Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis: in Brief

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CHAPTER
Cost-Volume-Profit
Analysis
In Brief
Managers need to estimate future revenues, costs, and profits to help them
plan and monitor operations. They use cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis to
identify the levels of operating activity needed to avoid losses, achieve tar-
geted profits, plan future operations, and monitor organizational performance.
Managers also analyze operational risk as they choose an appropriate cost
structure.
This Chapter Addresses the Following Questions:

Q1 What is cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis, and how is it used for decision making?
Q2 How are CVP calculations performed for a single product?
Q3 How are CVP calculations performed for multiple products?
Q4 What is the breakeven point?
Q5 What assumptions and limitations should managers consider when using CVP analysis?
Q6 How are margin of safety and operating leverage used to assess operational risk?
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COLECO: FAULTY FORECASTS
I
n the early 1980s, with each other for the
personal computers dolls and even wrecked
were still somewhat a some toy stores while try-
novelty. At that time, ing to purchase Cabbage
Coleco manufactured a Patch Dolls for the holi-
small computer called days. Because of the
Adam. In addition, it sold shortage, advertising for
Colecovision games for the dolls was canceled
home computers. Coleco shortly after their intro-
marketed Adam and its duction.
computer games heavily, Coleco’s managers
hoping in 1982 for a hot continued to think that the
seller during the Christ- company’s reputation
mas and holiday gift sea- would be based on com-
son. However, Adam and puters. However, Cabbage
Colecovision did not sell Patch Dolls became their
well. Coleco found itself most successful product
close to bankruptcy. for the next several years.
Then in 1983 Coleco After success with Cab-
purchased the license to bage Patch Dolls and ac-
manufacture Cabbage tion figure toys called
Patch Dolls. It began pro- Masters of the Universe,
duction for Christmas Coleco continued to aim
1983. Coleco widely pub- for hot sellers. This strat-
licized the dolls’ arrival at egy involved a great deal
toy stores, but managers of uncertainty, and by
anticipated greater sales of Adam in their production 1988 the company was bankrupt. ■
schedules. They did not emphasize production of the
Cabbage Patch Dolls. These dolls became hot sellers that SOURCES: L. Brannon and A. McCabe, “Time-Restricted Sales Appeals,”
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, August/September
Christmas, and inventories were depleted rapidly. The 2001, pp. 47–53; and K. Fitzgerald, “Toys Face Scrooge-Like Christmas,”
scarcity generated so much interest that customers fought Advertising Age, September 19, 1988, pp. 30–32.
87
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88 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS
DETERMINING A ■ Key Decision Factors for Coleco

PROFITABLE MIX What went wrong with Coleco’s decision to emphasize production of Adam instead of Cab-
OF PRODUCTS bage Patch Dolls? The problems began with uncertainties about which products would be
popular at Christmas. Coleco’s managers could not know which products would sell best.
Nevertheless, it was necessary for them to make decisions about the types and volumes of
products to manufacture. They forecast the number and type of products that would sell and
then made production decisions accordingly. The following discussion summarizes key is-
sues in Coleco’s decision-making process.
Knowing. Knowledge about consumer markets, competition, production processes, and
costs were critical when Coleco’s managers decided which product to emphasize. Coleco
needed this knowledge for its potential markets—dolls, computers, and games. Given the
company’s experience, its knowledge was probably greater for producing Adam than for
Cabbage Patch Dolls. However, doll manufacturing was a relatively simple process com-
pared to producing computers.
Identifying. Companies commonly face major uncertainties in their product markets,
particularly in the toy industry where competition is often fierce and consumer tastes change
rapidly. However, Coleco’s uncertainties were greater than most because of the relatively
new—and competitive—computer market. For example, the managers did not know:
● How quickly consumers would embrace computers
● What would persuade consumers to purchase a first computer
● How quickly computer technology and competition would change
● Exactly how much the computers would cost to produce
Exploring. Coleco’s managers faced a difficult task in adequately exploring their deci-
sion to emphasize Adam over Cabbage Patch Dolls. However, thorough analysis is crucial
for this type of decision. For example, the managers needed to do the following:
● Anticipate which product would sell best. Although market research helps managers
estimate product demand, they would still have considerable uncertainty about actual
product sales.
● Avoid biased forecasts and analyses. Managers often have emotional attachments to
sunk costs, such as the large investment already made in Adam, that should not affect
decision making.
● Consider risks associated with the cost structure for each product. Compared to
Adam, Cabbage Patch dolls probably had lower fixed costs and a greater proportion
of variable costs. When more of a product’s costs are variable, profit is less risky be-
cause the sales volumes needed to cover fixed costs are relatively lower. Cabbage
Patch may have carried less operating risk than Adam.
Prioritizing. Given limited resources and their analyses of expected profit from the two
products, Coleco’s managers decided to prioritize production of Adam over Cabbage Patch
Dolls. This decision might have been clouded by management biases, as already discussed.
Envisioning. Despite previous poor sales of Adam, Coleco’s managers continued promot-
ing the product. In hindsight, it is easy to criticize the company for this strategy; however, it
would have been difficult for Coleco’s managers to adequately estimate product sales. Later, the
managers adopted an ongoing strategy of seeking hot-selling toys. This strategy ultimately failed.
■ Decision Making Using Information

about Revenues and Costs
Because Coleco’s managers overestimated Adam sales and underestimated Cabbage Patch
Doll sales, they not only incurred substantial losses on the Adam line, but also lost the
opportunity to gain more profit by selling additional Cabbage Patch Dolls. In Chapter 2, we
focused primarily on the estimation of costs. However, managers combine information about
revenues and costs to help them decide the mix and volumes of goods or services to produce
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COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS 89
and sell. They also use this information to monitor operations and evaluate profitability risk.
In this chapter, we combine revenues and costs in our analyses.
COST-VOLUME- Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is a technique that examines changes in profits in response
PROFIT ANALYSIS to changes in sales volumes, costs, and prices. Accountants often perform CVP analysis to plan
future levels of operating activity and provide information about:
Q1 What is cost-volume- ● Which products or services to emphasize
profit (CVP) analysis, ● The volume of sales needed to achieve a targeted level of profit
and how is it used for ● The amount of revenue required to avoid losses
decision making? ● Whether to increase fixed costs
● How much to budget for discretionary expenditures
Q2 How are CVP ● Whether fixed costs expose the organization to an unacceptable level of risk
calculations performed
for a single product?
■ Profit Equation and Contribution Margin
CVP analysis begins with the basic profit equation.
Profit Total revenue Total costs
Separating costs into variable and fixed categories, we express profit as:
Profit Total revenue Total variable costs Total fixed costs
CURRENT PRACTICE The contribution margin is total revenue minus total variable costs. Similarly, the contri-
According to Jon Scheumann, bution margin per unit is the selling price per unit minus the variable cost per unit. Both
director of the business process
consulting firm Gunn Partners,
contribution margin and contribution margin per unit are valuable tools when considering
successful organizations need a the effects of volume on profit. Contribution margin per unit tells us how much revenue from
culture that is attuned to cost each unit sold can be applied toward fixed costs. Once enough units have been sold to cover
management and that pays
attention to cost structures.1
all fixed costs, then the contribution margin per unit from all remaining sales becomes profit.
If we assume that the selling price and variable cost per unit are constant, then total rev-
enue is equal to price times quantity, and total variable cost is variable cost per unit times
quantity. We then rewrite the profit equation in terms of the contribution margin per unit.
Profit P Q V Q F (P V ) Q F
where P Selling price per unit

V Variable cost per unit
(P V ) Contribution margin per unit
Q Quantity of product sold (units of goods or services)
F Total fixed costs
We use the profit equation to plan for different volumes of operations. CVP analysis
can be performed using either:
● Units (quantity) of product sold
● Revenues (in dollars)
■ CVP Analysis in Units

We begin with the preceding profit equation. Assuming that fixed costs remain constant, we
solve for the expected quantity of goods or services that must be sold to achieve a target
level of profit.
Profit equation: Profit (P V ) Q F
F Profit
Solving for Q: Q Quantity (units) required to obtain target profit
(P V )
Notice that the denominator in this formula, (P V ), is the contribution margin per unit.
1Editorial, “A Proactive Approach to Cost Cutting,” SmartPros, June 2002, www.smartpros.com.

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Suppose that Magik Bicycles wants to produce a new mountain bike called Magikbike
III and has forecast the following information.
Price per bike $800
Variable cost per bike $300
Fixed costs related to bike production $5,500,000
Target profit $200,000
Estimated sales 12,000 bikes
We determine the quantity of bikes needed for the target profit as follows:
Quantity ($5,500,000 $200,000) ($800 $300) 11,400 bikes
■ CVP Analysis in Revenues

The contribution margin ratio (CMR) is the percent by which the selling price (or rev-
enue) per unit exceeds the variable cost per unit, or contribution margin as a percent of rev-
enue. For a single product, it is
PV
CMR
P
To analyze CVP in terms of total revenue instead of units, we substitute the contribution
margin ratio for the contribution margin per unit. We rewrite the equation to solve for the to-
tal dollar amount of revenue we need to cover fixed costs and achieve our target profit as
F Profit F Profit
Revenue
(P V )/P CMR
To solve for the Magikbike III revenues needed for a target profit of $200,000, we first
calculate the contribution margin ratio as follows:
CMR ($800 $300) $800 0.625
A contribution margin ratio of 0.625 means that 62.5% of the revenue from each bike sold
contributes first to fixed costs and then to profit after fixed costs are covered.
Revenue ($5,500,000 $200,000) 0.625 $9,120,000
We check to see that the two results are identical by multiplying the number of units (11,400)
times price ($800) to obtain the revenue amount ($9,120,000).
The contribution margin ratio can also be written in terms of total revenues (TR) and
HELPFUL HINT total variable costs (TVC). That is, for a single product, the CMR is the same whether we
Computing the CVP using total compute it using per-unit selling price and variable cost or using total revenues and total
revenues and total variable costs is
useful in cases where per-unit variable costs. Thus, we can create the following mathematically equivalent version of the
variable costs are unknown. CVP formula.
F Profit
Revenues
(TR TVC)/TR
For Magikbike III we could use the forecast information about volume (12,000 bikes)
to determine the contribution margin ratio.
Total revenue $800 12,000 bikes $9,600,000
Total variable cost $300 12,000 bikes $3,600,000
Total contribution margin $9,600,000 $3,600,000 $6,000,000
Contribution margin ratio $6,000,000 $9,600,000 0.625
■ CVP for Multiple Products

Many organizations sell a combination of different products or services. The sales mix is the
proportion of different products or services that an organization sells. For example, we learned
in the opening vignette that Coleco sold both Adam computers and Cabbage Patch dolls. To
use CVP in the case of multiple products or services, we assume a constant sales mix in ad-
dition to the other CVP assumptions. Assuming a constant sales mix allows CVP computa-
tions to be performed using combined unit or revenue data for an organization as a whole.
Later in the chapter we will learn how to perform detailed computations for the sales mix.
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EXHIBIT 3.1 Total revenue

CVP Graph for Magik
Bicycles’ Magikbike III.
Breakeven point Total costs
$9,120,000
$8,800,000 Operating
income area
Dollars
$5,500,000 Operating
loss area
11,000 11,400
Quantity of bikes
■ Breakeven Point
Q4 What is the breakeven Managers often want to know the level of activity required to break even. A CVP analysis
point? can be used to determine the breakeven point, or level of operating activity at which rev-
enues cover all fixed and variable costs, resulting in zero profit. We can calculate the
CURRENT PRACTICE breakeven point from any of the preceding CVP formulas, setting profit to zero. Depending
The U.S. Small Business on which formula we use, we calculate the breakeven point in either number of units or in
Administration Web site total revenues. For Magikbike III, breakeven points are:
recommends the use of breakeven
analysis and refers small business Breakeven quantity ($5,500,000 $0) ($800 $300) 11,000 bikes
owners to a breakeven analysis Breakeven revenue ($5,500,000 $0) 0.625 $8,800,000
calculator and CVP graphing tool.2
■ Cost-Volume-Profit Graph
A cost-volume-profit graph (or CVP graph) shows the relationship between total revenues
and total costs; it illustrates how an organization’s profits are expected to change under dif-
ferent volumes of activity. Exhibit 3.1 presents a CVP graph for Magikbikes III. Notice that
when no bikes are sold, fixed costs are $5,500,000, resulting in a loss of $5,500,000. As sales
volume increases, the loss decreases by the contribution margin for each bike sold. The cost
and revenue lines intersect at the breakeven point of 11,000, which means zero loss and zero
profit. Then as sales increase beyond this breakeven point, we see an increase in profit, grow-
ing by the $500 contribution margin for each bike sold. Profits achieve the target level of
$200,000 when sales volume reaches 11,400.
GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.1 Key Terms

Stop to confirm that you understand the new terms introduced in the last several pages.
Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis (p. 89) *Sales mix (p. 90)
Contribution margin (p. 89) Breakeven point (p. 91)
Contribution margin per unit (p. 89) Cost-volume-profit graph (p. 91)
Contribution margin ratio (CMR) (p. 90)
For each of these terms, write a definition in your own words. For the starred term, list at least
one example that is different from the ones given in this textbook.
2Do a search for Breakeven Analysis at the U.S. Small Business Administration Web site, available at www.sba.gov.
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■ CVP with Income Taxes

ALTERNATIVE TERMS Up to this point, our CVP calculations ignored income taxes. An organization’s after-tax
Some people use the terms operating profit is calculated by subtracting income tax from pretax profit. The tax is usually calcu-
income (loss) or income (loss) before lated as a percentage of pretax profit.
income taxes instead of pretax profit
(loss). Similarly, some people use net After-tax profit Pretax profit Taxes
income (loss) instead of after-tax
profit (loss). Pretax profit (Tax rate Pretax profit)
Pretax profit (1 Tax rate)
If we want to know the amount of pretax profit needed to achieve a target level of after-tax
profit, we solve the preceding formula for pretax profit:
After-tax profit
Pretax profit
(1 Tax rate)
Suppose that Magik Bicycles plans for an after-tax profit of $20,000 and its tax rate is
30%. Then,
Pretax profit $20,000 (1 0.30) $28,571
The company needs a pretax profit of $28,571 to earn an after-tax profit of $20,000.
The following illustration develops a cost function to calculate the volumes needed to
break even and to achieve a target after-tax profit when multiple products are involved.
DIE GEFLECKTE KUH EIS (THE SPOTTED COW CREAMERY) (PART 1)

CVP ANALYSIS WITH INCOME TAXES
Die Gefleckte Kuh Eis (The Spotted Cow Creamery) is a popular ice cream emporium near a uni-
versity in Munich, Germany. Information for the most recent month (amounts in euros) appears here.
Revenue 40,000
Cost of food and beverages sold 20,000
Labor 15,000
Rent 1, 000

Pretax profit 4,000
Income taxes (25%) 1, 000

After-tax profit 3, 000

The store owner asked the manager, Holger Soderstrom, to estimate results for the next
month. This particular outlet has not performed as well as the owner’s other three outlets. Hol-
ger believes that sales volumes will increase to 48,000 next month because it has been an un-
usually hot and dry summer.
Estimating the Cost Function

