MATHEMATICS REVISION OF FORMULAE AND RESULTS

Surds
- a b = ab

-
a
b
=
a
b


- (a)
2
= a

Absolute Value

a = a if a 0
a = a if a < 0

Geometrically:

x is the distance of x from the origin on the number line
x y is the distance between x and y on the number line

ab = a.b

a + b a + b

Factorisation

x
3
y
3
= x y(x
2
+ xy + y
2
)

x
3
+ y
3
=x + y(x
2
xy + y
2
)

Real Functions

- A function is even if fx = f(x). The graph is
symmetrical about the y-axis.

- A function is odd if fx= f(x). The graph has
point symmetry about the origin.

The Circle

The equation of a circle with:

- Centre the origin (0, 0) and radius r units is:

x
2
+ y
2
= r
2


- Centre (a, b) and radius r units is:

(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2







Co-ordinate Geometry

- Distance formula: d = x
2
x
1

2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2


- Gradient formula: m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
or m = tan

- Midpoint Formula: midpoint =
x
1
+ x
2
2
,
y
1
+ y
2
2



- Perpendicular distance from a point to a line:

ax
1
+ by
1
+ c

a
2
+ b
2


- Acute angle between two lines (or tangents)

tan =
m
1
m
2
1 + m
1
m
2


- Equations of a Line

gradient-intercept form: y = mx + b

point-gradient form: y y
1
= m(x x
1
)

two point formula:
y y
1
x x
1
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1


intercept formula:
x
a
+
y
b
= 1

general equation: ax + by + c = 0

- Parallel lines: m
1
= m
2


- Perpendicular lines: m
1
.m
2
= 1

















Trigonometric Results

- sin =
opposite
hypotenuse
(SOH)


- cos =
adjacent
hypotenuse
(CAH)


- tan =
opposite
adjacent
(TOA)

- Complementary ratios:

sin90 = cos

cos90 = sin

tan90 = cot

sec90 = cosec

cosec(90 ) = sec

- Pythagorean Identities

sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1

1 + cot
2
= cosec
2


tan
2
+ 1 = sec
2


tan =
sin
cos
and cot =
cos
sin


- The Sine Rule


a
sinA
=
b
sinB
=
c
sinC



- The Cosine Rule

a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2bcCosA

CosA =
b
2
+ c
2
a
2
2bc


- The Area of a Triangle

Area =
1
2
abSinC






The Quadratic Polynomial

- The general quadratics is: y = ax
2
+ bx + c

- The quadratic formula is: x =
b

b
2
4ac
2a


- The discriminant is: = b
2
4ac

If 0 the roots are real

If < 0 the roots are not real

If = 0 the roots are equal

If is a perfect square, the roots are rational

- If and are the roots of the quadratic equation
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0

then: + =
b
a
and =
c
a


- The axis of symmetry is: x =
b
2a


- If a quadratic function is positive for all values of x, it is
positive definite i.e. < 0 and a > 0

- If a quadratic function is negative for all values of x, it
is negative definite i.e. < 0 and a < 0

- If a function is sometimes positive and sometimes
negative, it is indefinite i.e. > 0


The Parabola

- The parabola x
2
= 4ay has vertex (0,0), focus (0,a),
focal length a units and directrix y = a

- The parabola (x h)
2
= 4a(y k) has vertex (h, k)















Differentiation

- First Principles:

f ' (x) =
lim
h

f (x + h) f (x)
h
or

f ' (c) =
lim
x c

f (x) f (c)
h


- If y = x
n
then
dy
dx
= nx
n1


- Chain Rule:
d
dx
f (u) = f ' (u)
du
dx


- Product Rule: If y = uv then
dy
dx
= u
dv
dx
+ v
du
dx


- Quotient Rule: If y =
u
v
then
dy
dx
=
v
du
dx
+ u
dv
dx
v
2


- Trigonometric Functions:


d
dx
sinx = cosx


d
dx
cosx = sinx


d
dx
tanx = sec
2
x

- Exponential Functions:
d
dx
e
f (x)
= f ' (x)e
f (x)



d
dx
a
x
= a
x
.lna

- Logarithmic Functions:
d
dx
log
e
f (x) =
f ' (x)
f (x)






















Geometrical Applications of Differentiation

- Stationary points:
dy
dx
= 0

- Increasing function:
dy
dx
> 0

- Decreasing function:
dy
dx
< 0

- Concave up:
d
2
y
dx
2
< 0

- Concave down:
d
2
y
dx
2
> 0

- Minimum turning point:
dy
dx
= 0 and
d
2
y
dx
2
> 0

- Maximum turning point:
dy
dx
= 0 and
d
2
y
dx
2
< 0

- Points of inflexion:
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 and concavity changes
about the point.

- Horizontal points of inflexion:
dy
dx
= 0 and
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 and
concavity changes about the point.































Approximation Methods

- The Trapezoidal Rule:

f xdx =
h
2
y
0
+ y
n
+ 2y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
+ + y
n1

b
a


- Simpsons Rule:

f xdx =
h
3
y
0
+ y
n
+ 4y
1
+ y
3
+ + 2y
2
+ y
4
+
b
a



In both rules, h =
b a
n
where n is the number of strips.


Integration

- If f (x) 0 for a x b, the area bounded by the
curve y = f (x), the x-axis and x = a and x = b is given
by f x dx
b
a
.

