BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES

The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton for use in the reciprocating oil-burning engine that he developed around 1870. Today, it is used for gas turbines only where both the compression and expansion processes take place in rotating machinery. Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as shown in Fig. 1. Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The highpressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to the atmospheric pressure while producing power. The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified as an open cycle. The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, as shown in Fig. 2, by utilizing the air-standard assumptions. Here the compression and expansion processes remain the same, but the combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air. The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally reversible processes: 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

FIGURE 1 An open-cycle gas-turbine engine

FIGURE 2 A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.

The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown in Fig. 931. Notice that all four processes of the Brayton cycle are executed in steady flow devices; thus, they should be analyzed as steady-flow processes. When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected, the energy balance for a steady-flow process can be expressed, on a unitmass basis, as (qin qout ) + (win wout ) = (hexit hinlet) (1) Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are qin = (h3 h2) = cp (T3 T2 ) (2a) and qout = (h4 h1 ) = cp (T4 T1 ) (2b)

FIGURE 3. T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal Brayton cycle.

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold-air standard as sumptions becomes

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and P2 _ P3 and P4 _ P1. Thus,

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give

(3) Where

Development of Gas Turbines

The gas turbine has experienced phenomenal progress and growth since its first successful development in the 1930s. The early gas turbines built in the 1940s and even 1950s had simple-cycle efficiencies of about 17 percent because of the low compressor and turbine efficiencies and low turbine inlet temperatures due to metallurgical limitations of those times. Therefore, gas turbines found only limited use despite their versatility and their ability to burn a variety of fuels. The efforts to improve the cycle efficiency concentrated in three areas: 1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures This has been the primary approach taken to improve gas-turbine efficiency. The turbine inlet temperatures have increased steadily from about 540C (1000F) in the 1940s to 1425C (2600F) and even higher today. These increases were made possible by the development of new materials and the innovative cooling techniques for the critical components such as coating the turbine blades with ceramic layers and cooling the blades with the discharge air from the compressor 2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components The performance of early turbines suffered greatly from the inefficiencies of turbines and compressors. However, the advent of computers and advanced techniques for computer-aided design made it possible to design these components aerodynamically with minimal losses. The increased efficiencies of the turbines and compressors resulted in a significant increase in the cycle efficiency. 3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating, discussed in the next two sections. These improvements, of course, come at the expense of increased initial and operation

costs, and they cannot be justified unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel prices, the general desire in the industry to minimize installation costs, and the tremendous increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications.

FIGURE 4 The ideal gas-turbine cycle utilizing intercooling, reheat, and a regenerator.

EXAMPLE 98 A Gas Turbine with Reheating and Intercooling

An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion has an overall pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of the compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1300 K. Determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency of this gas-turbine cycle, assuming (a) no regenerators and (b) an ideal regenerator with 100 percent effectiveness.

Solution An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two
stages of expansion is considered. The back work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the cycle are to be determined for the cases of no regeneration and maximum regeneration. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 3 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. Analysis The T-s diagram of the ideal gas-turbine cycle described is shown in Fig. 946. We note that the cycle involves two stages of expansion, two stages of compression, and regeneration. For two-stage compression and expansion, the work input is minimized and the work output is maximized when both stages of the compressor and the turbine have the same pressure ratio. Thus,

Air enters each stage of the compressor at the same temperature, and each stage has the same isentropic efficiency (100 percent in this case). Therefore, the temperature (and enthalpy) of the air at the exit of each compression stage will be the same. A similar argument can be given for the turbine. Thus,

At inlets: T1 = T3, h1 = h3 At exits: T2 = T4, h2 = h4

and and

T6 = T8, h6 = h8 T7 = T9, h7 = h9

Under these conditions, the work input to each stage of the compressor will be the same, and so will the work output from each stage of the turbine. (a) In the absence of any regeneration, the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency are determined by using data from Table A17 as follows:

A comparison of these results with those obtained in Example 9 5 (single stage compression and expansion) reveals that multistage compression with intercooling and multistage expansion with reheating improve the back work ratio (it drops from 40.3 to 30.4 percent) but hurt the thermal efficiency (it drops from 42.6 to 35.8 percent). Therefore, intercooling and reheating are not recommended in gas-turbine power plants unless they are accompanied by regeneration. (b) The addition of an ideal regenerator (no pressure drops, 100 percent effectiveness) does not affect the compressor work and the turbine work. Therefore, the net work output and the back work ratio of an ideal gas-turbine cycle are identical whether there is a regenerator or not. A regenerator, however, reduces the heat input requirements by preheating the air leaving the compressor, using the hot exhaust gases. In an ideal regenerator, the compressed air is heated to the turbine exit temperature T9 before it enters the combustion chamber. Thus, under the air-standard assumptions, h5 = h7 = h9.

The heat input and the thermal efficiency in this case are

and