iP
1.5v

vD

1.5v

vD

1. 5 iD = = 1 .5A 1

iD = 0
v D= 1. 5v

v D= 0

Rectifier circuit

Equivalent circuit when vi 0

Input waveform

Output waveform.

Equivalent circuit when vi 0

Waveform across diode

Exercise 3-3

10 0 iD = = 10 mA 1k

1 v D= v i dt t 2 t1 t
1

t2

1 v D= 2

10
0

sin + 0 dt

1 10 10 ( 1 1 )= = 3. 18 V v D= 10 cos 0 = 2 2

Battery Charger

24sin = 12 V

1 sin = = 300 2 Conduction Angle = 2 = 1200 one third of cycle

Figure 3.6 Circuits for Example 3.2.

Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Example 3.2.

Assumption Both Diodes are conducting

Assumption Both Diodes are conducting

V = 0,

V B= 0
Node A

10 0 I D2 = = 1 mA 10 k
Node B

I 5k = I D1 + I D2 =

0 ( 10 ) = 2 mA 5k

From above equation I D1 should be 1 mA It is not possible

Not Possible Thus assumption of both diode conducting is wrong

Example 3.2(b).

Assumption # 2 Diodes 1 is not conducting Diodes 2 is conducting

10 ( 10 ) 20 I D2 = = = 1. 33 mA 15 15

V A = 10 (1. 33 )(5k )= 3. 3v

V B= (1. 33 )(10 k ) 10= 3. 3v

Assumption is correct

V B= V A = 3.3 V ,

I D1= 0, I D2= 1.33 mA

Figure E3.4

Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Figure E3.4 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 2mA V= 0V

I= 0A V= 5V

I= 0A V= -5V

I= 2mA V= 0V

Figure E3.4 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

I= 3mA V= 3V

I= 4mA V= 1V

Figure P3.2

Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Figure P3.2 Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

Diode is conducting I = 0.6 mA V = -3V Diode is cut-off I = 0 mA V = 3V

Diode is conducting I = 0.6 mA V = 3V

Diode is cut-off I = 0 mA V = -3V

Problem 3-3
Diodes are ideal , Find the value of I and V

D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting I = 3mA

D1 Cut-Off & D2 Conducting I = 1mA , V=1 V

Figure P3.4

In ideal diodes circuits, v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave.

Sketch the waveform of vo

In ideal diodes circuits, v1 is a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = 0V f = 1 K-Hz

Vp+ = 0V Vp- = - 10V f = 1 K-Hz

Vo = 0V

Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = -10V f = 1 K-Hz

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = 0V f = 1 K-Hz

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = 0V f = 1 K-Hz

Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform of vo

Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 0V Vp- = -10V f = 1 K-Hz

V0 = 0V

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = -5V f = 1 K-Hz

Figure P3.4 In ideal diodes circuits, v1 s a 1-kHz, 10V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform of vo

Vp+ = 10V Vp- = -5V f = 1 K-Hz

Problem 3-4(k)
v i 10 V peak @ frequency v i = 10sin 2000 t 1000 H z

For Vi >0 V D1 is cutoff D2 is conducting vo=1V For Vi < 0 V is conducting D2 is cutoff vo=vi+1V

-9V

Problem 3-4(k)

Figure P3.6

X=A.B

X=A+B

Problem 3-4 (c)

v i 10 Vpeak @ frequency 1000 H z v i = 10 sin 2000 t

vo=zero

Problem 3-4(f)

1kHz 10-V peak sine wave.

+ve Half Cycle with 10 V peak at 1 KHz

Problem 3-4(h)

v i 10 Vpeak @ frequency 1000 H z v i = 10 sin 2000 t

vo=zero

Problem 3.5

vi is 10 V peak sine wave and I = 100 mA current source. B is battery of

4.5 V . Sketch and label the B

100 mA

4.5 v

v i 10 Vpeak @ frequency 1000 H z v i = 10 sin 2000 t

Solution P3-5
v i 10 Vpeak @ frequency 1000 H z v i = 10sin 2000 t B = 4 .5 V

100 mA

v i < 4.5V ,D1 conducts D2 cutoff All current flows thru D1 , i B= 0A

4.5 v

vi > 4.5V ,D1

cutoff all current flows thru battery

Conduction angle 10sin = 4.5V = sin 1 ( 0.45 )= 26.70 , 153.30 Conduction angle= 2= 126.60

Fraction of cycle that iB

126 . 6 of 100mA flows = = 0 .35 360

Problem 3-5
100 mA

4.5 v

Problem 3-5
10 4.5

100 mA

1 1 iBaverage= iB dt = [100 0.35 T ]= 35 mA T T

REVERSE POLARITY PROTECTOR

REVERSE POLARITY PROTECTOR

The diode in this circuit protects a radio or a recorder etc... In the event that the battery or power source is connected the wrong way round, the diode does not allow current to flow.