To perform CVP analysis, Holger first estimates the cost function. Using accounting records, he clas-
sifies each cost as fixed or variable and then estimates next month’s cost. Of the costs listed in the
accounting records, labor ( 15,000) and rent ( 1,000) are most likely fixed (assuming employees
work fixed schedules). Assuming that fixed costs do not change from month to month, Holger’s best
estimate of next month’s fixed costs is 16,000 ( 15,000 1,000). The remaining item, cost of
food and beverages sold ( 20,000), is most likely a variable cost. Because The Spotted Cow Cream-
ery’s focus is retail sales of ice cream and other food items, Holger can reasonably assume that sales
volume drives this variable cost. Thus, he estimates expected variable costs as a percent of revenue:
20,000 40,000 0.50, or 50% of revenue
Holger combines his fixed and variable cost estimates to create the following cost function for next month:
TC 16,000 (50% Revenues)
Estimating After-Tax Profit

If next month’s revenues are 48,000, Holger expects total variable costs to be (50% 48,000)
24,000. Therefore, his estimate of pretax profit is
Pretax profit 48,000 16,000 24,000 8,000
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Holger estimates income taxes and after-tax profit, assuming that income taxes remain at 25% of
pretax profit:
After-tax profit 8,000(1 0.25) 6,000
Calculating Revenues to Achieve Targeted After-Tax Profit

Holger presents the preceding information to the owner. However, the owner still has concerns
about this outlet because the other outlets have achieved after-tax profits of about 8,000 each
during the last few months. The owner thinks that sales volume might be the problem. To help an-
alyze this possibility, Holger determines the sales volume necessary to earn after-tax profits of 8,000
per month. He begins by calculating the targeted pretax profit:
Pretax profit 8,000 (1 0.25) 10,667
Next, he uses the following CVP formula to solve for targeted revenue:
F Profit
Revenues
CMR
Substituting in the preceding information:
Revenues ( 16,000 10,667) 0.50 53,334
Notice that Holger uses the contribution margin ratio calculated with the sales revenue and vari-
able costs from his original analysis.
Holger summarizes his target profit calculations for the owner as follows:
Revenue 53,334
Cost of food and beverages sold (50% of 53,334) 26,667
Labor (fixed) 15,000
Rent (fixed) 1, 000

Pretax profit 10,667

After-tax profit 8, 000

For the outlet to achieve an after-tax profit of 8,000, revenues need to increase by 33%
[( 53,334 40,000) 40,000] over last month.
Holger presents this information to the owner and argues that sales will increase to 53,334
because the weather will be hotter next month. However, the owner thinks that Holger may be wor-
ried about being replaced, and so his revenue estimates are probably biased upwards. The owner
decides to investigate Holger’s estimates further by comparing his revenues and costs to those in
the other outlets.
GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.2 The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 1)

The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 1) illustrates a multiple-product CVP analysis with income taxes. For this illustration:
Identify Problem
Define It and Information Identify Uncertainties Explore Assumptions Explore Biases
Which definitions, analy- What decisions were What types of uncer- Reread the first part of Why and how might
sis techniques, and being addressed? What tainties were there? this chapter and iden- the manager’s bias
computations were information was rele- Consider uncertainties tify the assumptions influence the computa-
used? vant to the decisions? about: used in developing the tions? Why would the
● Revenue and cost CVP formulas. How owner be uncertain
estimates reasonable are these whether the manager
● Interpreting results assumptions for The had created biased rev-
● Relevant range of Spotted Cow Creamery? enue or cost estimates?
operations
● Feasibility of activity
level
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PERFORMING CVP Spreadsheets are often used for CVP computations, particularly when an organization
ANALYSES WITH has multiple products. Spreadsheets simplify the basic computations and can be designed
to show how changes in volumes, selling prices, costs, or sales mix alter the results.
A SPREADSHEET
Q3 How are CVP ■ CVP Calculations for a Sales Mix

calculations performed
Although The Spotted Cow Creamery sells multiple products, the CVP analysis performed
for multiple products?
by the store manager did not provide computations for individual products. Instead, the anal-
ysis focused on the total amount of revenue needed to achieve a target profit. If the manager
wants to use CVP results to plan future operations for individual products, the required rev-
enue for each product needs to be determined. Such computations are performed using the
sales mix. The sales mix should be stated as a proportion of units when performing CVP
computations in units, and it should be stated as a proportion of revenues when performing
CVP computations in revenues. Sales mix computations can become cumbersome if per-
formed manually; it is easiest to use a spreadsheet.
To demonstrate CVP computations using a spreadsheet, suppose that Magik Bicycles
developed three different products, a small bike for children and youths, a road bike, and a
mountain bike. Total fixed costs for the company are $14,700,000. Forecasted sales volumes
are as follows. The sales mix in percentages is calculated from these volumes.
Youth Road Mountain Total
Forecasted volume (units) 10,000 18,000 12,000 40,000
Expected sales mix in units 25% 45% 30% 100%
Because of increased competition and an economic downturn, the managers of Magik Bi-
cycles are uncertain about the company’s ability to achieve the forecasted level of sales. They
would like to know the minimum amount of sales needed for an after-tax profit of $100,000.
The company’s income tax rate is 30%. The expected unit selling prices, variable costs, and
contribution margins for each product are as follows:
Youth Road Mountain
Price per unit $200 $700 $800
Variable cost per unit 75 250
3
00

Contribution margin per unit $125 $450 $500

Exhibit 3.2 shows a sample CVP spreadsheet for Magik Bicycles. Notice that all of the
input data is placed in an area labeled as “Input section” in the spreadsheet. The calculations
are performed outside of this area (formulas for this spreadsheet are shown in Appendix 3A).
Spreadsheets designed this way allow users to alter the assumptions in the input section with-
out performing any additional programming.
CURRENT PRACTICE The spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.2 first uses the input data to compute expected revenues,
Spreadsheet skills are important costs, and income. The revenues and variable costs for each product are computed by mul-
professionally. The American
Institute of Certified Public tiplying the expected sales volume times the selling price and variable cost per unit shown
Accountants (AICPA) states that an in the input area. The revenues and variable costs for the three products are then combined
entry-level accountant should be to determine total revenues and total variable costs for the company. After subtracting ex-
able to “appropriately use electronic
spreadsheets and other software to pected fixed costs and income taxes (30% of pretax income), the expected after-tax income
build models and simulations.”3 is $455,000.
When an organization produces and sells a number of different products or services, we
use the weighted average contribution margin per unit to determine the breakeven point or
target profit in units. Similarly, we use the weighted average contribution margin ratio to de-
termine the breakeven point or target profit in revenues. “Weighted average” here refers to
the expected sales mix: 10,000 youth bikes or $2,000,000 in revenues, 18,000 road bikes or
3Thisskill is an element of the competency “Leverage Technology to Develop and Enhance Functional Compe-
tencies,” AICPA Core Competency Framework, accessed through the Library at eca.aicpaservices.org/.
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PERFORMING CVP ANALYSES WITH A SPREADSHEET 95
EXHIBIT 3.2 A B C D E
Spreadsheet for Magik 1
2 Input section Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes
Bicycles CVP with 3 Expected sales volume-units 10,000 18,000 12,000
Multiple Products 4 Price per unit $200 $700 $800
5 Variable cost per unit $75 $250 $300
6
7 Fixed costs $14,700,000
8 Desired after-tax profit $100,000 (enter zero for breakeven)
9 Income tax rate 30%
10
11
12 Contribution Margin Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes Total Bikes
13 Units 10,000 18,000 12,000 40,000
14 Revenue $2,000,000 $12,600,000 $9,600,000 $24,200,000
15 Variable costs 750,000 4,500,000 3,600,000 8,850,000
16 Contribution margin $1,250,000 $8,100,000 $6,000,000 $15,350,000
17
18 Contrib. margin per unit $125.00 $450.00 $500.00 $383.75
19 Contrib. margin ratio 62.50% 64.29% 62.50% 63.43%
20
21 Expected sales mix in units 25.00% 45.00% 30.00% 100.00%
22 Expected sales mix in revenues 8.26% 52.07% 39.67% 100.00%
23
24 Expected Income
25 Contribution margin (above) $15,350,000
26 Fixed costs 14,700,000
27 Pretax income 650,000
28 Income taxes 195,000
29 After-tax income $455,000
30
31 Preliminary CVP Calculations
32 Target pretax profit for CVP analysis $142,857
33 Fixed costs plus target pretax profit $14,842,857
34
35 CVP analysis in units Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes Total Bikes
36 CVP calculation in units 9,669.614 17,405.305 11,603.537 38,678
37 Revenue $1,933,923 $12,183,713 $9,282,829 $23,400,465
38 Variable costs 725,221 4,351,326 3,481,061 8,557,608
39 Contribution margin $1,208,702 $7,832,387 $5,801,768 14,842,857
44
45 CVP analysis in revenues Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes Total Bikes
46 CVP calculation in revenues $1,933,923 $12,183,713 $9,282,829 $23,400,465
47 Variable costs 725,221 4,351,326 3,481,061 8,557,608
Note: Appendix 3A provides a version of this spreadsheet showing the cell formulas.
$12,600,000 in revenues, and 12,000 mountain bikes or $9,600,000 in revenues. Given the
sales mix, the weighted average contribution margin per unit is calculated as the combined
contribution margin ($15,350,000) divided by the total number of units expected to be sold
(40,000), or $383.75 per unit as computed in Exhibit 3.2.4 The weighted average contribu-
tion margin ratio is the combined contribution margin ($15,350,000) divided by combined
revenue ($24,200,000), or 63.43%.5
4Another way to compute the weighted average contribution margin per unit is to sum the contribution margins for
the three products, weighted by number of units sold as follows: (10,000 40,000)($200 $75) (18,000
40,000)($700 $250) (12,000 40,000)($800 $300) $383.75.
5Another way to compute the weighted average contribution margin ratio is to sum the contribution margin ratios for the
three products, weighted by revenues as follows: ($2,000,000 $24,200,000)[($200 $75) $200] ($12,600,000
$24,200,000)[($700 $250) $700] ($9,600,000 $24,200,000)[($800 $300) $800] 63.43%.
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The spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.2 performs CVP computations using both units and rev-
enues. To achieve an after-tax target profit of 100,000, the company must earn a pretax profit
of $142,857 [$100,000 (1 0.30)]. To compute the total number of units (bikes) that must
be sold to achieve the target profit, we divide the fixed costs plus the target profit by the
weighted average contribution margin per unit:
F Profit $14,700,000 $142,857
Units needed for target profit Q 38,678 units
(P V ) $383.75 per unit
Magik needs to sell 38,678 units to achieve an after-tax target profit of $100,000. To deter-
mine the number of units for each product that must be sold, we multiply the total number
of units (38,678) by each product’s expected sales mix in units. For example, the company
must sell 38,678 units (10,000 units 40,000 units), or 9,670 youth bikes.
To calculate the amount of revenue needed to achieve the target after-tax profit of
$100,000, we divide the fixed costs plus the target pretax profit by the weighted average
contribution margin ratio:
F Profit $14,700,000 $142,857
Revenues $23,400,373
CMR 63.43%
The difference between the spreadsheet and this hand-calculated amount is due to round-
ing, as are any differences in the following amounts. To determine the revenues for each
product that must be sold, we multiply the total revenues ($23,400,373) by each product’s
expected sales mix in revenues. For example, the company must achieve $23,400,373
($2,000,000 $24,200,000), or $1,933,914 in revenues from youth bikes. Notice that the
required revenue for each product is equal to the required number of units times the ex-
pected selling price. For youth bikes, 9,670 units $200 per unit $1,934,000.
The results of calculations using units and revenues are always identical. Because in-
formation in the example was given in units, it would have been easiest to create the spread-
sheet using only the computations for CVP in units. However, in some situations per-unit
information is not available. In those cases, it is necessary to perform CVP calculations us-
ing revenues. Later in the chapter we revisit the ice cream shop illustration to analyze the
influence of sales mix on the total contribution margin.
■ CVP Sensitivity Analysis

Q5 What assumptions and
One of the benefits of creating a spreadsheet with a separate input section is that additional
limitations should
managers consider
CVP analyses can easily be performed by the changing input data. For example, suppose the
when using CVP managers of Magik Bicycles want to know the number of bikes they must sell to break even.
analysis? We can return to the spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.2 and change the “Desired after-tax profit”
to zero. The resulting spreadsheet, showing only CVP calculations in units, is presented in
Exhibit 3.3.
The managers of Magik Bicycles could use the CVP spreadsheet to perform several dif-
ferent types of sensitivity analyses. Suppose sales of the mountain bike are falling behind
Spreadsheet Results for 32 Target pretax profit for CVP analysis $0
Magik Bicycles Breakeven 33 Fixed costs plus target pretax profit $14,700,000
Analysis 34
36 CVP calculation in units 9,576.547 17,237.785 11,491.857 38,306
37 Revenue $1,915,309 $12,066,450 $9,193,485 $23,175,244
38 Variable costs 718,241 4,309,446 3,447,557 8,475,244
41 Pretax income 0
42 Income taxes 0
43 After-tax income $0
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PERFORMING CVP ANALYSES WITH A SPREADSHEET 97
expectations. They could determine the effects of the change in sales mix on results. Every
assumption in the data input box is easily changed to update information. Sensitivity analy-
sis helps managers explore the potential impact of variations in data they consider to be par-
ticularly important or uncertain.
■ Discretionary Expenditure Decision

Q1 What is cost-volume- CVP analysis also helps managers make business decisions such as whether to increase
profit (CVP) analysis, or decrease discretionary expenditures. For example, suppose the managers of Magik
and how is it used for Bicycles want to advertise one of their products more heavily. A distributor pointed
decision making? out that the road bike price was less than a competitor’s price for a model with fewer
features. The competitor’s brand name is quite well known, but the distributor thinks
that he could sell at least 10% more road bikes if Magik launched a regional advertis-
ing campaign.
The managers of Magik estimate that an additional expenditure of $100,000 in adver-
tising will increase road bike sales by 5%, to 18,900 bikes. To estimate the effects of the
proposed expenditure, we return to the spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.2 and make two changes.
First, fixed costs would increase by $100,000 to $14,800,000. Second, the expected volume
of road bikes sold would increase to 18,900. The resulting spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.4 indi-
cates that after-tax profits are expected to increase by $213,500 from $455,000 to $668,500.
CHAPTER REFERENCE Notice on the spreadsheet that the change in sales mix affects the weighted average contri-
Chapter 4 uses CVP analysis for bution margin; it changes from 383.75 to $385.21.
additional types of decisions. We We could perform the same calculation without the spreadsheet by subtracting the
also learn that decisions are often
influenced by qualitative information $100,000 investment in fixed costs from the additional contribution margin of $405,000
that is not valued in numerical terms. [900 bikes ($700 $250)]. The resulting incremental after-tax profit is $213,500
[($405,000 $100,000)(1 0.30)]. Because profits are expected to increase more than
costs for this advertising campaign, the managers would be likely to make the additional
investment.
■ Planning, Monitoring, and Motivating with CVP

