Unit 3 Electrical Conductivity 2022

UNIT- III: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction:
Conducting materials play a vital role in Engineering. It is very
essential to know the electrical properties of materials for specific
application of the materials. The properties of metals such as
electrical conduction, thermal conduction, specific heat etc., are due
to the free electrons or conduction electrons in metals. The first
theory to explain the electrical conductivity of metals is Classical
free electron theory and it was proposed by Drude in the year1900
and later developed and refined by Lorentz. Hence classical free
electron theory is known as Drude-Lorentz theory.
Assumptions of Classical Free Electron Theory:

1. A metal is imagined as a three dimensional ordered network of
positive ions with the outermost electrons of the metallic atoms
freely moving about the solid. The electric current in a metal, due
to an applied field, is a consequence of drift velocity of the free
electrons in a direction opposite to the direction of the field.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and
thus assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases. As per
kinetic theory of gases, in the absence of the field the energy
3
associated with each electron at a temperature T is kT , where
2
k is Boltzmann constant. It is related to the kinetic energy
through the relation
3 1
kT  mvth2
2 2
Wherevth is the thermal velocity of the electrons.
3. The electric potential due to the ionic core (lattice) is taken to be
essentially constant throughout the metal.
4. The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions and
the repulsion between the electrons are considered insignificant.
Drift Velocity
Initially the electrons in the metal which are in thermal equilibrium
will move in random directions and often collide with ions with no
net displacement. When electric field is applied, the equilibrium
condition is disturbed and there will be net displacement in randomly
moving free electron‟s positions, with time in a direction opposite to
the direction of the field. This displacement per unit time is called
drift velocity which will be constant for the free electrons in the
steady state. This accounts for the current in the direction of the
field.
If „E‟ is the electric field applied to the metal, „  ’ is mean collision

time, then drift velocity for conduction electron in a metal is given
by
eE
vd  
m
Where „e‟ and „m‟ are charge and mass of electron respectively.
Current density (J):

It is the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane
held normal to the direction of current in a current carrying
conductor.
i.e. J = I/A where A is the area of cross section.
Electric Field (E):

Electric field across homogeneous conductor is defined as the
potential drop per unit length of the conductor.
If „L‟ is the length of a conductor of uniform cross section and
uniform material composition and „V‟ is the potential difference
between its two ends, then electric field „E‟ is given by
E = V/L
Mean Free Path (  ):

It is the average distance travelled by the conduction electrons
between successive collisions with lattice ions.
Mean Collision Time (  ):

It is the average time that elapses between two consecutive collisions
of an electron with the lattice ions.
Relation between v,  and  :

If „v‟ is the total velocity of the electrons, then the mean collision
time „  ’ is given by


v
Resistivity (  ):
For a material of uniform cross section, the resistance „R‟ is directly
proportional to length „L‟ and inversely proportional to area of cross
section „A‟
L L
i.e. R R    
A  A
Where „  ‟ is called resistivity. It is the property of the material and
gives the measure of opposition offered by the material during the
current flow in it.
RA
 
L
Conductivity (  ):
It is reciprocal of resistivity. It is a physical property that
characterizes conducting ability of a material.
1 L
 
 RA
Relation between J,  and E:
From ohms law
l
V=IR  I .
A
I V 1
 .
A l 
I 1
 J and  
A 
J  E
Expression for electric current in a conductor: (I)

I  nevd A
n - Number of free electrons in unit volume of the
conductor
vd - Drift velocity of electrons
A - Area of cross section of the conductor
e – Charge of an electron
Expression for Conductivity:

The current through the conductor is given by
We know that drift velocity (vd) is given by

Substituting for vd in the above equation
) where „L‟ is the length of the conductor
Rearranging the terms of the above equation
Therefore σ =
Mobility of electrons:
Mobility of electrons (  ) is defined as the magnitude of drift
velocity acquired by the electron in unit field.
vd 1  eE  eE
i.e.    
E E m  m
Failures of classical free electron theory:

Although electrical and thermal conductivity in metals can be
explained successfully through classical free electron theory, it failed
to account for many other experimental facts such as specific heat,
temperature dependence of conductivity and dependence of electrical
conductivity on electron concentration.
3
1. The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is Cv  R,
2
where R is a universal constant. But the experimental value of
electronic specific heat is Cv=10-4RT which the classical theory
could not explain. Also the experimental value shows that the
electronic specific heat is temperature dependent, whereas the
classical free electron theory says that it is temperature
independent.
2. The electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely proportional
to temperature. According to classical free electron theory,
electrical conductivity is inversely proportional to the square
1
root of temperature, i.e.   .
T
ne 2 
3. Electrical conductivity is given as  
m
According to classical electron theory electrical conductivity is
directly proportional to the electron concentration. But
monovalent metals like copper found to have high electrical
conductivity than the divalent & trivalent metals like Zinc and
Aluminium. Hence CFET fails to explain the observation.
4. Though metals are expected to exhibit negative Hall co-efficient
since the charge carriers in them are electrons, some metals like
zinc have positive Hall co-efficient. The free electron theory
could not explain the positive Hall co-efficient of metals.
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:

The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are
1. The energy values of free electrons are quantized. The allowed
energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy
levels, follows Pauli‟s Exclusion Principle.
3. Distribution of electrons in energy states obey Fermi-Dirac

statistics.
4. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal
but stay confined within its boundaries.
5. The attraction between the free electrons and lattice ions, the
repulsion between the electrons themselves are ignored.
Fermi level and Fermi energy:

If we assume the number of electrons per unit volume as ne then
these electrons should be accommodated in the various energy
levels. At absolute zero temperature, the electrons occupy the lowest
available energy levels. The highest occupied level in metals at zero
Kelvin is called as the Fermi level and the corresponding energy
value of that level is called as the Fermi energy, it is denoted by EF.
Thus at 0K all levels up to the Fermi level are occupied while the
levels above it are vacant.
EF
E0
Energy band
The dotted level is the Fermi level. Levels from Eo up to EF are
occupied while levels above EF are empty.
Fermi-Dirac statistics:
Under thermal equilibrium the free electrons are distributed in
various available energy states. The distribution of electrons among
the energy levels follows statistical rule known as Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
Fermi-Dirac statistics is applicable to fermions. Fermions are

indistinguishable particles with half integral spin. Since electron has
half spin they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and they are called
Fermions.
Fermi factor represents the probability that a quantum state
with energy E is occupied by an electron, is given by Fermi-Dirac
distribution function,
1
f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 kT 
Where k is the Boltzmann‟s constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin,

E is the energy and EF is the Fermi energy.
Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature:

The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature at T=0K is given in
the figure.
At T=0K
EF
0 1
f (E)
Case 1: the probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K

Substituting the value of T = 0K in the Fermi function we get
1 1 1
f  E   E  EF    1
e kT 1 e  1 0  1
f(E)=1 implies that all the levels below EF are occupied by electrons.
Case 2: the probability of occupation for E>EF at T = 0K.

Substituting the value of T = 0K in the Fermi function, we get
1 1 1
f  E   E  EF    0.
e
 kT 1 e  1 
This shows that all energy levels above EF are vacant.
Case 3: probability of occupation at temperature > 0K
1. At ordinary temperatures, though the value of probability is 1

for E<< EF, it starts decreasing from 1 as the values of E become
closer to EF.
2. The value of f(E) become ½ at E=EF. This is because at E = EF
1 1 1 1
f  E   E  EF  0  
e
 kT 1 e  1 1  1 2
3. For values just beyond EF, f(E)>0

4. Further above E > EF, the probability value falls off to zero
rapidly.
It implies that the probability of occupancy of Fermi level at any

temperature other than 0K is 0.5
Hence Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which the

probability of electron occupancy is half. Also, Fermi energy, EF is
the average energy possessed by the electrons which participate in
conduction process in conductors at temperatures above 0K.
Density of states g (E):

The permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid will be in terms
of bands. Each energy band spread over an energy range of few eV.
The number of energy levels in each band will be extremely large
and hence the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over
the band spread. Each energy level consists of two states and each
state accommodates only one electron. Therefore, energy level can
be occupied by two electrons only, having opposite directions of
spin. The exact dependence of density of energy states on the energy
is realized through a function denoted as g (E) and is known as
density of states function.
It is defined as, the number of available states per unit volume per
unit energy interval.
The number of states lying in the range of energies between E and

E+dE is given by
4
g ( E )dE  3 (2m) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE .
h
Where E is the kinetic energy of the electron in the energy level E.
Carrier concentration in metals and Fermi energy at 0K

Number of free electrons /unit volume which possess energy in the
range E and E+dE is given by N (E) dE = g(E)×dE× f(E)
The number of free electrons/unit volume of the material, i.e., n is
equal to the total number of electrons that are distributed in various
energy levels upto EF. Thus we have
EF EF
n  N ( E )dE
E 0
n  g ( E ) f ( E )dE
E 0
But, f (E) =1, at T= 0K

EF
n  g ( E )dEx1
E 0
4
g(E) dE is given by, g ( E )dE  3
(2m) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
h
4
E F
n 
3/ 2
3
( 2 m ) E 1 / 2 dE
h E 0
4 2
n 3
( 2m ) 3 / 2 ( E F ) 3 / 2
h 3
8 2 2
n 3
m 3 / 2 x ( E F ) 3 / 2
h 3
8
n  3 ( 2m ) 3 / 2 ( E F ) 3 / 2
3h
This is the equation of concentration of electrons in a metal at 0K.
h 2 3n 2 / 3
Expression for the Fermi energy at 0K is given by E F  ( )
8m 
E F  Bn 2 / 3
h2 3 2/3
Where B= ( )( ) is a constant=5.85x10-38J.
8m 
Success of Quantum Free Electron theory

1. The theory could successfully explain the specific heat
capacity of metals.
2. It could also explain temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity.
3. It explained the dependence of electrical conductivity on
electron concentration.
4. It also explained photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Black
body radiation, Zeeman effectetc.,
HALL EFFECT:
When a transverse magnetic field „B‟ is applied perpendicular to
current carrying conductor, a potential difference is developed across
the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall effect. The
Voltage so developed is called Hall voltage.
Hall effect helps to i) determine the sign of charge carrier in

the material 2) determine the charge carrier concentration and iii)
determine the mobility of charge carrier, if conductivity of material
is known. Hall effect measurement showed that the negative charge
carriers, that is the electrons are responsible for conduction in metal
and it also showed that there exists two types of charge carriers in a
semiconductor.
To explain Hall Effect in metals (conductor), consider a rectangular

plate of a metal having, width w and thickness t.When potential
difference is applied across its ends, a current „I‟ flows through it
along x direction that is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
The current passing through the metal is given by
I = nAevd (1)
where n- concentration of electrons

A- Area of cross section of end face
e- charge on the electron
vd- drift velocity of electron
n – concentration of electrons
Therefore vd=I/nAe = I/nwte (2)
where A=wt (w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness of
the sample)
Any plane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential

surface. Therefore potential difference between front and rare faces
is zero. If magnetic field is applied normal to crystal surface and also
to the current flow, a transverse potential difference is produced
between the faces F & F/. It is called Hall voltage VH.
In the absence of magnetic field B, the charge carriers move in a
direction parallel to faces F & F/. On the application of magnetic
field B, the Lorentz force comes into existence and this force deflects
the electrons sideways. The magnitude of this force is given by
F L = e B vd
Fig. Hall effect in conductors