Problem 3-9

I1

I1
2 2

I3

I3

D1& D2 Conducting I1=1mA I3=0.5 mA I2=0.5 mA V= 0 V

D1=off, D2=On I1= I3=0.66 mA V = -1.7 V

Problem 3-10

D conducting I=0.225 mA V=4.5V

D is not conducting

I=0A V=-2V

Problem 3-16

RED GREEN Off Off On D1 conducts D2 conducts

3V On 0 V Off -3 V Off

Quiz No 3 DE 28 EE -A

Sketch vO if vi is 8 sin Find out the conduction angle for the diode & fraction of the cycle the diode is conducting

Solution Quiz No 3
8= 4I 1 2I2 2= 2I 1 + 3I2 2I2 = 2 I 2 = 1 mA Vo= 1 1+ 2= 3V

8V

I1
I2

8 2 2 I= = 1 mA 2 Vo= 1 1 + 2= 3V
Conduction angle 2= 60o 4 sin = 2 = 30 Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts=

vi/2 I

2 1 = = 33 2 3

10-10-07

Sketch vO if vi is 10 sin Find out the conduction angle for the diode & fraction of the cycle the diode is conducts
D never conducts 1 Vi<5V D2 is cut-off, Vo=5V Vi>5V D2 is conducts

+12 V

10 5 V o = 5+ = 7 .5V max 2
Conduction angle 2= 60o 10sin = 5 = 30 Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts= 2 1 = = 33 2 3

D1

D2

22-10-07

Quiz No 3 DE 27 CE -B
Sketch vO if vi is 10 sin Find out the conduction angle for the diode & fraction of the cycle the diode is conducts
D never conducts 1 Vi<5V D2 is cut-off, Vo=Vi Vi>5V D2 is conducts

10 5 V o = 5+ = 7 .5V max 2
Conduction angle 2= 60o 10sin = 5 = 30 Fraction of Cycle the diode conducts= 2 1 = = 33 2 3

Problem
Assume the diodes are ideal, sketch vo if the input is 10sin (9)
Find out the conduction angles for Diode D1 & D2 (4) and the fraction of the cycle these diodes conduct. (2)

 2< vi< 1 vo= vi

v i 1 v i > 1V v 0 = 1+ 1 4 v ipeak = 10 V v opeak = 4 . 25 V

vi < 2V vo= 2V

 2< vi< 1 vo= vi

v i 1 v i > 1V v 0 = 1+ 1 4 v i = 2V v o = 1. 25 V

vi < 2V vo= 2V

v 0=

vi 1 1 + 1V 4

-2V

Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal.

14 Electrons

Silicon and Germanium

Silicon Lattice

At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal ionization.

Each broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction.

Intrinsic Semiconductor

Electrons and holes

Semiconductor Current

The Doping of Semiconductors

Valence Electrons

N Type

P Type

p-n Junction
P Junction
Concentration of holes is high Majority charge carrier are hole

N Junction
Concentration of electron is high Majority charge carrier are electron

Diffusion Current ID
Hole diffuse across the junction from the p side to the n side & similarly electron Two current components add together to form the diffusion current with direction from p to n side

Drift Current Is
Diffusion current due to majority carrier diffusion A component due to minority carrier drift exists across the junction

(a)The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals). (b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the

Forward Biased Conduction

The polarity of applied voltage which can't produce any current is called Reverse Bias

The polarity of applied voltage which causes charge to flow through the diode is called Forward Bias.

Terminal Characteristics of a Junction Diode

The diode iv relationship

The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.

Terminal Characteristics of a Junction Diode

Forward Biased Region v > 0
Reversed Biased Region v < 0 Breakdown Region v < -VZK

Forward Biased Region

i= I s e

v nV T

Is Saturation current Scale Current

Is is constant at a given temperature Is is directly proportional to Cross-Sectional region of the diode, Is doubles if cross-sectional area is double Is is 10-15 A for small size diode Doubles in value for every 10OC rise in temperature

Forward Biased Region

Thermal Voltage VT VT = kT/q
i= I s e

v nV T

K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/Kelvin T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (273 +Temp in Co) q = Magnitude of charge = 1.6 X 10-19 Coulombs

VT @ 20oC is 25.2mV, ~ 25 mV

n is 1 or 2 depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode

n = 1 for Germanium Diode & n=2 for Silicon

Forward Biased Region

i >> Is

i= I s e

v nV T

i= I s e
v nV T

v nV T

ln i = ln I s e

( )

v ln I s nV T

i v = nV T ln Is
b Relationship of the current i to the voltage v holds good over many decades of current (seven decades, a factor of 107

Forward Biased Region

v1

I1= I s e I 2= I s e I2 I1 =e

nV T v2 nV T

(v2 v1)
nV T

(v 2 v 1 )= nV T ln I 2. 3 nV T log I
1

I2

I2
1

(v 2 v 1 )= 2 .3 nV T log I 2
1

Forward Biased Region I

I2 = 10 I1

for

v drop changes by

for n = 1 for n = 2
v < 0 .5v cut in voltage
v = 0 . 6v

2.3 nV T 60 mV

120 mV

0 .8v 0 . 7v

Illustrating the temperature dependence of the diode forward characteristi

At a constant current, the voltage drop decreases by approximately 2 mV for every 1C increase in temperature.