CVP analyses are useful for planning and monitoring operations and for motivating employee
performance. If the owner of The Spotted Cow Creamery obtains similar information for the
other outlets, results can be compared to identify differences in revenue levels and cost func-
tions. For example, unusually high labor costs might suggest that the low-profit outlet is
CHAPTER REFERENCE overstaffed or inefficient. Once the owner analyzes the reasons for differences in profitabil-
In Chapter 10, CVP analysis is used to ity, emphasis can be placed on increasing revenues, reducing costs, or both. The owner can
create flexible budgets for measuring
and monitoring performance at also hold managers more accountable for performance, which should motivate their work ef-
different levels of activity. forts toward the owner’s goals.
Spreadsheet for Magik 12 Contribution Margin Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes Total Bikes
13 Units 10,000 18,900 12,000 40,900
Bicycles Advertising 14 Revenue $2,000,000 $13,230,000 $9,600,000 $24,830,000
Expenditure Decision 15 Variable costs 750,000 4,725,000 3,600,000 9,075,000
17
20
23
24 Expected Income
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DIE GEFLECKTE KUH EIS (THE SPOTTED COW CREAMERY) (PART 2)

THE INFLUENCE OF SALES MIX ON PROFITABILITY
The owner of The Spotted Cow Creamery has several profitable stores. He asked the store man-
agers to provide information about their sales mix, specifically the amount of beverage versus
ice cream products sold. Beverages provide a much larger contribution margin than ice cream.
After analyzing the data, he found that about half of the revenues in the most profitable stores
were for the sale of beverages. In addition, these stores have more stable sales throughout the
winter because they sell specialty coffee beverages as well as soft drinks.
The owner shared this information with Holger, the manager of a less profitable store. Hol-
ger investigates the contribution margins from beverages and ice cream at his store. He sets up
a spreadsheet to examine the influence of the sales mix on profitability, shown in Exhibit 3.5(a).
He finds that beverages are about 15% of total revenue ( 6,000 40,000). The contribution
margin ratio for beverages is 93% ( 5,600 6,000), whereas the contribution margin for ice
cream is 42% ( 14,400 34,000). When he changes the desired sales mix in the spreadsheet
from 15% to 50% beverages to match the sales mix of more profitable stores, the after-tax in-
come increases by a sizeable amount from 3,000 to 8,353 as indicated in Exhibit 3.5(b).
Holger realizes that several strategies would increase the percentage of beverages in his
current sales mix. First, he could require the sales clerks to suggest a beverage with each sale. In
addition, he could emphasize beverages in his advertising. He could also analyze his competitors’
beverage prices to be certain that his prices are competitive. A small drop in the price of beverages
might increase the volume of beverages sold more than enough to offset the decline in contribu-
tion margin ratio. He uses the spreadsheet to perform sensitivity analysis around these factors.
EXHIBIT 3.5 Spreadsheet for The Spotted Cow Creamery

A B C D A B C D
1 1
2 Input section 2 Input section
3 Beverage Ice Cream Total 3 Beverage Ice Cream Total
4 Revenue €6,000 €34,000 €40,000 4 Revenue €6,000 €34,000 €40,000
5 Variable cost 400 19,600 20,000 5 Variable cost 400 19,600 20,000
6 Current sales mix in revenues 15% 85% 100% 6 Current sales mix in revenues 15% 85% 100%
7 Fixed costs 16,000 7 Fixed costs 16,000
8 Tax rate 25% 8 Tax rate 25%
9 Desired sales mix in revenues 15% 85% 100% 9 Desired sales mix in revenues 50% 50% 100%
10 10
11 Weighted Average 11 Weighted Average
12 Contribution margin ratio 93% 42% 50% 12 Contribution margin ratio 93% 42% 68%
13 13
14 Income statement 14 Income statement
15 Revenue €6,000 €34,000 €40,000 15 Revenue €20,000 €20,000 €40,000
16 Variable cost 400 19,600 20,000 16 Variable cost 1,333 11,529 12,863
17 Contribution margin 5,600 14,400 20,000 17 Contribution margin 18,667 8,471 27,137
18 18
19 Fixed costs 16,000 19 Fixed costs 16,000
20 Pretax income 4,000 20 Pretax income 11,137
21 Taxes 1,000 21 Taxes 2,784
22 After tax income €3,000 22 After tax income €8,353
(a) Current Sales Mix (b) Desired Sales Mix
GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.3 The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 2)

The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 2) illustrates the influence of sales mix on profitability. For this
illustration:
Compute It Identify Uncertainties Explore Uses

For Exhibit 3.5, manually At the end of the illustration, How was CVP information
recalculate: the store manager was con- used by the owner? How was
● Sales mix in units sidering several strategies for it used by the manager?
● Sales mix in revenues changing his store’s sales mix.
● Weighted average contribu- What uncertainties does the
tion margin ratio manager face?
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ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS 99
ASSUMPTIONS AND Exhibit 3.6 summarizes the input data, assumptions, and uses of CVP analysis. CVP anal-
LIMITATIONS OF ysis relies on several assumptions. In Chapter 2 we assumed for the linear cost function
(F V Q) that production volumes are within a relevant range of operations where
COST-VOLUME- fixed costs remain fixed and variable costs remain constant. In addition, for CVP analysis,
PROFIT ANALYSIS we assume that selling prices remain constant and that the sales mix is constant. Sensitivity
analysis can be performed to determine the sensitivity of profits to these assumptions.
Q5 What assumptions and
limitations should
managers consider ■ Uncertainties and Quality of Input Data
when using CVP As indicated in Exhibit 3.6, CVP analysis relies on forecasts of expected revenues and
analysis? costs. CVP assumptions rule out fluctuations in revenues or costs that might be caused by
common business factors such as supplier volume discounts, learning curves, changes in pro-
CHAPTER REFERENCE duction efficiency, or special customer discounts. In addition, many uncertainties may arise
Chapter 2 explains the importance of about whether CVP assumptions will be violated, such as the following:
the relevant range in measuring the
cost function. ● Can volume of operating activity be achieved?
● Will selling prices increase or decrease?
● Will sales mix remain constant?
● Will fixed or variable costs change as operations move into a new relevant
range?
● Will costs change due to unforeseen causes?
● Are revenue and cost estimates biased?
EXHIBIT 3.6 Input Data, Assumptions, and Uses of CVP Analysis
Use Results to:

Describe volume, revenues, costs, and profits:
● Values at breakeven or target profit.:
–Units sold
–Revenues
CVP Analysis and Assumptions –Variable, fixed, and total costs
Calculate number of units or rev- ● Sensitivity of results to changes in:
enues needed for: –Levels of activity –Selling price
Input Data for –Cost function –Sales mix
● Breakeven
CVP Analysis ● Target profit ● Indifference point between alternatives
Expected Revenues
Assumptions: ● Feasibility of planned operations
(volume and selling
price) ● Operations within a relevant Assist with plans and decisions such as:
Expected Costs range ● Budgets
● Linear cost function
(cost function) ● Product emphasis
–Fixed costs remain constant ● Selling price
Sales Mix (for multiple –Variable cost per unit remains ● Production or activity levels
products) constant ● Employee work schedules
● Linear revenue function
● Raw material purchases
–Sales mix remains constant ● Discretionary expenditures such as advertising
–Prices remain constant ● Proportions of fixed versus variable costs
Monitor operations by comparing expected and
actual:
● Volumes, revenues, costs, and profits
● Profitability risk
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 100
EXHIBIT 3.7 Examples of Business Uncertainties

Ashanti Coca-Cola
Goldfields Bank of FEMSA, Nokia Sony
Company Ltd. Montreal S.A. de C.V. eBay, Inc. Corporation Corporation
Ghana Canada Mexico United States Finland Japan
Gold mining and Credit and non- Production and Web-based mar- Mobile communi- Electronic equip-
exploration credit banking distribution of ketplace and pay- cations ment design and
services Coca-Cola ment services manufacturing
products
● Gold prices ● Changes in ● Deterioration in ● Retaining active ● Global network ● Levels of con-
● Anticipated life global capital relationships with user base reliance on large sumer spending
of mines markets the Coca-Cola ● Consumer confi- multiyear contracts ● Speed and na-
● Power supply ● Interest rates Company dence in Web site ● Failure of prod- ture of technology
● Labor relations ● Regulatory ● Governmental security uct quality change
changes price controls ● Management of ● System or net- ● Change in con-
● Technological ● More stringent fraud loss work disruptions sumer preferences

changes environmental ● Retaining key ● Electromagnetic ● Ability to reduce
regulations employees field-related workforce

● High inflation litigation
Examples adapted from Examples adapted from Examples adapted from Examples adapted from Examples adapted from Examples adapted from
“Forward-Looking In- “Caution Regarding “Cautionary Statements” “Risk Factors That May “Risk Factors” in 2002 “Cautionary Statement”
formation” in Form Forward-Looking in presentation to J.P. Affect Results of Oper- annual report. under Investor Rela-
20-F (filed with the Statements” under Morgan, July 2003 ations and Financial tions at www.sony.net/
SEC). “Investor Relations” at Condition” in 2002 index.html.
www4.bmo.com. annual report.
CHAPTER REFERENCE All organizations are subject to uncertainties, leading to risk that they will fail to meet
We address the quality of expected expectations. Exhibit 3.7 summarizes major business uncertainties for six companies in a va-
revenue and cost information further riety of industries around the world. Even though each organization is subject to unique busi-
in Chapter 10 (budgeting).
ness risks, all face uncertainties related to the economic environment. Some organizations are
subject to more uncertainty than others. For example, uncertainties are greater in industries
experiencing rapid technological and market change or intense competition.
■ Quality of CVP Technique

To help managers make better decisions, accountants evaluate the quality of the techniques they
use, given the organizational setting and decisions to be made. This evaluation helps determine
when techniques such as CVP analysis are likely to be an appropriate tool and how much re-
liance to place on the results. The quality of information generated from an analysis technique
is higher if the economic setting is consistent with the technique’s underlying assumptions.
Strict CVP assumptions are violated in many business settings. The types of uncertain-
ties already discussed can lead to nonlinear behavior in revenues and costs. In addition, it
may be difficult to determine the point of operating activity where operations move into a
new relevant range.
Nevertheless, in many business settings CVP analysis provides useful information. Ac-
countants and managers use their knowledge of the organization’s operations and their judg-
ment to evaluate whether the CVP assumptions are reasonable for their setting. They can
rely more on CVP results when the assumptions are less likely to be violated. Also, the data
used in CVP calculations must be updated continually to be useful.
■ CVP for Nonprofit Organizations

The basic CVP formulas in this chapter are written for typical for-profit businesses such as
manufacturers, retailers, or service providers. Nonprofit organizations often receive grants
and donations. These revenue sources complicate CVP calculations because they could be
affected by quantity of goods or services sold. Grants and donations that are unrelated to the
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ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS 101
quantity of goods or services sold are offset against fixed costs in the CVP formulas. How-
ever, when grants and donations vary with a not-for-profit organization’s operating activi-
ties, they might be included in revenues or subtracted from variable costs. The treatment de-
pends on the nature of the grant or donation.
The following illustration continues the story of Small Animal Clinic from Chapter 2.
Recall that Small Animal Clinic is a not-for-profit organization that treats small animals. It
received a foundation grant that matches incoming revenues. For example, if a pet owner
pays $30 in fees, the foundation matches with an additional $30 to the clinic. In this case,
the grant is included in revenues for CVP calculations.
SMALL ANIMAL CLINIC

NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATION CVP ANALYSIS
WITH TWO RELEVANT RANGES
Leticia Brown, Small Animal Clinic manager, and the accountant, Josh Hardy, are completing the
operating budget for 2006. Leticia estimated that the clinic will experience 3,800 animal visits,
and Josh estimated the cost function as follows:6
TC $119,009 $16.40Q
where Q is the number of animal visits. Leticia and Josh budgeted revenue per animal visit at
$60 ($30 in fees plus $30 in matching grant). Thus, they estimated that the clinic should achieve
a surplus of $46,671[($60)(3,800) $119,009 ($16.40)(3,800)]. The clinic is a not-for-profit
organization and pays no income taxes on its surplus.
To complete the planning process for next year, Leticia asks Josh to compute the clinic’s
breakeven point. As manager of a not-for-profit organization, she is particularly sensitive to finan-
cial risk and wants to know how much the clinic’s activity levels could drop before a loss would
occur.
Breakeven Compared to Budget

Josh performs the following calculations. With revenue per visit of $60, the contribution margin
per animal visit is
P V $60.00 $16.40 $43.60
Josh solves for Q with profit equal to $0 to find the breakeven point in number of animal visits:
F Profit ($119,009 $0)

Q 2,730 visits
(P V ) $43.60
Leticia is pleased to see that the budgeted number of animal visits (3,800) is significantly
higher than the breakeven number. This result gives her considerable assurance that the clinic is
not likely to incur a loss, even if revenues fail to achieve targeted levels or if costs exceed esti-
mated amounts.
Potential Investment in New Equipment

During the first two months of 2006, Leticia learns that the number of animal visits at Small Ani-
mal Clinic is running approximately 10% higher than the budget, and costs seem to be under con-
trol. Leticia thinks that the clinic might be on track for a high surplus this year.
For the past two years, Leticia has been interested in purchasing equipment costing $200,000
to provide low-cost neutering services. This year PAWS, a local charity, offered to pay for half of
the equipment cost, but only after the clinic raises the other half of the funds. Currently the clinic
has no excess cash because surpluses from prior years were invested in other projects. Thus, the
(continued)
6 Inthe Chapter 2 illustration Small Animal Clinic (Part 2), the cost function was calculated as: TC $119,009
($15.20)(Number of animal visits) (0.04)(Fee revenue). If average fee revenue is $30 per animal visit, then
the last term in the cost function can be rewritten as (0.04)($30)(Number of animal visits), which can be
simplified as ($1.20)(Number of animal visits). This substitution allows the cost function to be rewritten as:
TC $119,009 ($16.40)(Number of animal visits). This version of the cost function is appropriate for esti-
mating total costs for the clinic, but it would not be appropriate for estimating total costs for a single ani-
mal visit, where the fees vary depending on the services performed.
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 102
clinic needs to raise $100,000 to receive the PAWS grant. Leticia asks Josh to calculate the number
of animal visits needed to achieve a surplus of $100,000.
Calculating and Analyzing Targeted Activity Level

Josh calculates the expected quantity needed to achieve $100,000 surplus as follows:
F Profit $119,009 $100,000 $219,009

Q 5,024 animal visits
PV $60.00 $16.40 $43.60
He then calculates the total dollar amount of revenue needed:
F Profit $119,009 $100,000

Revenues $310,389
(P V )/P $43.60/$60.00
Josh tells Leticia that the clinic will need to earn $301,389 in revenues or 5,024 visits to achieve a
surplus of $100,000.
The budgeted level of activity (3,800 animal visits) is substantially higher than the level of ac-
tivity needed to break even (2,730 animal visits). If animal visits continue to exceed this year’s budget
by 10%, Josh estimates that animal visits will reach 4,180 (3,800 1.10) by year-end. However,
he thinks that it would be very difficult to achieve a targeted surplus of $100,000 (5,024 animal
visits).
CVP Adjusted for Change in Relevant Range