Fig. Direction of magnetic force and Hall field in a conductor
In the absence of magnetic field B, the charge carriers move in a

direction parallel to faces F & F/ as shown in the above figure. On
the application of magnetic field B, the Lorentz force comes into
existence and this force deflects the electrons sideways due to the
magnetic force FL. The magnitude of this force is given by
F L = e B vd
Because of this force, electrons will move towards the front face F
and pile up there. Initially the material is electrically neutral
everywhere. However, as electrons pile up on the front side, a
corresponding equivalent positive charge is left on the rare face F/.
As a result an electric field is produced across F & F/. The direction
of electric field (EH) will be from rare face to front face. A condition
of equilibrium is reached when force (FH) due to transverse electric
field EH, balances the Lorentz force (FL). The transverse electric field
EH is known as Hall field.
At equilibrium condition
FL = FH (3)
FH = e EH = e (VH/w) (4)
Substituting for FL and FH in eqn (3) we get
eBvd = eVH/w (5)
Substituting for vd from equation (2) in equation (5)

(6)
Hall voltage VH= (7)
Reciprocal of Carrier charge density is called Hall co-efficient RH

RH= 1/ne
Equation (6) can be written as
RH =
The Hall voltage can be measured with a voltmeter with the direction
of magnetic field & current depicted in fig, the sign of Hall voltage is
negative.
The charge carrier concentration is given by

1 BI
n 
R He VH te
BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS:

The energy band structure of a solid determines whether it is a
conductor, an insulator, or a semiconductor
The electron of an isolated atom has certain definite energies such as
1s, 2s, 3p, 3s, etc. Between two consecutive allowed values of
energy there is forbidden gap. As we bring together large number of
identical atoms to form a solid, significant changes take place in the
energy levels. The energy levels of each atom will interact with the
other identical atoms. The wave functions of each atom will overlap
and as a result the energy levels of each atom overlap slightly and
split into a number of levels corresponding to the number of atoms.

The split energy levels are very close to each other and they form a
narrow band known as energy band.
The range of energies possessed by electrons in a solid is known as

energy band.
The energy band formed by the energy levels of the valence

electrons is called valence band. The energy band immediately
above the valence band where the conduction electrons are present is
called conduction band.
The separation between the upper level of valence band and the
bottom level of conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap,
Eg.
The forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence

electrons to the atom. The greater the energy gap more tightly
valence electrons are bound. When energy is supplied, electrons
from the valence band jump to the conduction band and thereby the
material starts conducting.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are the materials having electrical conductivity
greater than that of insulators but significantly lower than that of a
conductor at room temperature. They have conductivity in the range
of 10-4to 104 S/m. The interesting feature about semiconductors is
that they are bipolar and current is transported by two types of
charge carriers of opposite sign namely electrons and holes. The
number of carriers can be drastically enhanced by doping the
semiconductor with suitable impurities. The doped semiconductor
which exhibits higher conductivity is called an extrinsic

semiconductor. The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor
depends on the doping level which is amenable to control. The
current transportation in extrinsic semiconductor occurs through two
different processes namely drift and diffusion. Pure semiconductors
are of relatively less importance whereas extrinsic semiconductors
are widely used in fabricating devices. These devices are more
generally known as solid-state electronic devices.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic carriers in pure semiconductors
At room temperature in pure semiconductors, a single event
of breaking of bonds leads to two carriers; namely electron and hole.
The electron and hole are created as a pair & the phenomenon is
called electron-hole pair generation. At any temperature T the
number of electrons generated will be equal to the number of holes
generated. If „n‟ denotes number density of electrons in the
conduction band & „p” denotes the number of holes in the „valence
band then n = p = ni where, „ni‟ is called intrinsic concentration or
the intrinsic density
After the generation, the carriers move independently; the electrons
move in the conduction band & the holes move in the valence band.
The motion of these two carriers is random in their respective band
as long as no external field is applied.
Concept of Effective Mass of the Electron and Holes:
Consider an isolated electron of mass m and charge –e in an electric

field of strength E. The electric force acting on it is –eE. The
electron gets accelerated, then -eE = ma. However, an electron

within a crystal is in a periodic potential due to positive ion cores.
The neighbouring ions and electrons in the crystal do exert some
force on the electron in a crystal. Then ma= -eEplus force due to
neighbouring ions and electrons. Since the latter force is not known
quantitatively, we can write the above equation as me*a= -eE or
me*= -eE/a where me* is called the effective mass of the electron
within the crystal. Thus it is inferred that the effective mass of an
electron depends on its location in the energy band. Electrons near
the bottom of the conduction band have an effective mass which is
almost equal to the effective mass of a free electron. Electrons near
the bottom of the valence band have negative effective mass. The
removal of an electron with a negative effective mass is identical to
creating a particle of positive mass. Thus hole is given the status of
particle with positive effective mass mh*.
Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