Figure E3.9

If V=1V at 20o C, Find V at 400C and 00C

Is

At 20o C Reverse current Is = 1V/1M = 1 A Since the reverse leakage current doubles for every 100 C increase, At 400 C I = 4*1 = 4 A V = 4 A * 1M = 4.0 V At 0 C I = A V = 0.25 V

Forward biased Diode Characteristics Example 3.3

A silicon diode displays a forward voltage of 0.7 V at a current of 1mA. Find Is at n=1 & 2
i= I s e = 1 = 2
v nV T

I s = ie

v nV

0.7

I s= 10 e I s = 10 e
3

25 10 3

= 6 . 9 10 16 A = 8 .3 10 10 A

0. 7 2 25 10 3

Ex 3.7
Silicon Diode with n=1 has VD=0.7V @ i=1mA. Find voltage drop at i=0.1mA & 10mA
v nV T
v nV

i= I s e = 1

I s = ie I s= 10

0 .7 3

25 10 3

= 6 . 9 10 15 A

i 10 4 3 For i = 0 .1 mA V 1 = V T ln = 25 10 ln == 0. 64 V 16 Is 6 .9 10 i 10 2 3 For i = 10 mA V 1= V T ln = 25 10 ln = 0. 76 V 16 Is 6 . 9 10

Solution P3-18
(a) At what forward voltage does a diode for which n=2 conduct a current equal to 1000Is? (b) In term if Is what current flows in the same diode when its forward voltage is 0.7 V

(a) = 2,
v nV T

Diode current = i = 1000I S

v 2 25 10 3

i = I S e 1000 I S = I s e v = 0 . 345 V

( b) v = 0 . 7V i= ISe
v nV T

= I se

0 .7 0 . 05

= 1 . 2 10 I S

Problem 3-23
The circuit shown utilizes three identical diodes having n=1 and Is= 10 -14 A. Find the value of the current I required to obtain an output voltage Vo=2 V. Assume n=1 If a current of 1mA is drawn away from the output terminal by a load, what if the change in the output voltage. Assume n=1

Solution 3-23
The circuit shown utilizes three identical diodes having n=1 and Is= 10 -14 A. Find the value of the current I required to obtain an output voltage Vo=2 V.

Info available n = 1 , I S = 10 14 A,V o = 2V vo 2 The voltage across each diode is = v DX = 3 3

v DX
2

I DX = I S e

V T

= 10

14

3 0 .025

= 3 .81 mA

If a current of 1mA is drawn away from the output terminal by a load, what if the change in the output voltage.

( b) Load current = 1 mA, therefore I DY = 2 .81 mA I DY 0 . 025 =e = e0 . 025 I DX v oY = v O2 v 01 = 22 .8 mV

( v DY v DX )
( v DY 2 /3 )

Problem 3-25
In the circuit shown, both diode have n=1, but D1 has 10 times the junction area of D2. What value of V results?

Solution 3-25(a)
I D1 = I S1 e I S1= 10 I S2
V D1 V T
V D2

In the circuit shown, both diode have n=1, but D1 has 10 times the junction area of D2. What value of V results?
V T

I D2 = I S2 e
V D1 V T

I D1 = 10 I S2 e

V D2

I D2 I S2 e V T = = 0. 1 e V D1 I D1 V 10 I S2 e T

V T

D2

D2

. .. .. . .. .. .. . .1

10 I D2 V 0 = V D2 V D1 = V T ln . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .2 I D1

I1= I D2 + I D1 I D2 = I 1 I D1 ..........3

I D1= 2 mA ,

I D2= 10 2= 8 mA
V 0 = V D2 V D1 = 0.025 ln 80 = 92. 2 mV 2

solution 2-25 (b)

V o= 50 mA , Find ID1 , I D2

To obtain a value of 50 mV, what current I2 id needed.

I D2 = 0.01 I D1
I D2 = 0.1e I D1 I D2 = 4 .25 mA
V D2 V D2 V T

I D2 = = 0 . 1 e2 0 . 01 I D2

I D1 = ( 10 4 . 25 )= 5 .75 mA

Problem 3-26
For the circuit shown, both diodes are identical, conducting 10mA at 0.7 V and 100 mA at 0.8 V. Find n

Find the value of R for which V = 80 m V.

Solution 3-26 (a)

Diodes are identical therefore I S , , V T are same For Diode 1 V D1 = 0 .7V @ I D1= 10 mA For Diode 2 V D2 = 0 . 8V @ I D2 = 100 mA
Find

V D2 V D1= V T ln

I D2 I D1 100 10
I D2 I D1

0 .8 0 . 7 = 0 .025 ln = 1. 739

d R if Vo=80mV

V = V D2 V D1= V T ln

= 0 . 08= 1 . 737 0. 025 ln I D1 = 1. 4 mA 80 R= = 57 .1 1. 4

0 . 01 I D1 I D1

Problem 3.36
Assuming identical diodes for which VD =0.7V @ ID=1mA. Find R if V0 = 3 V
V Dx = 3 = 0 . 75 V 4
V DX V T
( V D2 V D2 ) V
T

I DX = I S e
V
D2

T I D2 e = V =e D1 I D1 V T e

( V D2 V D2 )

( 0 . 75 0 .7 ) V
T

I D2 = I D1 e .75 = 0 . 7+ V T ln R=

= 1 e

25 10 3

= 7 .389 mA

I D2 10
3

I D2 = 7 . 389 mA

10 3 = 947 3 7 .389 10

Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics

A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of circuits in which the diode is forward conducting.

