DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS Subject: ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

UNIT I CONDUCTING MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION Materials can be broadly classified into three types based on conductivity. They are, 1. Conductors (Example: metals), . !emi " conductors (Example: #ermanium, silicon) and $. %nsulators (Example: &ood, mica, #lass). C'()*CT'+!: Conductivity is the ability or po&er to conduct or transmit heat, electricity, or sound. Conductors are materials that electricity easily passes throu#h, that do not resist the flo& of electricity. Examples are copper, aluminum, steel, silver, #old, electrolytes. (ot all materials conduct electricity e,ually &ell.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTORS: Conducting materials are classified into three categories !ero Resisti"it# materials: These materials conduct electricity with zero resistance below transition temperature. $ Lo% Resisti"it# materials: These materials have very high electrical conductivity. 1

& resistance.

'igh Resisti"it# materials: These materials have high resistivity and low temperature co-efficient of

Basic Termi !"!#ies

$% B!u & E"ectr! s:

-ll the valence electrons in an isolated atom are bound to their parent nuclei are called as bound electrons.

'% Free e"ectr! s:

Electrons &hich moves freely or randomly in all directions in the absence of external field.

(% Dri)t *e"!cit+
%f no electric field is applied on a conductor, the free electrons move in random directions. They collide &ith each other and also &ith the positive ions. !ince the motion is completely random, avera#e velocity in any direction is .ero. %f a constant electric field is established inside a conductor, the electrons experience a force / 0 1eE due to &hich they move in the direction opposite to direction of the field. These electrons under#o fre,uent collisions &ith positive ions. %n each such collision, direction of motion of electrons under#oes random chan#es. -s a result, in addition to the random motion, the electrons are sub2ected to a very slo& directional motion. This motion is called drift and the avera#e velocity of this motion is called &ri)t ,e"!cit+ ,&%

-% E"ectric Fie"& .E/: The electric field E of a conductor havin# uniform cross section is defined as the potential drop (3) per unit len#th (l). i.e., E 0 34 l 34m
0. Curre t &e sit+ .1/: %t is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of an ima#inary plane holded normal to the direction of the flo& of current in a current carryin# conductor. 5 0 %4 - -m1 2% Fermi "e,e" /ermi level is the hi#hest filled ener#y level at 6 7. 8. Fermi e er#+ Ener#y correspondin# to /ermi level is 9no&n as /ermi ener#y.

E"ectr! T3e!r+ !) meta"s: The electron theory of metals explain the follo&in# concepts !tructural, electrical and thermal properties of materials. Elasticity, cohesive force and bindin# in solids.

:ehaviour of conductors, semi conductors, insulators etc.

!o far t3ree e"ectr! t3e!ries have been proposed.

$%

C"assica" Free e"ectr! t3e!r+:

1 %t is a macroscopic theory. 1 ;roposed by )rude and <oret. in 1=66. 1 %t explains the free electrons in lattice

1 %t obeys the la&s of classical mechanics. . 4ua tum Free e"ectr! t3e!r+: %t is a microscopic theory. ;roposed by !ommerfield in 1= >. %t explains that the electrons moves in a constant potential. %t obeys the ?uantum la&s.

(%

Bri""!ui 5! e t3e!r+ !r Ba & t3e!r+: ;roposed by :loch in 1= >. %t explains that the electrons moves in a periodic potential. %t also explains the mechanism of semiconductivity , based on bands and hence called band theory.

CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS:

This theory &as developed by )rude and <orent. durin# 1=66 -ll the atoms are composed of and hence is also 9no&n as )rude1<orent. theory. -ccordin# to this theory, a metal consists of electrons &hich are free to move about in the crystal li9e molecules of a #as in a container. Mutual repulsion bet&een electrons is i#nored and hence potential ener#y is ta9en as .ero. Therefore the total ener#y of the electron is e,ual to its 9inetic ener#y.

P!stu"ates !) C"assica" )ree e"ectr! t3e!r+:

$% -ll the atoms are composed of atoms. Each atom have central nucleus around &hich there are revolvin# electrons. '% The electrons are free to move in all possible directions about the &hole volume of metals. (% %n the absence of an electric field the electrons move in random directions ma9in# collisions from time to time &ith positive ions &hich are fixed in the lattice or other free electrons. -ll the collisions are elastic i.e.@ no loss of ener#y. -% Ahen an external field is applied the free electrons are slo&ly driftin# to&ards the positive potential. 0% !ince the electrons are assumed to be a perfect #as they obey classical 9inetic theory of #asses.
2%

Classical free electrons in the metal obey Max&ell1:olt.mann statistics.