The actual number of electron in the conduction band is given by
top of the band
n 
Ec
f ( E ) gc ( E )dE
(1)
Since F-D function describes the probability of occupancy of energy
state. Under thermal equilibrium condition, the electron
concentration obtained from eqn. (1) is the equilibrium
concentration.
As f(E)rapidly approaches zero for higher energies, the integral in
eqn. (1) can be re-written as

n 
Ec
f ( E ) g c ( E )dE
4
3 1
g c ( E )  3 (2me* ) 2 ( E ) 2 dE
h
Where, E is the kinetic energy of the electron.
Ec
Conduction band
In the above fig. the bottom edge of conduction band EC corresponds
to the potential energy of an electron at rest in conduction band.
Therefore the quantity (E – EC) represents the kinetic energy of
conduction level electron at high energy level.
4
3 1
g c ( E )  3 (2me* ) 2 ( E  Ec ) 2 dE (2)
h
1

4 (E E c) 2
3
n   3 ( 2me* ) 2 dE (3)
h  (E  EF ) 
Ec
1  exp 
 kT 
E  EF E  EF E  EF
As E >EF : e kT
 1 : 1  e kT
e kT
 ( E  EF )
1
Therefore E  EF
e kT
1 e kT
Using this eqn in eqn. (3) we get
3   ( E  EF )
4
1
n  3 (2me* ) 2  ( E  E c ) 2 e kT
dE
h Ec
Add and subtract Ec to the exponential term in the above equation.
( E F  Ec )   ( E  Ec )
4
3 1
n  3 (2me* ) 2 e
h
kT
 (E  E )
Ec
c
2
e kT
dE
Let E-Ec = x then dx = dE

Lower limit when E=Ec x = Ec– Ec= 0
Upper limit when E=  x =  - Ec = 
( E F  EC ) 
4
3 1
Therefore n  3 (2me* ) 2 e
h
kT
x
0
2
e ax dx (4)
The integral is similar to standard integral.

The solution of eqn.(4) is given by


x
1/ 2  ax
e dx  , where a=1/kT
0 2a a
4   
3 
2me*  e( EF  Ec ) kT
32
n =  ( KT )3/ 2 
h  2 
Rearranging the term we get

3/ 2
 2 me*kT 
n  2 2  e ( EC  EF ) kT (5)
 h 
3/ 2
 2 me*kT 
Let N C  2  2 
 h 
 n  NCe ( EC  EF ) kT (6)
Nc is temperature-dependent material constant known as effective
density of states in the conduction band.
Expression for hole concentration in valence band
If f (E) is the probability for occupancy of an energy state at

E by an electron, then probability that energy state is vacant is given
by [1- f(E)]. Since hole represents the unoccupied state in valence
band, the probability for occupancy of state at E by a hole is equal to
probability of absence of electron at that level. The hole
concentration in valence band is therefore given by
Ev
p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE
bottomband
v
(7)
Ev
E
 ( E F  Ev )
Solving equation 7 we arrive at hole concentration, p  N v e kT
Where, Nv is temperature-dependent material constant known as