VD

I D= I S e

V T

V DD V D I D= R

Graphical analysis of the circuit using the exponential diode m

Iterative Analysis using the Exponential Model

Determined the diode current ID and Diode voltage VD with VDD =5V and R =1000 ohms. Diode has a current of 1mA @ a VD of .7 V, and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1 V for every decade change in current.

Solution
F irst iteration
VD V T

V D= 0 . 7V

= 4 .3 mA I2 V 2 V 1 = 2. 3V T log I1 V = 2 . 3VT = 0. 1V For Every decade change in current 4.3 V 2 = V 1 + 0 .1 log = 0 .763 V 1. 0

I D= I Se

S econd iteration
VD

V D= 0 . 763 V

= 4 . 237 mA I2 V 2 V 1 = 2. 3V T ln I1 4 . 237 V 2 = 0 . 763+ 0. 1 log = 0 .762 V 4 .3

I D= I Se

V T

Solution I D = 4 . 237 mA , V D= 0 . 762 V

The Piecewise-Linear Model

Approximating the diode forward characteristic with two straight lines: the piecewise-linear model.

The Piecewise-Linear Model

Exponential curve is approx into two straight lines Line No 1 with zero slope & Line 2 with a slope of 1/rd The voltage change of less than 50 mV is observed in case the current change from 0.1 mA to 10 mA. iD = 0 v D = 0V
( v D V D0 ) iD = rD v D V D0

Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.

Piecewise-linear model

The
Constant Voltage
Drop

Model

Constant Voltage Drop Model

Forward conducting diode exhibits a constant voltage drop VD The voltage change of less than 50 mV is observed in case the current change from 0.1 mA to 10 mA. Model is used when
Detailed information about diode characteristics in not available

Constant-voltage-drop model

The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.

The Small Signal Model

A small ac signal is superimposed on the DC components. First determined dc Operating Point Then small signal operation around the operating point
Small portion of the curve is approximated as almost linear segment of the diode characteristics.

The Small Signal Model

Figure 3.17 Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.

The Small Signal Model

In absence of signal VD ID= I s e V T
Once signal is applied v D ( t )= V D + v d ( t ) vD i D ( t )= I s e V T i D ( t )= I s V D + v d (t )] [ e
VD V T
vd(t ) vd (t )

V T
T

i D ( t )= I s e i D ( t )= I D e

V T

For very small signal vd ) V T i D ( t )= I D + i d ( t ) i D ( t )= I D ( 1 +

vd << 1 V T

The Small Signal Model

vd i D ( t )= I D ( 1+ ) V T i D ( t )= I D+ i d ( t ) I D vd i d ( t )= V T V T rd = ID
rd is inversely proportional to I D

Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic

Table 3.1 (Continued)

Exp 3-6
V DD = 10 V,v d = 1V peak amplitude @ 60 Hz Diode has a current of 1mA @ a V D of . 7 V, n= 2 Find r d , V D , v d ( t )

ID

+ VD

+ vd -

Solution
V T 2 25 rd = = = 53. 8 ID 0. 93
V DD V D 10 0. 7 I D= = = 0 . 93 mA R 10

Small signal rd v dpeak = v speak = 5 . 35 mV R+ r d

Input variation of 10% resulted in output voltage variation of 0.7+5.4mV(0.8%) Voltage regulation

Exercise 3-16
Design a circuit shown so that Vo=3v when IL =0 A and Vo changes by 40 mV per 1mA of diode current. (a) Find the value of R (b) The junction area of each diode relative to a diode with ).7 V drop at 1mA current. Assume n=1

Excercise 3-16
v o 0 . 04 r DT = = 3 = 40 Why 4 diodes and not 5? Diodes will i o 10 not conduct at 0.6 V r DX = 40 / 4 = 10 nV T I DX = = 2 .5 mA r DX 15 3 R= = 4 . 8K 2 .5m At dc Operating Point V DX = 3 / 4 = .75 V I D1 = 1 mA ,V D1 0 .7V I DX I SX nV T I SX = e = 0 .34 I D1 I S1 I S1 The diodes have the junction area 0 . 34 times the diode
V DX V 1

Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation

Small signal model is used. Voltage remains constant in spite of :
Changes in load current Changes in the dc power supply voltages

One diode provides constant voltage of 0.7 V and for greater voltages diodes can be connected in series.

Example 3-7
A string of three diodes is used to provide a constant voltage of about 2.1 V. We want to calculate the percentage change in this regulated voltage caused by (a) a + 10 % change to the power supply voltage (b) Connection of a 1 K ohms load resistance , Assume n=2

Solution Exp 3-7

 In a particular cct application, ten 20 mA diodes ( a 20 mA diode is a diode that provides a 0.7 V drop when the current thru it is 20 mA) connected in parallel operate at a total current of 0.1 A. For the diodes closely matched, with n=1, what current flows in each.
0. 1 iDx = == 0. 01 A 10

P 3-53

What is the corresponding small signal resistance of each diode and of the combination?

r dx =

nV T

I Dx 2. 5 req = = 0 .25 10

= 2 . 5

 If each of the 20 mA diode has a series resistance of 0.2 ohm associated with the wire bonds to the junction. What is the equivalent resistance of the 10 parallel connected diodes?
Re q = 1 (2. 5+ 0. 2 )= 0. 27 10

What connection resistance would single diode need in order to be totally equivalent?