As Josh works on his report, he realizes that the clinic’s cost function might change if the num-
ber of animal visits gets very high. Leticia told him that she will probably hire another technician
and need to rent more space and purchase additional equipment if animal visits exceed 4,000 this
year. Therefore, Josh’s cost function for 5,024 visits is wrong. He develops a new cost function as-
suming that an additional technician, space, and equipment will increase fixed costs by about
$60,000 per year.
TC ($119,009 $60,000) $16.40Q $179,009 $16.40Q, for Q 4,000
Thus, Josh’s earlier CVP analysis was incorrect when animal visits exceed 4,000. The level of ac-
tivity needed for a targeted surplus of $100,000 needs to be recalculated:
($179,009 $100,000) $43.60 6,400 for Q 4,000
Josh notices that an activity level of 6,400 animal visits is noticeably higher than the 5,024 visits
he first calculated. He realizes how important it is to adjust for the relevant range when perform-
ing CVP analyses.
When Josh shows Leticia the new results, they agree that the clinic cannot raise the funds for
new equipment by increasing the number of visits to 6,400. Leticia may need to cut costs or seek
other ways to pay for the neutering equipment. The additional fixed cost would also require the
clinic to have a much higher volume of operations to avoid a loss.
GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.4 Small Animal Clinic

Small Animal Clinic illustrates a CVP analysis with target profit and two relevant ranges for a not-for-profit organization. For this
illustration:
Identify Problem
Define It and Information Identify Uncertainties Explore Assumptions
Describe how the CVP compu- What decisions were being What were the uncertainties? How reasonable are the CVP
tations change when more addressed? Why was CVP Consider uncertainties about: assumptions for Small Animal
than one relevant range is information useful for the ● Revenue and cost estimates Clinic?
involved. decisions? ● Interpreting results
● Relevant range of operations
● Feasibility of activity level

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MARGIN OF SAFETY AND DEGREE OF OPERATING LEVERAGE 103
MARGIN OF SAFETY In Small Animal Clinic, the manager used CVP information to help her learn how much
AND DEGREE the volume of business could decline before the clinic would incur a loss. The manager
of Spotted Cow Creamery was able to identify the specific products to emphasize for
OF OPERATING increased profitability. Managers are often interested in these types of questions. In ad-
LEVERAGE dition, information from CVP analysis can be used to help manage operational risk.
Q6 How are margin of ■ Margin of Safety

safety and operating
leverage used to assess
The margin of safety is the excess of an organization’s expected future sales (in either rev-
operational risk? enue or units) above the breakeven point. The margin of safety indicates the amount by which
sales could drop before profits reach the breakeven point:
Margin of safety in units Actual or estimated units of activity Units at breakeven point
Margin of safety in revenues Actual or estimated revenue Revenue at breakeven point
The margin of safety is computed using actual or estimated sales values, depending on the
purpose. To evaluate future risk when planning, use estimated sales. To evaluate actual risk
when monitoring operations, use actual sales. If the margin of safety is small, managers may
put more emphasis on reducing costs and increasing sales to avoid potential losses. A larger
margin of safety gives managers greater confidence in making plans such as incurring addi-
tional fixed costs.
The margin of safety percentage is the margin of safety divided by actual or estimated
sales, in either units or revenues. This percentage indicates the extent to which sales can de-
cline before profits become zero.
Margin of safety in units
Margin of safety percentage in units
Actual or estimated units
Margin of safety in revenue
Margin of safety percentage in revenues
Actual or estimated revenue
When the original budget was created for Small Animal Clinic, the breakeven point
was calculated as 2,730 animal visits, or $163,800 in revenues. However, Leticia and
Josh expected 3,800 animal visits, for $228,000 in revenue. Their margin of safety
in units of animal visits was 1,070 (3,800 2,730) and in revenues was $64,200
($228,000 $163,800). Their margin of safety percentage was 28.2% (1,070 3,800,
or $64,200 $228,000). In other words, their sales volume could drop 28.2% from ex-
pected levels before they expected to incur a loss. Exhibit 3.8 provides a CVP graph for
this information.
EXHIBIT 3.8 Total Revenue

CVP Graph and Margin of Estimated
Safety for Small Animal $228,000 Surplus = $64,200
Clinic Total Costs
Dollars
Margin of Safety in
Revenues = $64,200
$163,800 Margin of Safety = 1,070 visits
Breakeven Point = Expected visits =

2,730 animal visits 3,800 visits
Quantity of Animal Visits
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 104
■ Degree of Operating Leverage

Managers decide how to structure the cost function for their organizations. Often, potential
trade-offs are made between fixed and variable costs. For example, a company could purchase
a vehicle (a fixed cost) or it could lease a vehicle under a contract that charges a rate per
mile driven (a variable cost). Exhibit 3.9 lists some of the common advantages and disad-
vantages of fixed costs. One of the major disadvantages of fixed costs is that they may be
difficult to reduce quickly if activity levels fail to meet expectations, thereby increasing the
organization’s risk of incurring losses.
The degree of operating leverage is the extent to which the cost function is made up
of fixed costs. Organizations with high operating leverage incur more risk of loss when sales
decline. Conversely, when operating leverage is high an increase in sales (once fixed costs
are covered) contributes quickly to profit. The formula for operating leverage can be writ-
ten in terms of either contribution margin or fixed costs, as shown here.7
Degree of operating leverage in terms Contribution margin TR TVC (P V ) Q

of contribution margin Profit Profit Profit
F
Degree of operating leverage in terms of fixed costs 1
Profit
Managers use the degree of operating leverage to gauge the risk associated with their cost
function and to explicitly calculate the sensitivity of profits to changes in sales (units or
revenues):
% change in profit % change in sales Degree of operating leverage
For Small Animal Clinic, the variable cost per animal visit was $16.40 and the fixed costs
were $119,009. With budgeted animal visits of 3,800, the managers expected to earn a profit
of $46,671. The expected degree of operating leverage using the contribution margin for-
mula is then calculated as follows:
($60 $16.40) 3,800 visits $165,680
Degree of operating leverage 3.55
$46,671 $46,671
We arrive at the same answer of 3.55 if we use the fixed cost formula:
$119,009
Degree of operating leverage 1 2.55 1 3.55
$46,671
EXHIBIT 3.9 Common Advantages Common Disadvantages

Advantages and ● Fixed costs might cost less in total than ● Investing in fixed resources might divert
Disadvantages of variable costs. management attention away from the
Fixed Costs ● Companies might require unique assets organization’s core competencies.
(e.g., expert labor or specialized production ● Fixed costs typically require a longer
facilities) that must be acquired through long- financial commitment; it can be difficult to
term commitments. reduce them quickly.
● Fixed assets such as automation and robotics ● Underinvestment or overinvestment in fixed
equipment can significantly improve operating costs could affect profits and may not easily
efficiency. be changed in the short term.
● Fixed costs are easier to plan; they do not
fluctuate with levels of activity.
7Tosee the relationship between the two formulas, recall the profit equation: Profit (P V ) Q F, which
can be rewritten as F Profit Contribution margin. In turn, Degree of operating leverage Contribution
margin Profit (F Profit) Profit (F Profit) 1.
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 105
The degree of operating leverage and margin of safety percentage are reciprocals.
1
Margin of safety percentage
Degree of operating leverage
1
If the margin of safety percentage is small, then the degree of operating leverage is large. In
addition, the margin of safety percentage is smaller as the fixed cost portion of total cost gets
larger. As the level of operating activity increases above the breakeven point, the margin of
safety increases and the degree of operating leverage decreases. For Small Animal Clinic,
the reciprocal of the margin of safety percentage is 3.55 (1 0.282). The reciprocal of the
degree of operating leverage is 0.282 (1 3.55).
■ Using the Degree of Operating Leverage to Plan

and Monitor Operations
CURRENT PRACTICE Managers need to consider the degree of operating leverage when they decide whether to in-
Before 1983, Medicare used cost- cur additional fixed costs, such as purchasing new equipment or hiring new employees. They
based payment. Hospitals had high also need to consider the degree of operating leverage for potential new products and ser-
operating leverage because risk
of loss was low. After Medicare vices that could increase an organization’s fixed costs relative to variable costs. If additional
changed to a flat fee per patient, fixed costs cause the degree of operating leverage to reach what they consider an unaccept-
managers lowered their operating ably high level, managers often use variable costs—such as temporary labor—rather than
leverage.8
additional fixed costs to meet their operating needs.
For example, the technicians at the Small Animal Clinic are paid a salary and work
40-hour weeks. Suppose Leticia could hire part-time technicians at $20.00 per hour instead
of hiring full-time technicians at the current salaries of $78,009. If each visit requires about
an hour of technician time, the new cost function would be TC ($119,009 $78,009)
($16.40 $20.00)Q $41,000 $36.40Q. The breakeven point decreases considerably to
1,738 animal visits [$41,000 ($60.00 $36.40) per animal visit] or $104,280. Profit at
Q 3,800 animal visits is $48,680 [$228,000 $41,000 (3,800 animal visits $36.40
per animal visit)]. Operating leverage at 3,800 animal visits becomes 1.84 [($41,000
$48,680) 1], which is much lower than the 3.55 when technicians are a fixed cost. Al-
though operating leverage improved, the cost for technicians increased from $18.75 per hour
[$78,009 (2 technicians 2,080 hours per technician per year)] to $20.00 per hour.
The advantage of having technicians as hourly workers is that they can be scheduled
only for hours when appointments are also scheduled. When business is slow fewer techni-
cian hours are needed, which means less risk of incurring losses if the number of visits drops.
Exhibit 3.10 provides a CVP graph of the two options. Risk decreases considerably when
the breakeven point is so much lower. On the other hand, it may be more difficult to hire
qualified and dependable technicians unless work hours and pay can be guaranteed.
An indifference point is the level of activity at which equal cost or profit occurs across
multiple alternatives. To provide Leticia with additional information as she considers chang-
ing the cost structure, Josh calculates the indifference point. Using the budgeted assump-
tions, Josh sets the two cost functions equal to each other and then solves for Q as follows:
$41,000 $36.40Q $119,009 $16.40Q
$20Q $78,009, so Q 3,901
When visits are fewer than 3,901, the clinic profit will be greater using more variable cost.
When visits exceed 3,901, the clinic is better off using more fixed costs, assuming that the
fixed costs remain constant up to 4,000 visits. When visits exceed 4,000, we know that
additional fixed costs will be incurred, and then a new indifference point will need to be
calculated.
8S.
Kallapur and L. Eldenburg, “Uncertainty, Real Options, and Cost Behavior: Evidence from Washington State
Hospitals,” University of Arizona Working Paper, 2003.
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 106
EXHIBIT 3.10 CVP Graph for Small Animal Clinic with Different Degrees of Operating Leverage
Total Revenue
$234,060
TC = 41,000 + 36.40Q
TC = 119,009 + 16.40Q
$182,996
$163,800
Dollars
$119,009 Indifference
$104,280 point
$41,000
1,738 2,730 3,901

Quantity of Animal Visits
Notice that the indifference point calculation ignores operational risk. At 3,901 animal
visits, the clinic is expected to earn the same profit under the two cost function alternatives.
However, the clinic’s operational risk is greater for the cost function having higher fixed
costs. Therefore, the clinic’s manager would not necessarily be indifferent between the two
cost functions if 3,901 animal visits were expected.
GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.5 Key Terms

Stop to confirm that you understand the new terms introduced in the last several pages:
Margin of safety (p. 103) Degree of operating leverage (p. 104)
Margin of safety percentage (p. 103) Indifference point (p. 105)
For each of these terms, write a definition in your own words.
FOCUS ON ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

Temporary Labor
In recent years, U.S. companies have increasingly relied on temporary labor (also called
contingent or contract workers) to fill positions that in the past would have been filled
by regular employees. Temporary jobs span the entire workforce including manufacturing,
service, farm, and professional services. Managers gain many benefits including the
following:
● Reduce risk of loss by increasing the proportion of variable costs.
● Quickly increase and decrease employment levels in response to economic changes.
● Pay higher wages to skilled workers without inflating the pay scales of regular employees.
● Pay lower wages and avoid making hiring commitments to low-skilled employees.
● Fill positions while recruiting permanent workers during labor shortages.
Many economists and business analysts argue that temporary labor is good for workers and
the economy. Temporary work arrangements provide the following economic benefits:
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 107
● Reduce overall unemployment levels because employers are less reluctant to hire temporary
labor than regular employees.
● Increase employment opportunities for new workforce entrants, workers laid off from jobs,
and workers wanting flexible work schedules.
● Improve regular employee morale by reducing their unemployment risk.
On the other hand, labor groups, homeless advocacy groups, and others believe that tempo-
rary labor arrangements are socially harmful. They argue that the use of temporary labor contrib-
utes to the following issues:
● Unfairly reduces overall pay scales for skilled and unskilled workers.
● Increases unemployment risk for the least-skilled and lowest-paid workers, contributing to
poverty and homelessness.
● Reduces worker representation as well as health care and retirement benefits.
SOURCES: J. C. Cooper and K. Madigan, “U.S.: Labor’s New Flexibility Cuts Two Ways,” Business Week, December
24, 2001; and S. N. Houseman, A. L. Kalleberg, and G. A. Erickcek, “The Role of Temporary Help Employment
in Tight Labor Markets,” Upjohn Institute Staff Working Paper No. 01-73, July 2001. Available at
www.upjohninst.org/publications/wp/01-73.pdf.
Practice Ethical Decision Making

In Chapter 1, we learned about a process for making ethical decisions (Exhibit 1.11). You can ad-
dress the following questions to improve your skills for making ethical decisions. Think about your
answers to these questions and discuss them with others.
Questions to Consider
Ethical Decision-Making Process about This Ethical Dilemma
Identify ethical problems as they arise. Does the hiring of temporary labor create an
ethical problem? Why or why not?
Objectively consider the well-being of others Different viewpoints for this problem were
and society when exploring alternatives. described in the preceding example. What
assumptions lie behind each viewpoint?
Clarify and apply ethical values when Is the hiring of temporary labor a business issue,
choosing a course of action. a social issue, or both? Explain. Identify the values
you use to answer the following questions:
● Is it fair for employers to pay different wage
rates and provide different benefits to tempo-

rary and permanent workers who perform the
same jobs?
● Is it fair for businesses to pass their business
risks directly on to the employees?