- The volume obtained by rotating the curve y = f (x)
about the x-axis between x = a and x = b is given by

f x
2
b
a


- If
dx
dx
= x
n
then y =
x
n+1
n + 1


- If
dx
dx
= ax + b
n
then y =
ax + b
n
a(n + 1)


- Trigonometric Functions:

sin x dx = cosx + C

cos x dx = sinx + C

sec
2
x dx = tanx + C

- Exponential Functions:

e
ax
dx =
e
ax
a
+ C and a
x
dx =
1
lna
.a
x


- Logarithmic Functions:


f ' (x)
f (x)
dx = log
e
x + C



Sequences and Series

- Arithmetic Progression

d = U
2
U
1


U
n
= a + n 1d

S
n
=
n
2
[2a + n 1d]

S
n
=
n
2
[a + l] where l is the last term

- Geometric Progression

r =
U
2
U
1


U
n
= ar
n1


S
n
=
ar
n
1
1
=
a1 r
n

1 r


S

=
a
1 r



The Trigonometric Functions

- t radians = 180

- Length of an arc: l = r

- Area of a sector: A =
1
2
r
2


- Area of a segment: A =
1
2
r
2
( sin)
[In these formulae, u is measured in radians.]

- Small angle results:

sinx 0
cosx 1
tanx 0

lim
x 0

sinx
x
=
lim
x 0

tanx
x
= 1

- For y = sin nx and y = cos nx the period is
2
n

- For y = sin nx the period is

n



Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

- The Index Laws:

a
x
a
y
= a
x+y


a
x
a
y
= a
xy


a
x

y
= a
xy


a
x
=
1
a
x


a
x
y
= a
x
y


a
0
= 1

- The logarithmic Laws:

If log
a
b = c then a
c
= b

log
a
x + log
a
y = log
a
xy

log
a
x log
a
y = log
a

x
y


log
a

n
+ nlog
a
x

log
a
a = 1 and log
a
1 = 0

- The Change of Base Result:

log
a
b =
log
e
b
log
e
a
=
log
10
b
log
10
a
























EXTENSION 1 REVISION OF FORMULAE AND RESULTS

Co-ordinate Geometry
- Dividing an interval in the ratio m:n

mx
2
+ nx
1
m + n
,
my
2
+ ny
1
m + n

- Acute angle between two lines (or tangents)

tan =
m
1
m
2
1 + m
1
m
2


Trigonometric Ratios
- Sum and Difference Results
sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
sin(A B) = sinA cosB cosA sinB
cos(A + B) = cosA cosB sinA sinB
cos(A B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB
tan(A + B) =
tanA + tanB
1 tanAtanB

tan(A B) =
tanA tanB
1+ tanAtanB


- Double Angle Results
sin2A = 2sinA cosA
cos2A = cos
2
A sin
2
A
cos2A = 1 2sin
2
A
cos2A = 2cos
2
A 1
tan2A =
2tanA
1 tan
2
A


- The t Formulae where t = tan

2

sin x =
2t
1+ t
2

cos x =
1 t
2
1+ t
2

tan x =
2t
1 t
2




- Subsidiary Angle Method (Rsin( + ))
When solving asin + bcos = c we can
solve by writing in the form Rsin( + ) = c
where:
R = a
2
+ b
2
and tan =
b
a

Parameters
- The parametric equations for the parabola
x
2
= 4ay are x = 2at and y = at
2

- All other formulae in this subject are not to be
committed to memory but students must know
how they are derived.
Polynomials
- A real polynomial is in the form:
P(x) = p
n
x
2
+ p
n-1
x
n-1
+ ... p
2
x
2
+ p
1
x + p
0
- p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, ....., p
n
are coefficients and are real
numbers, usually integers.
- The degree of the polynomial is the highest power
of x with non-zero coefficient.
- A polynomial of degree n has at most n real roots
but may have less.
- The result of a long division can be written in the
form P(x) = A(x) . Q(x) + R(x)
- The remainder theorem states that when P(x) is
divided by (x a) the remainder is P(a).
- The factor theorem states that if x = a is a factor
of P(x) then P(a) = 0.
- If o, |, , o, ... are the roots of a polynomial then
Eo =
b
a
, Eo| =
c
a
, Eo| =
d
a
, Eo|o =
e
a




Numerical Estimation of the Roots of an Equation
- Halving the Interval Method
- Newtons Method
If x = x
0
is an approximation to a root of
P(x) = 0 then x
1
= x
0

P(x
0
)
P' (x
0
)
is generally a
better approximation.
Be familiar with the conditions under which
this method fails.
Mathematical Induction
- Step 1: Prove result true for n = 1 (It is
sometimes necessary to have a
different first step.)
- Step 2: Assume it is true for n = k and then
prove true for n = k + 1
- Step 3: Conclusion as given in class

Integration
- sin
2
d and cos
2
d can be solve using the
substitutions:
sin
2
u =
1
2
1 cos2
cos
2
u =
1
2
1 + cos2
- Integration by first making a substitution.
- Table of Standard Integrals as provided in HSC





Inverse Trigonometric Functions
- y = sin
-1
x Domain: 1 s x s 1
Range:

2
y

2

y = cos
-1
x Domain: 1 s x s 1
Range: 0 y t
y = tan
-1
x Domain: all real x
Range:

2
y

2


- Properties:
sin
-1
(-x) = -sin
-1
x
cos
-1
(-x) = t cos
-1
x
tan
-1
(-x) = tan
-1
x
sin
-1
x + cos
-1
x =

2

sin(sin
-1
x) = x
cos(cos
-1
x) = x
tan(tan
-1
x) = x

- General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations:
if sinu = q, then u = nt + (1)
n
sin
-1
q
if cosu = q, then u = 2nt cos
-1
q
if tanu = q, then u = nt + tan
-1
q

- Derivatives:
d
dx
sin
-1
x =
1

1 x
2

d
dx
cos
-1
x =
1

1 x
2

d
dx
tan
-1
x =
1
1 + x
2


- Integrals:

1
a
2
x
2
= sin
-1

x
a
= cos
-1

x
a

1
a
2
+ x
2
=
1
a
tan
-1

x
a