The diode iv relationship

Reversed Biased Diode

Leakage current:
In the reverse direction there is a small leakage current up until the reverse breakdown voltage is reached.

This leakage is undesirable, obviously the lower the better. Diodes are intended to operate below their breakdown voltage.

The Reversed Biased Region

i= I s e
v is

v nV T

negative

i= I S

>> V T ( 25 mV )

Current in reserved biased diode circuit is due to leakage current & increases with increase in reverse voltage Leakage current is proportional to the junction area & temperature but doubles for every 10oC rise in

Breakdown Region
Once reverse voltage exceeds a threshold value of diode VZK, this voltage is called breakdown voltage.

VZK

Z Zener,

K Knee

At breakdown knee reverse current increases rapidly with associated small increase in voltage drop Diode breakdown is not destructive if power dissipated by diode is limited by external circuitry. Vertical line for current gives property of voltage regulation

The diode iv characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.

Zener Diode

Zener Diode
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region Very steep i-v curve at breakdown with almost constant voltage drop region Used the designing voltage regulator Diode manufactured to operate specifically in the Breakdown region called Zener or Breakdown

Zener Diode : Symbol

IZ

- VZ +

Model: Zener
Manufacturer specify Zener Voltage Vz at a specified Zener test current Iz, the Max. power that the device can safely dissipate 0.5 W @ 6.8 v at max V70mA z = I z r z rz Dynamic resistance of the Zener and is the inverse of the slope of the almost linear i-v curve at operating point Q Lower rz, the more constant Zener Voltage The most common range of zener voltage is 3.3 volts to 75 volts,

Model for the zener diode.

Model: Zener

V z = V zo + r z I z
I z > I zk V z > V zo

Designing of the Zener shunt regulator

+ Supply voltage includes a large ripple component Vo

Zener regulator Vo is an output of the zener regulator that is as constant as possible in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage VS and the variations in the load current Voltage regulator performance can be measured Line Regulation & Load Regulation Line Regulation = Vo/Vs Load Regulation = Vo/IL

Expression of performance : Zener regulator

( V s -V o ) ( V o -V zo ) = + IL R rz
rz R V o = V zo ( )+ V S ( ) - I L ( r z R ) R+ r z R + rz
Only the first term on right hand side is desirable one

+ V
o

IL

Second and third terms depend upon Voltage Vs and Load current IL

Supply

Line Regulation =

Load Regulation =

V o rz / = V s ( r z+ R )

Vo = - ( r z R ) I L

Expression of performance : Zener regulator

I + V
o

An important consideration for the design is To ensure that current through the zener diode never becomes too low i.e less than IZK or Izmin Minimum zener current Izmin occurs when Supply Voltage Vs is at its minimum VSmin Load current IL is at its maximum ILmax Above design can be made be selecting (I

IL

R=

( V s min V ZO - r z I z min )

z min +

I L max )

VZ where I L max = RL

Example 3.8

The circuit with the zener diode replaced with its equivalent circuit model

Exp 3-8

Example 3-8

V =+10 v 1v R = 0 .5k V z = 6 . 8v I z = 5 mA r z = 20 I zk = 0 . 2 mA I RL= 1 mA

a) Find No Load

V o V o Line Regulation

Depending upon the manufacturer provide Data First calculate Vzo if Vz =6.8 V & Iz=5mA, rZ=20 ohm

V z = V zo + r z I z

V zo = V z I z r z = 6.8 5 20 10 = 6.7v

Now connecting the Zener diode in the Cct as shown Calculate actual Iz and resulting Vo Thus establishing operating Point

V V zo 10 6 .7 = = 6 .35 mA R + rz 500+ 20 V o = V zo + I z r z = 6 . 7 + 6 . 35 20 10 3 = 6 . 827 V 6 . 83 V I z=

Now carry out Small Signal Analysis Suppress DC source and calculate resultant change in Vo Use voltage divider rule

V + r z 1 20 V o = = = 38 . 5 mv R + r z 520

Line Regulation

V o 38 . 5 = = 3 . 85 mv / v V 1

b) Find vO if load resistance RL connected & draws 1mA and load regulation

1mA drawn by load would decrease by same amount so

V o= r z I z = 20 1 mA = 20 mV
Iz

Load Regulation

V o = = 20 mV / mA I z

6 . 83 v = 6 .83 k 1 mA 20 6830 Check R L R = = 19. 94 6850 exact Calculations V Z = V o = V ZO + I Z r Z = 6 . 7 + 5 .35 20 = 6 . 807 V Vs V Z 10 6 . 807 I Z= = = 6 . 14 mA R + R L r Z 500 + 19 . 94 I Z = 6 . 35 6 .14 = . 21 mA = 210 A R L

c) V o for R = 2k
L

VZ I R = = 3 . 4 mA L RL I Z = 3 . 4 mA V o = r Z I Z = 68 mV

 1) Check
+ 10
500

2000

V o=

2000 10= 8v 2500

Zener at Breakdown region

10 v
10

0.5k

500

6. 63 v

2k

+ 6.7v 20

Vo
19.8

6.7 2000 V oc = = 6.63 v 2020 Re q = 19.8

d ) R L = 500
10 v 500
V
o=

10 500 = 5v 1000

500

Zener is not operating zk

@ V o << Valignl 5 << 6 . 8v

e) Min value of R for which the diode still operates in the breakdown region
L

at Breakdown Region
+ 10 1v 500
Iz

Iz

6.7v

RL
0 .2 mA

I z = I zk = 0 .2 mA V z = V zk = 6 . 7v V DD = 9v min 9 6 . 7 I= = 4 . 6 mA 500 I = I zk + I RL I RL= 4 .6 0. 2 = 4 . 4 mA V zk 6 . 7 R L= = = 1 . 5k I RL 4 . 4m