Work toward ongoing improvement of How can company managers determine on an
personal and organizational ethics. ongoing basis whether their hiring practices
are ethical?
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 108
APPENDIX 3A Spreadsheet Formulas for Magik Bicycles Spreadsheet

The following formulas were used for the spreadsheet shown in Exhibit 3.2.
A B C D E
1
2 Input section Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes
3 Expected sales volume-units 10,000 18,000 12,000
4 Price per unit 200 700 800
5 Variable cost per unit 75 250 300
6
8 Desired after-tax profit 100,000 (enter zero for breakeven)
9 Income tax rate 0.3
10
11
13 Units =B3 =C3 =D3 =SUM(B3:D3)
14 Revenue =B3*B4 =C3*C4 =D3*D4 =SUM(B14:D14)
15 Variable costs =B5*B3 =C5*C3 =D5*D3 =SUM(B15:D15)
16 Contribution margin =B14-B15 =C14-C15 =D14-D15 =SUM(B16:D16)
17
18 Contrib. margin per unit =B16/B13 =C16/C13 =D16/D13 =E16/E13
19 Contrib. margin ratio =B16/B14 =C16/C14 =D16/D14 =E16/E14
20
21 Expected sales mix in units =B3/$E13 =C3/$E13 =D3/$E13 =SUM(B21:D21)
22 Expected sales mix in revenues =B14/$E14 =C14/$E14 =D14/$E14 =SUM(B22:D22)
23
24 Expected Income
25 Contribution margin (above) =E16
26 Fixed costs =B7
27 Pretax income =E16-E26
28 Income taxes =B9*E27
29 After-tax income =E27-E28
30
32 Target pretax profit for CVP analysis =B8/(1-B9)
33 Fixed costs plus target pretax profit =B7+E32
34
36 CVP calculation in units =B21*$E$36 =C21*$E$36 =D21*$E$36 =E33/E18
37 Revenue =B36*B4 =C36*C4 =D36*D4 =SUM(B37:D37)
38 Variable costs =B36*B5 =C36*C5 =D36*D5 =SUM(B38:D38)
39 Contribution margin =B37-B38 =C37-C38 =D37-D38 =E37-E38
40 Fixed costs =B7
42 Income taxes =E41*B9
44
45 CVP analysis in revenues Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes Total Bikes
46 CVP calculation in revenues =$E$46*B22 =$E$46*C22 =$E$46*D22 =E33/E19
47 Variable costs =B46*B5/B4 =C46*C5/C4 =D46*D5/D4 =SUM(B47:D47)
48 Contribution margin =B46-B47 =C46-C47 =D46-D47 =E46-E47
49 Fixed costs =B7
51 Income taxes =B9*E50
SUMMARY
Q1 What Is Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis, and How Is It Used for Decision Making?
Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis CVP Graph

A technique that examines changes in profits in response to Shows the relationship between total revenues and total costs;
changes in sales volumes, costs, and prices illustrates how an organization’s profits are expected to change
under different volumes of activity
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SUMMARY 109
Uses Assist with plans and decisions such as:

Describe volume, revenues, costs, and profits: ● Budgets ● Discretionary expenditures
● Values at breakeven or target profit: ● Product emphasis such as advertising
–Units sold ● Selling price ● Proportions of fixed
–Revenues ● Production or activity levels versus variable costs
–Variable, fixed, and total costs ● Employee work schedules
● Sensitivity of results to changes in: ● Raw material purchases
–Levels of activity –Selling price Monitor operations by comparing expected and actual:
–Cost function –Sales mix
● Indifference point between alternatives ● Volumes, revenues, costs, and profits
● Feasibility of planned operations ● Profitability risk
Q2 How Are CVP Calculations Performed for a Single Product?
CVP Formulas
CVP analysis in units needed to attain target profit:
F Profit F Profit
Q
Contribution margin per unit PV
CVP analysis in revenues needed to attain target profit:
F Profit F Profit F Profit
Revenues
Contribution margin ratio (P V )/P (TR TVC)/TR
Pretax profit needed to achieve a given level of after-tax profit:
After-tax profit
Pretax profit
(1 Tax rate)
Q3 How Are CVP Calculations Performed for Multiple Products?
Use CVP Formulas for a Single Product, Except

Total expected contribution margin
Weighted average contribution margin per unit
Total expected number of units
Total expected contribution margin
Weighted average contribution margin ratio
Total expected revenue
Q4 What Is the Breakeven Point?
Breakeven Point Calculation

Level of operating activity at which revenues cover all fixed and Set target profit equal to zero in the CVP formula.
variable costs, resulting in zero profit.
Q5 What Assumptions and Limitations Should Managers Consider When Using CVP Analysis?
CVP Assumptions Uncertainties

● Operations within a relevant range of activity ● Actual future volumes, revenues, and costs are unknown.
● Linear cost function ● CVP assumptions might not hold.
–Fixed costs remain fixed.
–Variable cost per unit remains constant. In Light of Assumptions and Uncertainties,
● Linear revenue function Need to Evaluate:
–Sales mix remains constant. ● Quality of data used in CVP analyses
–Prices remain constant. ● Suitability of CVP analysis for the setting
● Sensitivity of CVP results to changes in data for important
uncertainties
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 110
Q6 How Are Margin of Safety and Operating Leverage Used to Assess Operational Risk?
Margin of Safety
Margin of safety in units Actual or estimated units of activity Units at breakeven point
Margin of safety in revenues Actual or estimated revenue Revenue at breakeven point
Margin of safety in units Margin of safety in revenues

Actual or estimated units Actual or estimated revenues
Degree of Operating Leverage

In terms of contribution margin:
Contribution margin TR TVC (P V ) Q
Profit Profit Profit
In terms of fixed costs:
F
Degree of operating leverage 1
Profit
Sensitivity of profits to changes in sales (units or revenues):
% change in profit % change in sales Degree of operating leverage
Relationship Between Margin of Safety and Degree of Operating Leverage

1
Higher Operating Leverage (Lower Margin of Safety) Leads to:

● Greater risk of loss
● Accelerated profits above the breakeven point
KEY TO SYMBOLS
e This question requires students to extend knowledge 3 This question requires Step 3 skills (Prioritizing) in Steps
beyond the applications shown in the textbook. for Better Thinking (Exhibit 1.10).
1 This question requires Step 1 skills (Identifying) in Steps 4 This question requires Step 4 skills (Envisioning) in Steps
for Better Thinking (Exhibit 1.10). for Better Thinking (Exhibit 1.10).
2 This question requires Step 2 skills (Exploring) in Steps
for Better Thinking (Exhibit 1.10).
Self-Study Problems
Self-Study Problem 1 Cost Function, Target Profit, Margin of Safety,
Operating Leverage
Q1, Q3, Q5, Q6 Coffee Cart Supreme sells hot and iced coffee beverages and small snacks. The following is last month’s
income statement.
Revenue $5,000
Cost of beverages and snacks $2,000
Cost of napkins, straws, etc. 500
Cost to rent cart 500
Employee wages 1, 000 4, 000

Pretax profit 1,000
Taxes 250

After-tax profit $ 750

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SELF-STUDY PROBLEMS 111
REQUIRED: 2 A. What is the total cost function for Coffee Cart Supreme?
e B. What is the tax rate for Coffee Cart Supreme?
C. Calculate the amount of sales needed to reach a target after-tax profit of $1,500.
D. What was Coffee Cart Supreme’s degree of operating leverage last month?
E. What was Coffee Cart Supreme’s margin of safety in revenue last month?
F. What was Coffee Cart Supreme’s margin of safety percentage last month?
e G. Suppose next month’s actual revenues are $8,000 and pretax profit is $2,000. Would actual costs be
higher or lower than expected?
2 H. Coffee costs are volatile because worldwide coffee production varies from year to year. Explain how
this volatility affects the quality of the cost function for Coffee Cart Supreme.
Solution to Self-Study Problem 1

A. To estimate the cost function, we use judgment to classify costs as fixed, variable, or mixed. For a typi-
cal retail business, rent and wages are likely to be fixed. We estimate fixed costs as the sum of these two
costs ($500 $1,000 $1,500). It seems reasonable that the costs of beverages and snacks ($2,000) and
napkins, straws, etc. ($500) would vary with revenues. We use the revenues as the cost driver to estimate
variable costs as $2,500 $5,000 0.50, or 50% of revenues. Thus, the cost function is
TC $1,500 (50% Revenue)
B. We use income tax expense and pretax profit from last month to estimate the tax rate:
Tax rate Taxes Pretax profit $250 $1,000 25%
C. We first calculate the amount of pretax profit needed to achieve an after-tax profit of $1,500.
Targeted pretax profit $1,500 (1 0.25) $2,000
The contribution margin ratio is
(5,000 2,500) 5,000 0.50 or 50%
We then perform the CVP calculation for revenues.
Revenue ($1,500 $2,000) 0.50 $3,500 0.50 $7,000
D. We use the results of our previous computations to calculate the contribution margin, and we then cal-
culate the degree of operating leverage:
Contribution margin $5,000 $2,500 $2,500

Degree of operating leverage Contribution margin Profit
Degree of operating leverage $2,500 $1,000 2.50
E. Before calculating the margin of safety, we need to calculate the breakeven point. Note that the margin
of safety must be calculated in revenue dollars. We do not have unit or product mix information. The
breakeven point is calculated as
$1,500 0.50 $3,000 in revenues
Current revenues are $5,000, so the margin of safety is calculated as
Margin of safety $5,000 $3,000 $2,000
F. We use the formula to calculate margin of safety percentage:
Margin of safety percentage $2,000 $5,000 40%
Note that we can check our previous degree of operating leverage computation as follows:
Degree of operating leverage 1 Margin of safety percentage 1 0.40 2.50

G. The expected and actual costs at $8,000 revenue are
Expected Costs $1,500 (50% $8,000) $5,500

Actual Costs $8,000 $2,000 $6,000
Actual costs are $500 higher than expected.
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H. When any costs are volatile, predicting them is problematic. Worldwide coffee prices are uncertain for
many reasons, such as weather conditions in coffee growing areas, the ability of farmers to increase crops,
and coffee demand patterns. In addition, broader factors such as changes in economies and political up-
heaval influence costs. All of these factors reduce our ability to develop a cost function that accurately
predicts future costs, which means that the quality of the cost function is diminished.
Self-Study Problem 2 Sensitivity Analysis

Q1, Q2, Q5 The spreadsheet developed for the Magik Bicycles examples in this chapter is available on the Web at www.
www.wiley.com/ wiley.com/college/eldenburg. Download the template and use the spreadsheet to answer the following ques-
college/eldenburg tions. A printout of the formulas used in the spreadsheet is available in Appendix 3A.
REQUIRED: 2 A. Examine the spreadsheet so that you understand how the cells in the data input section are refer-
enced. When all of the decision variables are located in one place in the spreadsheet, accountants and
managers can easily perform sensitivity analysis by changing values in the data input section. Why is it
important to be able to change the spreadsheet easily to reflect changes in assumptions?
B. Suppose that Magik adds a helmet to each youth bike sold. The helmets cost $25 each but incorporate
new materials and an innovative design that has reduced injuries and deaths from children’s bike acci-
dents. Magik’s managers believe that by advertising the new helmet as part of the youth bike package,
sales will increase to 13,000. However, an advertising campaign will need to be undertaken to alert parents
to the benefits of the new helmet. How much can Magik afford to spend on advertising and still expect to
earn the original after-tax profit of $455,000? Assume the selling price remains at $200 per bike package.
3 C. Identify CVP input factors that you believe are uncertain for this decision, and use your judgment to de-
termine a new value for each factor. Reflect these changes in the spreadsheet to see how they affect the
breakeven point and profitability. Choose a best-case and worst-case scenario to present to the managers of
Magik Bicycles. Make a list of the points you would include in a memo explaining your sensitivity analysis to
the managers.
Solution to Self-Study Problem 2

A. Accountants and managers will explore changes in more assumptions and vary the values within the
spreadsheet more readily if it is easy to do. When these changes are made and the results are analyzed,
managers better understand how unplanned changes in future operations might affect profitability. This
knowledge allows them to more readily evaluate results and adjust operating plans.
B. Exhibit 3.11 provides relevant parts of the spreadsheet with the changes. With increased sales of youth
bikes from 10,000 to 13,000 and an increased variable cost from $75 to $100, expected pretax profits in-
crease to $700,000. Comparing $700,000 to $650,000 (Exhibit 3.2), Magik can spend up to $50,000 on ad-
vertising to maintain its current level of profitability.
C. Many different scenarios could occur. No single answer is always correct. Your answer depends on the
assumptions that you make. Following are some example assumptions for the best and worst cases. Your
most likely case should be between these two values.
One best case is that the new strategy is very popular with customers. More than 13,000 of the bikes are sold.
The managers discover that customers are willing to pay a higher price for the bike, so they raise the price.
In addition, manufacturing efficiency improves with the greater volume, reducing variable cost per unit. Also,
fixed costs are lower than expected because the managers found some costs that could be reduced.
One worst case is that the helmets fail to attract customers. In fact, sales fail to meet original expectations;
fewer than 10,000 are sold. Because the company produced extra bikes expecting an increase in demand, the
managers lower the selling price to encourage additional sales. In addition, the company hires extra workers
to meet the expected demand, and other costs such as insurance and electricity are higher than expected.
These changes caused both the variable and fixed costs to be higher than originally planned.
Your memo to the managers should include the following:
● Explain the assumptions for the best case and worst case scenarios.
● Explain the reasoning behind the most likely case.
● Ask managers to consider beforehand how they would respond to the best- and worst-case scenarios.
● Make suggestions for monitoring the results for the youth bike.
● Encourage the managers to evaluate the advertising and product results, and make suggestions for im-
proving the operation or dropping the new helmet, if plans are unsuccessful.
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QUESTIONS 113
1
Spreadsheet for Magik 2 Input section Youth Bikes Road Bikes Mtn. Bikes
Bicycles Youth Helmet 3 Expected sales volume-units 13,000 18,000 12,000
Decision 4 Price per unit $200 $700 $800
5 Variable cost per unit $100 $250 $300
6
7 Fixed costs $14,700,000
8 Desired after-tax profit $100,000 (enter zero for breakeven)
9 Income tax rate 30%
10
11
13 Units 13,000 18,000 12,000 43,000
14 Revenue $2,600,000 $12,600,000 $9,600,000 $24,800,000
15 Variable costs 1,300,000 4,500,000 3,600,000 9,400,000
17
20
23
24 Expected Income
Use the following boxes from the chapter to review key terms and key techniques,
REVIEW analyze chapter illustrations, improve your learning of new concepts, and practice ethical
decision making:
Guide Your Learning 3.1: Key Terms (p. 91) Guide Your Learning 3.4: Small Animal Clinic (p. 102)
Guide Your Learning 3.2: The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 1) (p. 93) Guide Your Learning 3.5: Key Terms (p. 106)
Guide Your Learning 3.3: The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 2) (p. 98) Focus on Ethical Decision Making: Temporary Labor (p. 107)
QUESTIONS
3.1 If a firm has a mixed cost function, a 10% increase in 3.6 Explain the relationship between margin of safety
sales volume should increase income by more than percentage and degree of operating leverage.
10%. Explain why. 3.7 How do volume discounts from suppliers affect our
3.2 Explain how to calculate a weighted average contribu- assumption that the cost function is linear? Explain
tion margin per unit. how we incorporate this type of cost into a CVP
3.3 An organization experiences a 20% increase in pretax analysis.
profits when revenues increase 20%. Assuming linear- 3.8 Explain the term sales mix in your own words. How
ity, what do you know about the organization’s cost does sales mix affect the contribution margin?
function? 3.9 How are CVP analysis and breakeven analysis related?
3.4 What is the effect on a firm’s breakeven point of a 3.10 Can the margin of safety ever be negative? Explain
lower income tax rate? your answer.
3.5 To estimate revenues, costs, and profits across a range 3.11 Describe three uses for CVP analysis.
of activity, we usually assume that the cost and rev- 3.12 Explain how CVP analysis can be used to make deci-
enue functions are linear. What are the specific under- sions about increases in advertising costs.
lying assumptions for linear cost and revenue func- 3.13 Under what circumstances will managers want sensi-
tions, and how reasonable are these assumptions? tivity analysis around results from a CVP analysis?
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EXERCISES
3.14 Target profit, not-for-profit breakeven
Q2, Q4 A. The variable cost per gift basket is $2, fixed costs are $5,000 per month, and the selling
price of a basket is $7. How many baskets must be produced and sold in a month to earn a
pretax profit of $1,000?
e B. The Community Clinic (a not-for-profit medical clinic) received a lump-sum grant from
the City of Tucson of $460,000 this year. The fixed costs of the clinic are expected to be
$236,000. The average variable cost per patient visit is expected to be $7.64 and the aver-
age fee collected per patient visit is $4.64. What is the breakeven volume in patient visits?
3.15 CVP graph