Dra6bac7s !) C"assica" )ree e"ectr! t3e!r+: 1) -ccordin# to this theory, r is proportional to BT. :ut experimentally it &as found that r is proportional to T. '/ -ccordin# to this theory, 74sT 0 <, a constant (Aiedemann1 /ran. la&) for all temperatures. :ut this is not true at lo& temperatures. (/ The theoretically predicted value of specific heat of a metal does not a#ree &ith the experimentally obtained value.

-/ This theory fails to explain ferroma#netism, superconductivity, photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and blac9 body radiation. 0/ %t is a macroscopic theory. 2/ )ual nature is not explained. 8/ -tomic fine spectra could not be accounted.

Merits !) C"assica" Free E"etr! T3e!r+: $% %t is used to verify 'hmCs la&. '% The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals can be explained. (% %t is used to derive Aiedemann1 /ran. la& -% %t is used to explain the optical properties of metals. Dra6bac7s !) C"assica" Free E"ectr! T3e!r+: $% %t is a macroscopic theory. '% %t cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators properly. (% )ual nature is not explained. -% %t cannot explain the Compton effect,;hoto1electric effect. 0% The theoritical and experimental values of specific heat are not matched. 2% -tomic fine spectra could not be accounted.

8% )ifferent types of ma#netisms could not be explained satisfactorily by this theory.

9ie&ma

-Fra : "a6:

The ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

74s is proportional to T 'r, 74sT 0 <, a constant called <orent. number. 4ua tum )ree e"ectr! t3e!r+: Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties. %n 1= >, !ommerfeld developed a ne& theory applyin# ,uantum mechanical concepts and /ermi1)irac statistics to the free electrons in the metal. This theory is called ,uantum free electron theory. Classical free electron theory permits all electrons to #ain ener#y. :ut ,uantum free electron theory permits only a fraction of electrons to #ain ener#y.

Deri,ati! !) E"ectrica" c! &ucti,it+ !) a meta" base& ! Dru&e ; <!re t: t3e!r+:

Deri,ati! !) T3erma" c! &ucti,it+:

Fermi-Dirac Statistics: There are three statistics $% Max&ell1 :olt.mann statistics 1 )eals &ith particles &hich has no spin 1 E#: Daseous particles
'% :ose1Einstein statistics 1 )eals &ith particles &hich has inte#ral spin 1 E#: ;hotons (% /ermi1)irac statistics 1 )eals &ith particles &hich has half inte#ral spin - -lso 9no&n as /ermions E#: Electrons

Fermi-Dirac &istributi! )u cti! :

E))ect !) tem=erature ! Fermi-Dirac &istributi! )u cti! : /ermi1)irac distribution function is #iven by, f(E) 0 1 4 E1Fe(E1E/47T) G -t T067, for EE/, f(E)06 -t T067, for E0E/, f(E)0indeterminate -t TH67, for E0E/, f(E)014 -ll these results are depicted in the fi#ure.

Im=!rta ce !) Fermi E er#+: /ermi ener#y is used to seperate the vacant and filled states at 67 %t is used to 9no& the status of the electrons.

 Electrons are completely filled belo& fermi ener#y level and completely empty above the fermi level at 6 7 -bove 6 7 some electrons absorb thermal ener#y and they 2umps to the hi#her ener#y levels. De sit+ !) States: )ensity of states ((E)dE is defined as the number of ener#y states present per unit volume of a metal in an ener#y interval E and EFdE (o. of ener#y states available bet&een E and EFdE in a metal piece )ensity of states E((E)dEG 0 3olume of that metal piece

Deri,ati! !) De sit+ !) states:

9!r7 Fu cti! : The minimum ener#y #iven to an electron in a metal to liberate it from the surface of that metal at absolute .ero is called &or9 function. %t depends upon The nature of the metal.

The surface conditions. There are )!ur &i))ere t 6a+s of supplyin# ener#y to the electrons of a metal Ahen the ener#y is supplied to the electrons thermally by heatin# the metal, then the &or9 function is called t3ermi! ic 6!r7 )u cti! % Ahen the ener#y is supplied to the electrons optically by exposin# it &ith the incident li#ht , then the &or9 function is called =3!t!e"ectric 6!r7 )u cti! % Ahen the ener#y is received from electrons or ions that stri9e the metal surface from outside, then the &or9 function is called sec! &ar+ emissi! 6!r7 )u cti! %

Ahen the ener#y is received from the applied electric field, then the &or9 function is called fie"& emissi! 6!r7 )u cti! %