Problem D3.68
Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a 7.5-V zener specified at 12mA. The zener has an incremental resistance rz = 30 and a knee current of 0.5mA. The regulator operates from a 10-V supply and has a 1.2-k load. (a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

(a) What is the regulator output voltage when the supply is 10% high? Is 10% low?
(a) What is the output voltage when both the supply is 10% high and the load is removed? (a) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can be used while the zener operates at a current no lower than the knee current while the supply is 10% low?

Solution 3-68

r z = 30 I Zk = 0 .5 mA V Z = 7 .5V I Z = 12 mA 7 .5 = V ZO+ 12 30 10 V ZO = 7 .14 V 7.5 I RL= = 6 .25 mA 1 .2

3

Design a 7.5-V zener regulator circuit using a 7.5-V zener specified at 12mA. The zener has an incremental resistance rz = 30 and a knee current of 0.5mA. The regulator operates from a 10-V supply and has a 1.2k load. (a) What is the value of R you have chosen?

Select I = 10 mA 7. 5 I RL= = 6 . 25 mA 1. 2 So that I Z = 3 .75 mA W hichis > I Zk 10 7 .5 R= = 250 10

(a) What is the regulator output voltage when the supply is 10% high? Is 10% low?

For V + = 1V 1.2// 0.03 V O= 1 0.250 + ( 1.2 //.03 ) = 0.1V ThusV O =+7.4V to + 7.6V
(a) What is the output voltage when both the supply is 10% high and the load is removed?

With V + = 11 V and I L= 0 11 V O V O = V ZO + X0 . 03 0. 28 V O = 7 . 55 V

(a) What is the smallest possible load resistor that can be used while the zener operates at a current no lower than the knee current while the supply is 10% low? IZK=0.5mA, VZO=7.14 V
9 7.155 0.25 = 7.38 mA 7.14 + 0.03 X0 .5 7.155 V

11 V
VO

250

0.5 mA

R L min

7 .155 R L min = 7 .38 0 . 5 = 1 .04k

Rectifier Circuit Power Supply

Power supply must supply dc voltage to be constant in spite of
variation is ac line voltage Variation in current drawn by load, that is variable load resistance

Rectifier Circuits

Filter
Smoothes out pulsating dc but still some timedependent components-(ripple) remain in the output

Voltage Regulation
Reduces ripples Stabilizes magnitude of dc output against variation in load current Regulation by Zener Diode or Voltage regulator I.C

Half Wave Rectifier

Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit

Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD >>

Full Wave Rectifier

Input and output waveforms.

Full Wave Rectifier

Diode in Reverse biased state Anode @ - Vs Cathode @ + Vo

PIV = 2Vs - VDO

Twice as in case of half wave rectifier

Bridge Rectifier

The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit; (b) input and output waveforms.

Bridge Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
Peak Inverse Voltage
D2
D1 D4

D3

PIV => consider loop D3, R & D2 VD3(res) = Vo + VD2 Vo = Vs 2VD PIV = Vs 2VD + VD = Vs VD

Half of PIV for Full wave Rectifier

Figure 3.28 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect of a filter capacitor. (b) Input and output waveforms assuming an ideal diode.

Peak detector with Load

Figure 3.29 Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with CR<<T.

Charge / Discharge Cycle

Peak detector with Load

iL =

Vo

R iD = iC + i L dV s iD = C + iL dt

Figure 3.30 Waveforms in the full-wave peak rectifier.

 When Vr is small

Peak Rectifier : Output Voltage

Vo = Vpeak iL is almost constant DC components of iL

iL =

VP R

Accurate value of output dc voltage V Average Value V o= V P 1 2 r

Charge / Discharge Cycle

v o= V P e

t CR
T CR

V o= V P V r V P e

T CR

T = 1 CR

VP iL = R

V r = V P 1 e
V r = V P 1 1+
V PT V P V r= CR fCR

T CR

T CR

1 V o= V P V r 2

VP I L= R

IL V r= , fC

provided

V r << V p

Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage

During Discharge cycle At the end of discharge cycle
V o= V P V r V P e V r = V P 1 e Since CR >> T

v o= V P e

t CR

T CR

T CR

)
T CR

T CR

= 1

Peak Rectifier : Ripple Voltage

V r= V P 1 e
Ripple Voltage

T CR

)
(

T CR

= 1

T CR

V r = V P 1 1+

T CR

V PT V P V r= CR fCR

VP V r= fCR

VP I L= R
IL V r= , fC provided V r << V p

Peak Rectifier : Conduction Interval

V P cos (t ) = V P V r

Hence t is small
(wt ) Cos (wt )= 1 + .. . 2! (t )2 V P 1 = V P V r 2
2

2Vr t = VP
When Vr<<Vp, the conduction angle will be small

Deduction

Average Diode Current During Conduction

iD = iC + i L iDav = iCav + I L iCav = i Dav I L

During Charge

Qsupplied= i cav t iCav = i Dav I L

During Discharge

Qlost = CV r

Qsupplied= Qsupplied icav t = CV r

Qlost = Q sup plied CV r = icav t

V r= V PT V T = CV r = P CR R

Average Diode Current During Conduction

VPT = (iDav I L )t R
1 2V r T t = = 2f V P 2
VPT R = (i Dav I L )