Q2, Q4 A. Create a CVP graph using the information in Exercise 3.14, part (A). Explain the infor-
mation in the graph.
e B. Create a CVP graph using the information in Exercise 3.14, part (B). Explain the infor-
mation in the graph.
3.16 Cost function, breakeven

Q2, Q4 e A. The average cost per unit was $234 at a volume of 1,200 units and $205 at a volume of
1,400 units. The profit was $24,000 at the lower volume. Estimate the variable cost per unit.
e B. Sparkle Car Wash Supplier sells a hose washer for $0.25 that it buys from the manufacturer
for $0.12. Variable selling costs are $0.02 per hose washer. Breakeven is currently at a sales
volume of $10,600 per month. What are the monthly fixed costs associated with the washer?
e C. Monthly fixed costs are $24,000 when volume is at or below 200 units and $36,000 when
monthly volume is above 200 units. The variable cost per unit is $200 and the selling
price is $300 per unit. What is the breakeven quantity?
3.17 Profit, price for target profit The Martell Company has recently established operations in a com-
Q2 petitive market. Management has been aggressive in its attempt to establish a market share. The
price of the product was set at $5 per unit, well below that of the company’s major competitors.
Variable costs were $4.50 per unit, and total fixed costs were $600,000 during the first year.
REQUIRED: A. Assume that the firm was able to sell 1 million units in the first year. What was the pre-
tax profit (loss) for the year?
e B. Assume that the variable cost per unit and total fixed costs do not increase in the second
year. Management has been successful in establishing its position in the market. What
price must be set to achieve a pretax profit of $25,000? Assume that sales remain at
1 million units.
3.18 Cost function, breakeven Data for the most recent three months of operations for the RainBeau
Q4 Salon appear here:
March April May
Number of appointments 1,600 1,500 1,900
Hair dresser salaries $14,000 $14,000 $18,000

Manicurist salaries 12,000 12,000 16,000
Supplies 900 750 950
Utilities 600 480 400
Rent 1,000 1,000 1,000
Miscellaneous 3, 500 3, 450 3, 580

Total costs $32, 000 $31, 680 $39, 930

A general cost-of-living salary increase occurred at the beginning of May.
REQUIRED: 2 A. What is the total cost function for RainBeau Salon?
B. If the average fee per appointment is $25, estimate the appointments required in June to
break even.
3.19 Breakeven, target profit, ROI target profit Madden Company projected its income before taxes
Q2, Q4 for next year as shown here. Madden is subject to a 40% income tax rate.
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EXERCISES 115
Sales (160,000 units) $8,000,000

Cost of sales
Variable costs 2,000,000
Fixed costs 3, 000, 000

Pretax profit $3, 000, 000

REQUIRED: A. What is Madden’s breakeven point in units sold for the next year?
B. If Madden wants $4.5 million in pretax profit, what is the required level of sales in dollars?
e C. If Madden’s net assets are $36 million, what amount of revenue must be achieved for
Madden to earn a 10% after-tax return on assets?
3.20 Breakeven, target profit, cost changes, selling price Laraby Company produces a single prod-
Q1, Q2, Q4 uct. It sold 25,000 units last year with the following results.
Sales $625,000
Variable costs 375,000
Fixed costs 150, 000

Income before taxes 100,000

After-tax profit $ 55, 000

In an attempt to improve its product, Laraby’s managers are considering replacing a component part that
costs $2.50 with a new and better part costing $4.50 per unit during the coming year. A new machine
would also be needed to increase plant capacity. The machine would cost $18,000 and have a useful
life of 6 years with no salvage value. The company uses straight-line depreciation on all plant assets.
REQUIRED: A. What was Laraby Company’s breakeven point in units last year?
B. How many units of product would Laraby Company have had to sell in the past year to
earn $77,000 in after-tax profit?
e C. If Laraby Company holds the sales price constant and makes the suggested changes, how
many units of product must be sold in the coming year to break even?
D. If Laraby Company holds the sales price constant and makes the suggested changes, how many
units of product will the company have to sell to make the same after-tax profit as last year?
e E. If Laraby Company wishes to maintain the same contribution margin ratio, what selling
price per unit of product must it charge next year to cover the increased materials costs?
3.21 Target profit, progressive income tax rates, CVP graph Dalton Brothers pay 15% in taxes on
Q3 income between $1 and $40,000. All income above $40,000 is taxed at 40%. The firm’s variable
costs as a percent of revenues are 60%. Annual fixed costs are $250,000.
REQUIRED: e A. What level of sales must the firm achieve to earn income after taxes of $150,000?
e B. Prepare a CVP graph for Dalton.
3.22 Breakeven, selling price, target profit with price and cost changes All-Day Candy Company
Q1, Q3, Q4 is a wholesale distributor of candy. The company services grocery, convenience, and drug stores
in a large metropolitan area. Small but steady growth in sales has been achieved by the All-Day
Candy Company over the past few years, but candy prices also have been increasing. The com-
pany is reformulating its plans for the coming fiscal year. The following data were used to pro-
ject the current year’s after-tax income of $100,400.
Average selling price $4.00 per box
Average variable costs
Cost of candy $2.00 per box
Selling costs 0. 40 per box

Total $2. 40 per box

Annual fixed costs
Selling $160,000
Administrative 280, 000

Total $440, 000

Expected annual sales (390,000 boxes) $1,560,000
Tax rate 40%
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Candy manufacturers have announced that they will increase prices of their products an average
of 15% in the coming year because of increases in raw material (sugar, cocoa, peanuts, and so on)
and labor costs. All-Day Candy Company expects that all other costs will remain the same as dur-
ing the current year.
REQUIRED: A. What is All-Day Candy Company’s breakeven point in boxes of candy for the current
year?
e B. What average selling price per box must All-Day Candy Company charge to cover the
15% increase in the variable cost of candy and still maintain the current contribution
margin ratio?
e C. What volume of sales in dollars must the All-Day Candy Company achieve in the com-
ing year to maintain the same after-tax income as projected for the current year if the av-
erage selling price of candy remains at $4.00 per box and the cost of candy increases
15%?
3.23 Breakeven, operating leverage, cost function decision You are the advisor of a Junior Achieve-
Q1, Q2, Q4, Q6 ment group in a local high school. You need to help the group make a decision about fees that must
be paid to sell gardening tools at the Home and Garden Show. The group sells a set of tools for
$20.00. The manufacturing cost (all variable) is $6 per set. The Home and Garden Show coordina-
tor allows the following three payment options for groups exhibiting and selling at the show:
1. Pay a fixed booth fee of $5,600.
2. Pay a fee of $3,800 plus 10% of all revenue from tool sets sold at the show.
3. Pay 15% of all revenue from tool sets sold at the show.
REQUIRED: A. Compute the breakeven number of tool sets for each option.
B. Which payment plan has the highest degree of operating leverage?
e C. Which payment plan has the lowest risk of loss for the organization? Explain.
D. At what level of revenue should the group be indifferent to options 1 and 2?
E. Which option should Junior Achievement choose, assuming sales are expected to be
1,000 sets of tools? Explain.
3.24 ROI target profit, foreign exchange rates Borg Controls has a net investment in its German sub-
Q3 sidiary of $2.68 million. The firm attempts to earn a 15% pretax return on its investment. Variable
costs for the German subsidiary are 60% of revenues. Annual fixed costs are 321,000. For the cur-
rent year, the manager of the German subsidiary anticipates revenues of 1.7 million. The exchange
rate is expected to be 1.2 $1.
REQUIRED: e A. If operations meet expectations, what is the rate of return that Borg Controls will earn
from its German subsidiary? (Hint: Calculate the rate of return by dividing pretax income
by the net investment.)
e B. What level of revenue in euros would be required of the subsidiary for the parent to earn
exactly a 15% rate of return in dollars, assuming no changes in the exchange rate?
3.25 Target profit, margin of safety, operating leverage The following budget data apply to Newberry’s
Q2, Q6 Nutrition:
Sales (100,000 units) $1,000,000
Costs
Direct materials $300,000
Direct labor 200,000
Fixed factory overhead 100,000
Variable factory overhead 150,000
Marketing and administration 160, 000

Total costs 910, 000

Budgeted pretax income $ 90, 000

Direct labor workers are paid hourly wages and go home when there is no work. The marketing
and administration costs include $50,000 that varies proportionately with production volume. As-
sume that sales and production volumes are equal.
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PROBLEMS 117
REQUIRED: A. Compute the number of units that must be sold to achieve a target after-tax income of
$120,000, assuming the tax rate is 40%.
B. Calculate the margin of safety in both revenues and units.
C. Calculate the degree of operating leverage.
3.26 Breakeven, target profit, margin of safety, operating leverage Pike Street Taffy makes and sells
Q2, Q4, Q6 taffy in a variety of flavors in a shop located in the local public market. Data for a recent week
are as follows:
Revenue (2,000 lbs. @ $4.80 per lb.) $9,600
Cost of ingredients $3,200
Rent 800
Wages 4, 800 8, 800

Pretax income 800
Taxes (20%) 160

After-tax income $ 640

All employees work standard shifts, no matter how much taffy is produced or sold.
REQUIRED: A. Calculate the breakeven point in units and in revenue.
B. Calculate the number of units and the amount of revenues that would be needed for after-
tax income of $3,000.
C. Calculate the margin of safety in units and the margin of safety percentage.
D. Calculate the degree of operating leverage.
3.27 Breakeven, target profit, margin of safety Vines and Daughter manufactures and sells swimsuits
Q2, Q4, Q6 for $40 each. The estimated income statement for 2005 is as follows:
Sales $2,000,000
Variable costs 1, 100, 000

Contribution margin 900,000
Fixed costs 765, 000

Pretax profit $ 135, 000

REQUIRED: A. Compute the contribution margin per swimsuit and the number of swimsuits that must be
sold to break even.
B. What is the margin of safety in the number of swimsuits?
C. Suppose the margin of safety was 5,000 swimsuits in 2004. Are operations more or less
risky in 2005 as compared to 2004? Explain.
D. Compute the contribution margin ratio and the breakeven point in revenues.
E. What is the margin of safety in revenues?
F. Suppose next year’s revenue estimate is $200,000 higher. What would be the estimated
pretax profit?
G. Assume a tax rate of 30%. How many swimsuits must be sold to earn an after-tax profit
of $180,000?
PROBLEMS
3.28 Cost function, breakeven, quality of information, relevant range Oysters Away picks, shucks,
Q2, Q4, Q5 and packs oysters and then sells them wholesale to fine restaurants across the state. The income
statement for last year follows:
Revenue (based on sales of 2,000 cases of oysters) $200,000
Expenses:
Wages for pickers, shuckers, and packers $100,000
Packing materials 20,000
Rent and insurance 25,000
Administrative and selling 45, 000 190, 000

Pretax income 10,000
Taxes (20%) 2, 000

After-tax income $ 8, 000

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Pickers, shuckers, and packers are employed on an hourly basis and can be laid off whenever nec-
essary. Salespeople mostly deliver the product and are paid on a salaried basis.
REQUIRED: e A. Estimate the cost function for Oysters Away.
B. What is the breakeven point in cases for Oysters Away?
C. The manager thinks that the company will harvest and sell 3,000 cases of oysters next
year. Estimate the after-tax income.
2 D. Oysters Away harvested and sold 2,000 cases in each of the last several years. What does
this suggest about the quality of the income information you calculated in part (C)?
1 E. Describe reasons why the cost function developed for the relevant range up to 2,000
cases might not hold for 2,001 to 3,000.
3.29 Relevant information, breakeven, target profit, price, uncertainties Francesca would like to
Q1, Q3, Q5 lease a coffee cart in Aspen, Colorado. The lease is $800 per month and a city license to sell food
and beverages costs $20 per month. The lessor of the stand has shown Francesca records indicat-
ing that gross revenues average $32 per hour. The out-of-pocket costs for ingredients are gener-
ally about 40% of gross revenues. Last year she paid 25% of her income in federal taxes.
Francesca pays $1,000 per month for her condominium. She could store the cart overnight in
the condo’s garage, which is currently unused. Real estate developers in Aspen estimate that about
20% of the cost of a residential building is for the garage.
At present, Francesca is earning $2,400 per month as a ski instructor for one of the big ski
areas. In the summertime she earns about the same income as a kayaking instructor.
REQUIRED: A. List each piece of quantitative information in this problem. For each item, indicate
whether it is relevant to Francesca’s decision and explain why.
e B. If Francesca leases the cart and works 30 days in a month, how many hours will she have to
work each day, on average, to be at least as well off financially as she is in her current job?
e C. If Francesca wants to work only 25 days per month, how much will revenues have to in-
crease for her to work 4 hours per day and be as financially well off as she is in her cur-
rent job?
1 D. Can Francesca be certain that her revenues will average $32 per hour? Why or why not?
1 E. What other information might help Francesca with this decision?
3.30 Sales mix, multiple product breakeven, uncertainties, quality of information Keener produces
Q3, Q4, Q5 two products: regular boomerangs and premium boomerangs. Last month 1,200 units of regular
and 2,400 units of premium were produced and sold. Average prices and costs per unit for the
month are displayed here.
Regular Premium
Selling price $22.15 $45.30
Variable costs 4.31 6.91
Product line fixed costs 8.17 24.92
Corporate fixed costs 5. 62 5. 62