()
T 2 2Vr VP

2Vr VP

VP 2V P 2 i Dav = + I L i L 1 + Vr 2V r R VP V r << V P i Dav >> I L

( )

Deduction

As waveform of triangle

is almost right angle r

V r << V P iD max = 2iDav

Observations
Diode current flows for short interval and must replenish the charge lost by the capacitor. Discharge interval is long & discharge is through high resistance

r D << R L
Maximum diode current
CdV i iD = + iL dt
Assuming that i L is almost constant = I L & CR >> T

iD max = i L 1+ 2

( )
2V p Vr

2iDav

Example N0 3-9
Consider a peak rectifier fed by a 60 Hz sinusoidal having a peak value of Vp = 100 V. Let the load resistance R =10 k Ohms. (a) Find the value of the capacitance C that will result in peak to peak ripple of 2V (b) Calculate the fraction of the cycle during which the diode is conduction (c) Calculate the average and peak value of the diode current.

Example 3.9
100 Sin 2 60 t

10 k

Find value of C for Vr=2V (peak to peak)

C= V P 100 = = 83 . 3F V r fR 2 60 10 4

Find fraction of cycles that diode 2V t = = 0 . 2 radian conducts V

=> Diode conducts

0. 2 100 = 3 .18 2

of cycle

Solution Exp 3-9

Find
iD max

&

iDav

2V P i Dav = I L 1+ Vr

V P 100 I L= = = 10 mA R 10000 2 100 i Dav = 10 1 + = 324 mA 2 i max = 2iDav = 648 mA

( )

( )

Full wave peak Detector

In full wave rectifier, the capacitor discharge for almost T/2 time interval. that mean ripple frequency is twice the VP input, so V =
r

2 fCR

i Dav = I L 1+

i max = 2iDav = I L 1+ 2

( ) ( )
VP 2V r

VP

2V r

Applications
Peak Rectifier Peak detector is used for
Detecting the peak of the an input signal for signal processing systems Demodulator for amplitude modulated (AM) signals

Precision Half Wave Rectifier Super Diode

Normal Diodes VD= 0.7v are used for rectifier of input of much larger amplitude then VD For smaller signals detection, demodulation or rectification Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp) are used

Wave form Generation Limiting Clamping

Limiter Circuit
Vo is limited between two levels upper (L+) and lower (L-) thresholds

Figure 3.33 Applying a sine wave to a limiter can result in clipping off its two peaks.

Figure 3.34 Soft limiting.

 Double Limiter

Wave form Generation Limiting / Clamping

Clips off both negative & positive peaks

Single Limiter
Clips off only one side of the input peak

Application
Limits the inputs to operation Amplifier to a limit lower than the breakdown voltage of transistors of input stage of operational Amplifier Half / Full Rectifier for Battery Charger

Figure 3.35 A variety of basic limiting circuits.

Figure E3.27

Solution Ex 3-27
(a)
( b)

5 vi 5

v o= v i

V I + 5 Vo D2 Conduct, D1 cut-off

10 1 v R= v i 5 )= (vi 5 ) ( 10 + 10 2 1 v o= 5+ v R= v i + 2 . 5 2

(c)
v R=

v i 5 V D1 Conducts & D2 is off

10 1 v + 5 = vi + 5 ) ( ) ( i 10 + 10 2 1 1 v o= (v i + 5 ) 5 = (vi 2 . 5 ) 2 2

D C Restorer
The output waveform will have its lower peak Clamped to O V therefore known as Clamped Capacitor Output waveform will have a finite average value & is entirely different and unrelated to the average value of the input waveform

Application
+6
+ 2v
4

TXR
4v
0v

4v

DC Restorers

Figure 3.36 The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with a square-wave input and no load.

Figure 3.37 The clamped capacitor with a load resistance R.

Figure 3.38 Voltage doubler: (a) circuit; (b) waveform of the voltage across D1.

Figure P3.97

Figure P3.98

Figure P3.102

Figure P3.103

Figure P3.105

+4

vi

VC

D off
D on

vo

Diode Off V 0= V i + V c

Diode On Vo= 0. 7v

The Voltage Doubler

+ VP -

C1

V P sin t

D1

+ V D1

2V P +

+ VP -

C1 D1 a Clamp circuit DC Restorer

V P sin t

Special Diode Type Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)

Shottky-Barrier Diode is formed by bringing metal into contact with a moderately doped n type semiconductor material Resulting in flow of the conducting current in one direction from metal anode to the semiconductor cathode and acts as an open circuit in the other direction

Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)

Gets two important properties
SBD switches on-off faster due to current conducts due to majority carrier b (electrons)
Forward voltage drop is lower then P-n junction diode

Varactor
Variable Capacitor
Depletion layer acts as junction capacitance Depletion layer Depletion Region varies Capacitance

Metallic Plate

Dielectric

Varactor
When a reverse voltage is applied to a p-n junction , the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor. The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the p-n junction increases. By varying the reverse voltage across a p-n junction the junction capacitance can be varied .