Operating Profit $ 4. 05 $ 7. 85

Product line fixed costs can be avoided if the product line is dropped. Corporate fixed costs can
be avoided only if the firm goes out of business entirely. You may want to use a spreadsheet to
perform calculations.
REQUIRED: A. Assuming the sales mix remains constant, how many units of premium will be sold each
time a unit of regular is sold?
B. What are the total fixed product line costs for each product?
C. What are the total corporate fixed costs?
D. What is the overall corporate breakeven in total revenue and for each product, assuming
the sales mix is the same as last month’s?
e E. What is the breakeven in revenues for regular boomerangs, ignoring corporate fixed
costs?
e F. Why is the breakeven for regular boomerangs different when we calculate the individual
product breakeven versus the combined product breakeven?
(continued)
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PROBLEMS 119
2 G. When managers monitor the profitability of regular boomerangs, are corporate fixed costs
relevant? Explain.
1 H. CVP analysis assumes that the sales mix will remain constant. Explain why managers
generally cannot know for certain what their sales mix will be.
2 I. What is the effect of uncertainty about the sales mix on the quality of the information ob-
tained from CVP analyses?
3.31 Cost function, marginal cost, opportunity cost, usefulness of CVP A neighbor asked for your
Q1, Q2, Q4 help preparing a grant for a not-for-profit after-school art program that would benefit elementary
school children in the neighborhood. He wants to charge low fees for most children, but also of-
fer some scholarships for low-income children. He needs to have one staff person for every six
children to meet state regulations. He can use high school student volunteers for two of these po-
sitions, but is concerned about potential absences on their part if he relies on them for the state
count. He would like the program to serve at least 30 children, and more, if possible.
He wants you to help him decide on the fees to charge and also to determine how many stu-
dents could receive scholarships.
REQUIRED: A. Think about the costs involved in an after-school program. Assume that your neighbor
can use the local elementary school for free.
2 1. List costs that will be incurred for the program, and categorize them as fixed, variable,
or mixed.
2 2. For each variable cost, choose a potential cost driver. Explain your choice.
2 B. Do you think the cost structure would be primarily fixed or primarily variable? Explain.
Remember, even though staff work only part time, they will have a regular schedule to
meet the state regulations of six children per staff member.
C. Suppose one of the staff members has only one child to help. What is the marginal cost
for three scholarships?
e D. Suppose the program is fully subscribed by fee-paying children. What is the opportunity
cost per scholarship?
2 E. Will CVP analysis help your neighbor choose a fee that would cover at least 10 scholar-
ships? Explain how you would set up a spreadsheet so that your neighbor could perform
sensitivity analysis to make more informed decisions.
3.32 Breakeven, CVP, potential cost structure change, employee reaction Ersatz manufactures a
Q1, Q2, Q4, Q5 single product. The following income statement shows two different levels of activity, which are
assumed to be within Ersatz’s relevant range. You may want to use a spreadsheet to perform
calculations.
Ersatz, Inc.
Income Statement
Activity Levels
Volume 1,000 units 1,500 units
Sales @ $100 each $100,000 $150,000
Less variable expenses
Manufacturing @ $40 each 40,000 60,000
Selling @ $10 each 10,000 15,000
Administration @ $6 each 6, 000 9, 000

Contribution margin 44,000 66,000
Less fixed expenses
Manufacturing 10,000 10,000
Selling 11,000 11,000
Administration 20, 000 20, 000

Pretax income $ 3, 000 $ 25, 000

REQUIRED: A. What is Ersatz’s breakeven point in units?
B. Draw a CVP chart showing the two levels of activity and the breakeven point.
C. If Ersatz plans to sell 1,300 units, what will pretax income be?
(continued)
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3 D. Your boss asked you to draft an e-mail response to Ersatz’s major stockholder, who
wants to know why pretax income increases by more than 800% when sales increase by
just 50%. Both your boss and the stockholder are busy people and expect short answers.
E. Management expects that variable costs and selling prices will rise by 3%, but fixed costs
will not change. What will the new breakeven point be? Explain the result.
e F. Management wants to change the way that sales representatives are paid. At present, sales
representatives are paid $11,000 $10 per unit. Management will replace this formula with
a payment of $20 per unit. At what level of sales will it make no difference in income
which cost function is used?
G. Add the new cost function to the preceding CVP chart.
H. Which of the two cost functions will minimize selling expenses assuming that sales are
above the indifference level calculated in part (F)?
2 I. How would sales representatives be likely to respond to the new payment system?
2 J. Discuss the pros and cons to the company of changing the way sales representatives are
paid.
3.33 Breakeven, avoidable fixed costs, price, CVP assumptions, operating risk Last year’s income
Q1, Q2, Q4, Q5, Q6 statement for King Salmon Sales follows.
Revenue (100,000 lbs.) $800,000
Expenses
Fish $200,000
Smoking materials 20,000
Packaging materials 30,000
Labor (wages) 300,000
Administrative 150,000
Sales commissions 10, 000

Total expenses 710, 000

Income $ 90, 000

The fishing season is only three to four months long, so labor costs (wages) are for employees
who are college students and work in the summer. They are hired only as needed.
REQUIRED: e A. The state government curtailed fishing because of low fish counts. Because of this restric-
tion, King Salmon Sales can only buy 50,000 pounds. Assume the administrative cost is
incurred only if the company sells salmon. Assuming the managers will decide to operate
if the company can at least break even, should they operate this year? (Hint: Calculate
the breakeven quantity.) Provide calculations and explain your answer.
e B. Now assume that the administrative costs continue regardless of whether the company
sells salmon. Assuming the managers will decide to operate if the company can at least
break even, should they operate this year? Provide calculations and explain your answer.
e C. Because of the salmon shortage, suppose that retail salmon prices are increasing. What is
the breakeven price for King Salmon? Assume that administrative costs continue regard-
less of whether the company sells salmon.
D. Suppose the managers rely on the preceding CVP analysis to decide whether to operate
the business. What assumptions are they making?
2 E. How reasonable are these CVP assumptions?
F. Suppose the owner of King Salmon Sales asked you about the company’s cost structure.
Because volumes of fish fluctuate a great deal from one year to the next, the owner is
wondering if some way can be found to reduce the risk of an operating loss. Write a brief
memo to explain how the proportion of fixed and variable costs affects the risk of loss
when operations are close to the breakeven point.
✩ 3.34 Cost function, breakeven, target profit, uncertainties and bias, interpretation Joe Davies is
Q1, Q2, Q4, Q5 thinking about starting a company to produce carved wooden clocks. He loves making the clocks.
He sees it as an opportunity to be his own boss, making a living doing what he likes best.
Joe paid $300 for the plans for the first clock, and he has already purchased new equipment
costing $2,000 to manufacture the clocks. He estimates that it will cost $30 in materials (wood,
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PROBLEMS 121
clock mechanism, and so on) to make each clock. If he decides to build clocks full time, he will
need to rent office and manufacturing space, which he thinks would cost $2,500 per month for rent
plus another $300 per month for various utility bills. Joe would perform all of the manufacturing
and run the office, and he would like to pay himself a salary of $3,000 per month so that he would
have enough money to live on. Because he does not want to take time away from manufacturing
to sell the clocks, he plans to hire two salespeople at a base salary of $1,000 each per month plus
a commission of $7 per clock.
Joe plans to sell each clock for $225. He believes that he can produce and sell 300 clocks in
December for Christmas, but he is not sure what the sales will be during the rest of the year. How-
ever, he is fairly sure that the clocks will be popular because he has been selling similar items as
a sideline for several years. Overall, he is confident that he can pay all of his business costs, pay
himself the monthly salary of $3,000, and earn at least $4,000 more than that per month. (Ignore
income taxes.)
REQUIRED: The following questions will help you analyze the information for this problem. Do not turn in
ANALYZE your answers to these questions unless your professor asks you to do so.
INFORMATION
A. Perform analyses to estimate the number of clocks Joe would need to manufacture and
sell each year for his business to be financially successful:
1. List all of the costs described and indicate whether each cost is (a) a relevant fixed
cost, (b) a relevant variable cost, or (c) NOT relevant to Joe’s decision.
2. Calculate the contribution margin per unit and the contribution margin ratio.
3. Write down the total cost function for the clocks and calculate the annual breakeven
point in units and in revenues.
4. How many clocks would Joe need to sell annually to earn $4,000 per month more than
his salary?
1 B. Identify uncertainties about the CVP calculations:
1. Explain why Joe cannot know for sure whether his actual costs will be the same dollar
amounts that he estimated. In your explanation, identify as many uncertainties as you
can. (Hint: For each of the costs Joe identified, think about reasons why the actual cost
might be different than the amount he estimated.)
2. Identify possible costs for Joe’s business that he has not identified. List as many addi-
tional types of cost as you can.
3. Explain why Joe cannot know for sure how many clocks he will sell each year. In your
explanation, identify as many uncertainties as you can.
2 C. Discuss whether Joe is likely to be biased in his revenue and cost estimates.
2 D. Explain how uncertainties and Joe’s potential biases might affect interpretation of the
breakeven analysis results.
REQUIRED: Suppose Joe has asked for your advice. Turn in your answers to the following.
WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
3 E. Use the information you learned from the preceding analyses to write a memo to Joe with
your recommendations. Attach to the memo a schedule showing relevant information. As
appropriate, refer to the schedule in the memo.
3.35 CVP sensitivity analysis, bias, quality of information Jasmine Krishnan has been taking entre-
Q1, Q5 preneurship courses as part of her business degree. She developed a plan to start a travel agency
specializing in spring break trips for students.
She learned how to develop CVP analysis in her cost accounting class. Now she is preparing
pro forma (i.e., forecasted) income statements for a brochure about her plans for the travel agency.
She wants to use the information from the CVP as a basis for the statements. Her entrepreneur-
ship professor criticized her business plan because Jasmine included too small an amount for lia-
bility insurance. However, when she included the amount suggested by her father’s insurance agent,
she had to set prices quite high, cut back on the amount she planned as her salary, find lower qual-
ity hotels for the students, or take some combination of these actions. She thought that hotel qual-
ity and prices would affect sales volumes negatively and did not want to risk incurring losses from
low revenues during her first few years. She also needed a base level of salary to at least pay for
her living expenses.
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She decided to ask friends and relatives to invest in her travel agency to ensure she had enough
capital for the first few years. Once her reputation was well established, she assumed that higher
customer volumes would cover all of her expected costs. She was confident that her planned trips
would attract enough students each year to cover most of her costs. From focus groups on cam-
pus, she learned which types of trips were most appealing to other students. Now she planned to
use sensitivity analysis to solve for volumes that would make the pro forma statements look at-
tractive to investors.
REQUIRED: 1 A. In general, what information do we hope to gain from performing sensitivity analyses?
Explain.
2 B. Explain how bias might enter into Jasmine’s sensitivity analyses.
2 C. How might Jasmine’s bias affect the quality of the investment brochure information?
1 D. Identify a potential ethical problem for Jasmine.
3 E. When you consider the well-being of Jasmine’s family and friends, how would you rec-
ommend that Jasmine use sensitivity analysis for her brochure? Explain.
3.36 Small business owners, CVP research on the internet The Internet provides many resources to
Q1, Q4, Q5 help small business owners successfully manage their businesses. Resources include information
about common techniques used for planning and managing operations.
REQUIRED: 2 A. Why are small business owners often unaware of common business techniques such as
CVP analysis?
2 B. Why might CVP analysis be even more useful to small business owners than to managers
of large organizations? (Hint: Consider whether information about the margin of safety
and size of potential losses might be especially important for people who own small
businesses.)
1 C. Use an Internet search engine to locate Web sites that provide information about the
terms breakeven analysis and cost-volume-profit analysis. Also search for these terms on
www.wiley.com/ Web sites designed explicitly to help small business owners, such as the U.S. Small Busi-
college/eldenburg ness Administration (www.sba.gov). Summarize what your research tells you about the
uses and usefulness of breakeven and CVP analysis.
3 D. Suppose you are trying to help a small business owner learn to use breakeven and CVP
analysis. Write a memo to the owner explaining what you think the owner should do and
include appropriate references to Internet resources that would be useful to the owner.
Assume that you have already had a brief conversation with the owner about breakeven
and CVP analysis, and the owner expressed an interest in learning more. Focus on com-
municating effectively by avoiding unnecessarily technical language and concentrating on
the most important points.
✩ 3.37 Cost function, operating leverage, keeping or dropping a business The university’s Wildcat
Q1, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 Lair caters to students and serves sandwiches and beverages. It has been reporting losses in past
months. In July, for example, the loss was $5,000.
Revenue $ 70,000
Expenses
Purchases of prepared food $21,000
Serving personnel 30,000
Cashiers 5,500
Administration 10,000
University surcharge 7,000
Utilities 1, 500 75, 000

Loss $ (5, 000)

The Lair purchases prepared food directly from University Food Services. This charge varies
proportionately with the number and kind of meals served. Personnel paid by the Lair serve the food,
tend the cash register, bus and clean tables, and wash dishes. The staffing levels rarely change; the
existing staff can usually handle daily fluctuations in volume. Administrative costs are primarily the
salaries of the manager and her office staff. Because the university provides support services for the
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PROBLEMS 123
Lair, such as payroll, human resources, and other administrative support, the university charges a sur-
charge of 10% of its revenues. Utility costs are the costs of cooling, heating, and lighting during its
normal operating hours.
The university’s management is considering closing the Wildcat Lair because it has been op-
erating at a loss.
REQUIRED: The following questions will help you analyze the information for this problem. Do not turn in
ANALYZE your answers to these questions unless your professor asks you to do so.
INFORMATION
e A. What is the breakeven point for Wildcat Lair from the university’s perspective (including
the university surcharge)? What is the breakeven point from Wildcat Lair’s perspective
(excluding the university surcharge)?
B. Define and calculate the degree of operating leverage for the Lair, ignoring the university
surcharge.
1 C. From the perspective of university management, is the university surcharge a relevant
cost in deciding whether to close the Lair? Why or why not?
1 D. Identify possible ways that operations could be modified so that some of the fixed costs
become variable costs.
2 E. Given the Lair’s cost function and operating leverage, describe possible benefits of modi-
fying operations so that some of the fixed costs become variable costs.
REQUIRED: Turn in your answers to the following.

WRITTEN
ASSIGNMENT 2 F. From the perspective of university management, describe the pros and cons of closing the
Wildcat Lair.
3 G. Suppose you are the manager of the Wildcat Lair. Write a memo to persuade the univer-
sity management to keep the club open.
3.38 Not-for-profit breakeven price, budget alternatives The Elder Clinic, a not-for-profit organiza-
Q1, Q2, Q4, Q5, Q6 tion, provides limited medical services to low-income elderly patients. The manager’s summary
report for the past four months of operations is reproduced here.
March April May June Total
Patient visits 849 821 778 842 3,290
Patient fees $ 4, 230 $ 4, 180 $ 3, 875 $ 4, 260 $ 16, 545

Medical staff salaries 13,254 13,256 13,254 14,115 53,879
Medical supplies used 3,182 3,077 2,934 3,175 12,368
Administrative salaries 3,197 3,198 3,197 3,412 13,004
Rent 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,100 4,100
Utilities 532 378 321 226 1,457
Other expenses 2, 854 2, 776 2, 671 2, 828 11, 129

Total expenses 24, 019 23, 685 23, 377 24, 856 95, 937

Operating surplus (loss) $ (19, 789) $ (19, 505) $ (19, 502) $ (20, 596) $ (79, 392)

The clinic receives an operating subsidy from the city, but unfortunately, the operating loss in-
curred through June ($79,392) is larger than anticipated. Part of the problem is the salary increase
that went into effect in June, which had been overlooked when the budget was submitted to the city
last year. To compound the problem, the warm summer months traditionally bring with them an in-
crease in heat-related health problems. Thus, the clinic is likely to experience an increase in patient
visits during July.
The accountant made the following assumptions in developing the cost function:
● Salaries are fixed, and June values are used.
● Medical supplies vary with patient visits.
● Rent and utilities are fixed, and last period’s costs are used.
● Other expenses are mixed and using regression, fixed cost is $702 and variable cost is $2.53
per patient visit.
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Clinic management is considering an increase in patient fees to reduce losses.