Semiconductor diodes
The tunnel diode, the current through the device decreases as the voltage is increased within a certain range; this property, known as negative resistance, makes it useful as an amplifier. Gunn diodes are negative-resistance diodes that are the basis of some microwave oscillators. Light-sensitive or photosensitive diodes can be used to measure illumination; the voltage drop across them depends on the amount of

SCR (Thyristor)
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is simply a conventional rectifier controlled by a gate signal.

A gate signal controls the rectifier conduction.

The rectifier circuit (anode-cathode) has a low forward resistance and a high reverse resistance. It is controlled from an off state (high resistance) to the on state (low resistance) by a signal applied to the third terminal, the gate. Most SCR applications are in power switching, phase control, chopper, and inverter circuits.

Photodiode
If reversed biased PN junction is exposed to incident light the photons impacting the junction cause covalent bond to break thus give rise to current known as a photocurrent & is proportional to the intensity of incident light. Converts Light energy into a electrical signals

Photodiode
Photodiode are manufactured using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Photodiodes are important element of optoelectronics or photonics circuit (Combination of Electronics & optics) used for signal processing, storage & transmission

Photodiode : Applications
Fiber optics Transmission of telephonic & TV signals Opto-storage are CD ROM computer disks

Wide bandwidth & low signal attenuation.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Inverse of Photodiode Converts a forward biased current into light GaAs used for manufacturing LEDs Used as electronics displays

Coherent light into a narrow bandwidth laser diodes Fiber Optics & CD ROM

LED

Double heterostructure laser

Optoisolator
LED Electrical to light electrical & Photodiode Light to

Provides complete electrical isolation between electrical circuits Reduces the effects of electrical interference on signal being fixed within a system Reduces risk of shock

Can be implemented over long distance fiber optics

Laser Pointer
.

Laser Microphone

End

Problem 3-103
Sketch and label the transfer Characteristics of the circuit shown over a + 10 V range of the input signal. All diodes are VD =0.7 V @ 1 mA with n=1. What are the slopes of the characteristic at the extreme + 10 V levels?

+1 V

Vi V0

-2 V

-2 V

Problem 3-103
0< V i < 1 Vo= 0

Ist Sessional
Q No 1 (12 Marks) In the circuit shown, input voltage is a 1kHz, 10 V peak to peak sine wave. The diode is an ideal diode. (a) Sketch the waveform resulting at output terminal vO. (b) What are its positive and negative peak values?

Ist Sessional
Q No 2 (15 Marks) A circuit utilizes three identical diodes connected in series having n=1 and IS= 10-14 A. (a) Find the value of current required to obtain an output voltage of 2 V across the three diodes combined. (b) If a current of 1 mA is drawn away from the output terminal by a load (i) What is the change in output voltage? (ii) What is the value of the load?

Ist Sessional
Q No 3 (13 Marks) For the circuit shown, sketch the output for the sine wave input of 10 volts peak. Label the positive and negative peak values assuming that CR >>T.

Ist Sessional
Q No 4 (10 Marks) 9.25 V zener diode exhibits its nominal voltage at a test current of 28 mA. At this current the incremental resistance is specified as 7 ohms.
(a) Find VZO of the zener model. (b) Find the zener voltage at a current of 10 mA.

Ist Sessional
Q No 5 (20 Marks) Consider a bridge rectifier circuit with a filter capacitor C placed across the load resistor R for the case in which the transformer secondary delivers a sinusoid of 12 V (rms) having the 60 Hz frequency and assuming VD = 0.8 V and a load resistance of 100 ohms.
Find the value of C that results in a ripple voltage no larger than 1 V peak to peak. Find the diode conduction angle. Find the load current. What is the average load current?

Ist Sessional
Q No 6 (10 Marks) In a circuit shown, the output voltage is 2.4 V. Assuming that the diodes are identical and are having 0.7 V drop at 1mA.
(a) R. (b) Find the current following through the resistor
What the value of resistor R.

Figure 3.31 The superdiode precision half-wave rectifier and its almost-ideal transfer characteristic. Note that when vI > 0 and the diode conducts, the op amp supplies the load current, and the source is conveniently buffered, an added advantage. Not shown are the op-amp power supplies.

Figure P3.82

Figure P3.91

Figure P3.92

Figure P3.93

Figure P3.105

Figure P3.105

Quiz DE28 EE -B
(10 Marks) 9.25 V zener diode exhibits its nominal voltage at a test current of 28 mA. At this current the incremental resistance is specified as 7 ohms.
(a) Find VZO of the zener model. (b) Find the zener voltage at a current of 10 mA.

Quiz DE 28 EE -A
A zener diode whose nominal voltage is 10 V at 10 mA has an incremental resistance of 50 . (a) What is the value of VZO of the zener model? (b) What voltage do you expect if the diode current is doubled?