REQUIRED: e A. Develop a cost function for this data. You may have done this for Chapter 2, and in that
case use that cost function. Solve for the average patient fee necessary to break even as-
suming there are 940 patient-visits using the cost function you developed. Compare this
new fee with the average patient fee charged during March through June.
1 B. Suppose the clinic raises its patient fees to break even. What problems do you see from
the elderly patients’ perspective if the fee is raised?
2 C. In this setting, would an increase in fees be likely to affect patient volume? What prob-
lems do you see from the clinic’s perspective if the fee is raised?
1 D. Other than raising the fee, what ideas might the clinic consider to balance the budget?
3.39 Cost function, target profit, operating leverage, CVP graph, owner goals Elina Siljander owns
Q1, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 Elina’s Stained Glass in Helsinki, Finland. The business produces and sells three different types
of stained glass windows: small, medium, and large. Elina has two full-time employees who work
regular schedules to cut glass and assemble the windows. She borrowed money from the bank to
start the business and pay living expenses. She is concerned that her cash flows might not be high
enough either to pay herself or to repay the bank loan. She would like to generate approximately
10,000 (euros) in pretax profit each month to cover her living expenses and repay the loan.
The following revenue and cost information covers the past four months:
June July August September
Revenues 9,050 10,531 12,946 16,116
Raw materials and supplies 1,745 2,433 3,074 4,029

Labor 3,880 4,041 4,246 4,282
Rent 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,200
Miscellaneous 525 701 747 793

Profit 900 1,356 2, 879 4, 812

REQUIRED: 2 A. Develop a cost function for Elina’s Stained Glass.
B. Determine the level of revenue Elina’s Stained Glass must generate to achieve the tar-
geted profit of 10,000 per month.
C. Calculate Elina’s degree of operating leverage for September.
2 D. Interpret Elina’s degree of operating leverage.
E. Create a CVP graph showing the breakeven point, target profit, and margin of safety.
3 F. Write a memo to Elina with recommendations about ways she might achieve her goals.
3.40 Building and using a CVP financial model Toddler Toy Company sells baby dolls, teddy bears,
Q1, Q3, Q4, Q5 and toy cars. The managers established a preliminary budget using the following assumptions. They
would now like to evaluate the sensitivity of budgeted results to different sets of assumptions.
Toddler Toy Company

Assumptions for Coming Year
Baby Dolls Teddy Bears Toy Cars
Volume 200,000 125,000 225,000
Price $ 3.50 $ 2.75 $ 3.15
Variable costs $ 2.05 $ 1.75 $ 2.45
Fixed costs $65,000 $125,000 $35,000
Target pretax income $0
Investment $2 million
Capacity 1 million units
REQUIRED: A. Create a spreadsheet that the managers can use for sensitivity analysis. (Hint: Use the
Magik Bicycles spreadsheet in Exhibit 3.2 and Appendix 3A to help you set up a spread-
sheet with a data input box.) Modify input data in the spreadsheet to answer the follow-
ing parts of this problem. You may wish to add cell references for percentage changes in
prices, volumes, and costs.
(continued)
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 125
PROBLEMS 125
B. Assume that the volume of dolls sold increases to 225,000 units with no change in fixed
or variable costs. What is the new pretax income? Does the number produced by your fi-
nancial model appear to be reasonable? (Manually estimate the increase in pretax income
if volume increases and fixed costs remain constant. Compare this figure to your spread-
sheet result.)
C. Based on the original assumptions, what is the effect on pretax income if variable costs
increase by 5% for each of the three product lines? Assume that nothing else changes.
D. Return to the original assumptions. Assume that a sales manager proposed a new adver-
tising campaign to boost sales volume. The campaign would cost $30,000 and is esti-
mated to increase the volume of each product as follows:
Baby doll sales increase by 20,000 units.
Teddy bear sales increase by 7,500 units.
Toy car sales increase by 30,000 units.
What would be the effect on pretax income if this plan were adopted?
E. Return to the original assumptions. Now assume that due to competition, Toddler Toys
must cut prices on each of its three products by 20%. In addition, a new advertising cam-
paign costing $45,000 must be instituted to counteract bad publicity. Given these assump-
tions, what is the new breakeven point?
F. Return to the original assumptions. What would be the pretax income if Toddler Toys in-
creases the price of all three products by 10% and the volume of each product line decreases
by 5%?
e G. Given the same assumptions as in part (F), how many units must Toddler Toys sell to earn a
target pretax income of $100,000? A target pretax income of $150,000? A pretax return on
investment (ROI) of 10%? (Hint: To determine the target pretax income, multiply 10% times
amount invested.)
H. Spreadsheets for financial modeling allow sensitivity analysis of revenues, costs, and
quantities such as estimated product volumes.
1 1. Explain why it is not possible to perfectly estimate revenues, costs, and quantities.
2 2. Explain how sensitivity analysis can help managers evaluate the pros and cons of
alternatives.
2 3. Explain how manager bias might influence estimates of revenues, costs, and quantities.
3.41 Building and using a CVP financial model The following information for Pet Palace, a large retail
Q1, Q3, Q4, Q5 store that sells pet-related merchandise, was recorded for the first quarter. The store tracks merchan-
dise according to product type. The category “Other” includes accessories such as dog beds, leashes,
kitty litter boxes, bird cages, and so on. The company is considering several different strategies to im-
prove operations for the next quarter.
Input Data Food Toys Pets Other Total
Revenue $500,000 $150,000 $75,000 $200,000 $925,000
Variable cost 200,000 50,000 60,000 50,000 360,000
Fixed cost 550,000
Tax rate 25%
REQUIRED: e A. Create a spreadsheet that Pet Palace managers can use for sensitivity analysis. Modify in-
formation in the data input section and answer the questions in the following parts.
B. What is Pet Palace’s breakeven point? What total revenue is necessary for a target after-
tax income of $100,000?
C. Pet Palace managers are considering their advertising campaign for the next period. They be-
lieve they could spend an additional $10,000 on advertising for a product line and increase
sales by 10%. One manager wants to increase advertising on pets because that product line is
currently the smallest. Another manager believes the ads should promote the most profitable
products, but they are not sure which products those would be. What is the after-tax income if
pets are promoted? What is the most profitable product? What is the after-tax income if that
product is promoted?
1 D. What factors, other than the quantitative results, might influence managers’ decisions to
increase advertising?
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 126
BUILD YOUR PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES

3.42 Focus on Professional Competency: Decision Modeling Model building for decision making,
Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6 quality of analysis Review the following definition and elements for the Decision Modeling
competency.9
DEFINITION: Individuals preparing to enter the accounting profession must be able to use strategic and criti-
cal approaches to decision-making. They must objectively consider issues, identify alternatives,
and choose and implement solution approaches in order to deliver services and provide value.
ELEMENTS FOR THIS COMPETENCY INCLUDE

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
1. Identifies problems, poten- 2. Objectively identifies 6. Links data, knowledge, and 7. Engages in continuous im-
tial solution approaches, and strengths, weaknesses, oppor- insights together for decision- provement and constructs new
related uncertainties tunities, and threats associated making purposes models over time
with a specific scenario, case, 8. Makes decisions over time
or business activity as a result of engaging in
3. Uses quantitative techniques continuous improvement and
to explore the likelihood of al- constructing new models
ternative scenarios
4. Organizes and evaluates
information, alternatives,
cost/benefits, risks and rewards
of alternative scenarios
5. Employs model-building
techniques to quantify prob-
lems or test solutions
REQUIRED: A. Focus on the competency elements 1, 4, 6, and 8, which relate to the use of information
in management decision making. Answer the following questions:
1 1. What types of management decisions were addressed in Chapter 3?
1 2. What types of quantitative analyses were used in Chapter 3 to address these decisions?
2 3. Were quantitative results the only information used by managers to make decisions?
Why or why not?
2 4. Review the decision-making illustrations in Chapter 3. Provide an example where data,
knowledge, and insights were linked together. Explain.
2 5. Review the decision-making illustrations in Chapter 3. Provide an example where an
improvement in analysis led to improved decision making. Explain.
2 B. Focus on competency element 5, which addresses the use of model-building techniques.
Explain how CVP analysis (a model-building technique) can be used to (1) quantify
problems and (2) test solutions.
C. Focus on competency elements 2 and 3, which relate to the use of quantitative techniques
to explore alternative scenarios. Answer the following questions:
2 1. What is CVP sensitivity analysis? How is it used to quantitatively explore the likeli-
hood of alternative scenarios?
2 2. What is the degree of operating leverage? How is it used to quantitatively explore the
likelihood of alternative scenarios?
D. Focus on competency element 6, which relates to the use of information in decision mak-
ing. Suppose you plan to perform CVP analysis for an organization.
1 1. What types of data do you need to perform the CVP analysis?
2 2. Why is knowledge about the organization critical to your ability to perform a high-
quality analysis? What do you need to know?
9The definition and elements are reprinted with permission from AICPA; copyright © 1978–2000 & 2003 by American In-
stitute of Certified Public Accountants. The AICPA’s Core Competency Framework can be accessed at eca.aicpaservices.org.
ch03.qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 127
BUILD YOUR PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES 127
3.43 Integrating Across the Curriculum: Economics and Marketing Nonlinear revenue, maxi-
Q1, Q2, Q5 mize profits, CVP assumptions Hollis Company manufactures and markets a regulator used to
maintain high levels of accuracy in timing clocks. The market for these regulators is limited and
highly dependent upon the selling price.
Based upon past relationships between the selling price and the resulting demand, as well as
an informal survey of customers, management derived the following demand function, which is
highly representative of the actual relationships.
D 1,000 2P
where D Annual demand in units

P Price per unit
The estimated manufacturing and selling costs for the coming year are as follows:
Variable costs
Manufacturing $75 per unit
Selling $25 per unit
Fixed costs
Manufacturing $24,000 per year
Selling $6,000 per year
REQUIRED: e A. Write the function for total revenue. [Hint: Recall that total revenue equals price times
quantity (P Q), and the demand function determines the quantity sold (Q).]
e B. Write the total cost function, substituting the demand function for Q.
www.wiley.com/ e C. Perform a search on the Internet to find a quadratic equation calculator or go to www.
college/eldenburg wiley.com/college/eldenburg. Use the calculator to find the breakeven points. (Hint: Set
the revenue function equal to the cost function and algebraically convert the equation to
quadratic form: AP 2 BP C 0.)
e D. Draw a graph with total revenue and total cost for Q between zero and 1,000 units. Mark
the breakeven points.
e E. Determine the selling price that Hollis Company should charge per regulator and the
number of regulators the company should sell to maximize the company’s profits for the
coming year. (Hint: Recall that profit is maximized when marginal revenue equals mar-
ginal cost. You must be able to differentiate a simple function to answer this question.)
F. Which CVP assumption does this situation violate? Explain.
G. For the past several years, assume the company sold regulators at the price you calculated
in part (E) and that volume varied between 375 and 425 units per year. In this situation,
discuss whether it would be appropriate to use CVP analysis to estimate the company’s
profits.

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qxd 9/27/04 4:06 PM Page 86

This Chapter Addresses the Following Questions:

COLECO: FAULTY FORECASTS

88 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

DETERMINING A ■ Key Decision Factors for Coleco

■ Decision Making Using Information

where P Selling price per unit

■ CVP Analysis in Units

1Editorial, “A Proactive Approach to Cost Cutting,” SmartPros, June 2002, www.smartpros.com.

90 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

■ CVP Analysis in Revenues

■ CVP for Multiple Products

EXHIBIT 3.1 Total revenue

GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.1 Key Terms

92 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

■ CVP with Income Taxes

DIE GEFLECKTE KUH EIS (THE SPOTTED COW CREAMERY) (PART 1)

Estimating the Cost Function

Estimating After-Tax Profit

Calculating Revenues to Achieve Targeted After-Tax Profit

Pretax profit 8,000  (1 0.25) 10,667

Revenues ( 16,000  10,667)  0.50 53,334

GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.2 The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 1)

94 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

Q3 How are CVP ■ CVP Calculations for a Sales Mix

PERFORMING CVP ANALYSES WITH A SPREADSHEET 95

96 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

■ CVP Sensitivity Analysis

PERFORMING CVP ANALYSES WITH A SPREADSHEET 97

■ Discretionary Expenditure Decision

■ Planning, Monitoring, and Motivating with CVP

98 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

DIE GEFLECKTE KUH EIS (THE SPOTTED COW CREAMERY) (PART 2)

EXHIBIT 3.5 Spreadsheet for The Spotted Cow Creamery

(a) Current Sales Mix (b) Desired Sales Mix

GUIDE YOUR LEARNING 3.3 The Spotted Cow Creamery (Part 2)

Compute It Identify Uncertainties Explore Uses

ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS 99

EXHIBIT 3.6 Input Data, Assumptions, and Uses of CVP Analysis

Use Results to:

100 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

EXHIBIT 3.7 Examples of Business Uncertainties

● Technological ● More stringent fraud loss work disruptions sumer preferences

regulations employees field-related workforce

■ Quality of CVP Technique

■ CVP for Nonprofit Organizations

ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS 101

SMALL ANIMAL CLINIC

Breakeven Compared to Budget

P V $60.00 $16.40 $43.60

F  Profit ($119,009  $0)

Potential Investment in New Equipment

102 CHAPTER 3 ➤ COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS

Calculating and Analyzing Targeted Activity Level

F  Profit $119,009  $100,000 $219,009

F  Profit $119,009  $100,000

Pretax profit 8,000 (1 0.25) 10,667

Revenues ( 16,000 10,667) 0.50 53,334

F Profit ($119,009 $0)

F Profit $119,009 $100,000 $219,009

F Profit $119,009 $100,000

TC ($119,009 $60,000) $16.40Q $179,009 $16.40Q, for Q 4,000

($179,009 $100,000) $43.60 6,400 for Q 4,000

TC $1,500 (50% Revenue)

Tax rate Taxes Pretax profit $250 $1,000 25%

Targeted pretax profit $1,500 (1 0.25) $2,000

(5,000 2,500) 5,000 0.50 or 50%

Revenue ($1,500 $2,000) 0.50 $3,500 0.50 $7,000

$1,500 0.50 $3,000 in revenues

Margin of safety percentage $2,000 $5,000 40%

Degree of operating leverage 1 Margin of safety percentage 1 0.40 2.50

Expected Costs $1,500 (50% $8,000) $5,500