effective density of states in the valence
3/ 2
 2 mh*kT 
band. Let N v  2  2 
 h 
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
In an intrinsic semiconductor electron and hole concentrations are
equal.
Therefore n=p
 ( EC  EF )  ( EF  EV )
Nce kT
 NV e kT
Taking logarithm on both side and rearranging the term, we get
=>
Multiplying by kT throughout
N 
=>  EC  E F  kT ln  V   E F  EV
 NC 
N 
=> 2 E F  kT ln  V   EC  EV
 NC 
 E  EV  1 N 
=> E F   C   kT ln  V 
 2  2  NC 
Substituting the values of NV and NC and after simplification we get
 E  Ev  3  m*h 
EF   C   kT ln  * (1)
 2  4  me 
As kT is small and the effective mass m*e and m*h do not differ much,
the second term in the eqn. (1) may be ignored.
If m*e = m*h , then we get
 E  Ev 
EF   C  (2)
 2 
we can write eqn. (2) as
 E  Ev  Ev  Ev  EC  Ev
EF   C   Ev
 2  2
but EC  Ev  Eg
Eg
 EF   Ev
2
Eg
If top of the valence band Ev is taken as zero level, then EF 
2
Thus Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor lies at the centre of

the energy gap as shown below:
Ec
Eg Eg
EF 
E 2
Ev
k
INTRINSIC DENSITY, ni
In an intrinsic semiconductor at T=0K, the electron concentration in
the conduction band is identical to hole concentration in the valence
band.
n=p=ni
From this, we get
np=ni2
( Ec  E F ) ( EF  EV )
 
ni  N C e
2 kT kT
Nve
( Ec  EV )

 ( N C N V )e kT
But Ec-Ev=Eg
 Eg / kT
ni  ( N C N V ) e
2
 Eg / 2 kT
ni  ( N C N V ) 1 / 2 e
Substituting the values of Nc and Nv we get,

2k  E / 2 kT
ni  2[ 2 ]3 / 2 (me mh ) 3 / 4 T 3 / 2 e g
* *
h
The following important points may be inferred from the above
relation
1. The intrinsic density is independent of Fermi level position.
2. The intrinsic density is a function of band-gap Eg, which
represents the energy needed to break a bond.
3. The intrinsic density strongly depends on the temperature.
The contribution of temperature increase to ni is mostly due
to the exponential term and only to a marginal extent due to
the term T3/2.
Extrinsic semiconductor
The intrinsic semiconductor has low conductivity which is
not amenable to control. However a judicious introduction of
impurity atoms in an intrinsic semiconductor produces useful
modification of its electrical conductivity. The method of
introduction of controlled quantity of impurity into an intrinsic
semiconductor is called doping. The impurity added is called dopant.
The semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is called extrinsic
semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor
namely p-type & n-type which are produced depending on the group
of impurity atoms.
n-type semiconductors are produced when pure
semiconductors are doped with pentavalent impurity atoms such
Phosphorous, Arsenic etc.
p-type semiconductors are produced when pure
semiconductors are doped with trivalent impurity atoms such as
Aluminum, Boron etc.
Temperature variation of carrier concentration in extrinsic

semiconductor
The dependence of electron concentration on temperature for n-type
semiconductor is as shown in the figure below.
Ionization
Intrinsic
region
region
Depletion
region
n
II III
I
Td T Ti
At 0K the donor levels are filled which means that all the donor
electrons are bound to the donor atoms. At low temperature,
corresponding to region- I, there is no enough energy to ionize all
the donors and not at all enough to break covalent bond. As
temperature increases, the donor atoms get ionized and donor atoms
go into the conduction band. The region-I is known as ionization
region. Occasionally a covalent band maybe broken out, but number
of such events will be insignificantly small. At about 100K all donor
atoms are ionized, once all electrons from donor level are excited
into conduction band, any further temperature increase does not

create additional electrons and the curve levels off. The region II is
called depletion region. In the depletion region the electron
concentration in the conduction band is nearly identical to the
concentration of dopant atoms.
If ND is donor concentration then
nn = ND ( depletion region)
Where nn – electron concentration in n-type
As temperature grows further, electron transitions from valence band
to conduction band increases. At high temperature (region-III) the
number of electron transition becomes so large that the intrinsic
electron concentration exceeds the electron concentration due to
donor. This region is therefore called intrinsic region. In intrinsic
region, nn = ni
P type semiconductor
Similarly in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor levels are
vacant at 0K & valence band is full. As temperature increases in the
ionization region, the electrons from the valence band jump into
acceptor level. However, the electrons do not acquire enough energy
to jump into conduction band levels. At the temperature Ts, the
acceptor levels are saturated with electrons. The region- II lying
between Ts(saturation temperature) and Ti is called the saturation
region. In case of p-type materials within this temperature interval
the hole concentration remains constant as thermal energy is not yet
sufficient to cause electron transition from valence band to
conduction band. In the saturation region, the hole concentration is
equal to the acceptor impurity concentration. Thus pp = NA
With increase of temperature beyond T, electron transition due to
intrinsic process commence & hole concentration due to intrinsic
process far exceeds that due to impurity atoms.
In region-III, pp = ni
Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor

N-type semiconductor
The carrier concentration in extrinsic semiconductors varies
with temperature as discussed earlier. It follows that the probability
of occupancy of respective bands & position of Fermi level varies
with temperature.
In n-type semiconductor, in low temperature region the
electron in the conductor band is only due to the transition of
electrons from donor levels. Therefore Fermi level lies between the
donor level ED& the bottom edge of conduction band.
As temperature increases the donor level gradually gets depleted &

the Fermi level shifts downward. At the temperature of depletion Td,
the Fermi level coincides with the donor level ED
i.e. EFn = ED.

As temperature increases further above Td, the Fermi level
shifts downward approximately in a linear fashion, though electron
concentration in the conduction band remains constant. This is in

E  E D kT N c
accordance with the relation E Fn  c  ln .
2 2 ND
At temperature Ti, where intrinsic process contributes to electron
concentration significantly, the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic
value EFi = Eg/2. With further increase in temperature the behaviour
of extrinsic semiconductor transitions into that of an intrinsic type &
Fermi level stays at EFi .Thus
EFn = EFi= Eg/2.
P-type semiconductor
In case of p-type semiconductor the Fermi level EFp rises with
increasing temperature from below the acceptor level to intrinsic
level EFi as shown in fig2.
E  Ev
 EFp  A (ionization region)
2
As temperature increases further above Ts, the Fermi level shifts
downward approximately in linear fashion, though hole
concentration in the valence band remains constant. This is in
E  E A kT N v
accordance with the relation E Fp  v  ln .
2 2 NA
EFp = EA (at T=Ts)
And EFp = Eg/2.

Effect of variation of impurity concentration:

n-type semiconductor
The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to

the formation of discrete donor level below the bottom edge of
conduction band. At low impurity concentrations the impurity atom
are spaced far apart & do not interact with each other. With an
increase in the impurity concentration the impurity atom separation
in the crystal decreases & they tend to interact. Consequently the
donor level also undergoes splitting & form energy band below the
conduction band. The larger the doping concentration, the broader is
the impurity band & at one stage it overlaps with the conduction
band.
The broadness of donor levels into a band is accompanied by a

decrease in the width of forbidden gap & also the upward
displacement of Fermi level. The Fermi level moves closer & closer
to the conduction band with increasing impurity concentration &
finally moves into the conduction band as donor band overlaps the
conduction band.
In similar way, in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor level
broadens and forms into a band with increasing impurity
concentration which ultimately overlaps the valence band. The Fermi
level moves down closer to the valence band and finally at high
impurity concentration it will shift in to valence band.
HALL EFFECT IN SEMICONDUCTORS:
The Hall effect in metals is similar to that of semiconductors. In case

of metals and n -type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are
electrons and hence the same derivation holds good for both. In a p-
type semiconductor the only difference is that majority charge
carriers are holes, with positive charge, hence with slight
modifications we can obtain the Hall effect parameters following
themethod used for metals.
Let us consider a rectangular plate of p-type semiconductor. When
potential difference is applied across its ends, a current „I‟ flows
through it along x direction. If holes are majority charge carriers in
p-type semiconductors then the current is given by
I = pAevd (1)
Where p- concentration of holes
A-Area of cross section of end face
e- charge on the hole
vd- drift velocity of holes
thereforevd = I/pAe = I/pwte (2)
Anyplane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential

surface. Therefore potential difference between front and rare faces
is zero. If magnetic field is applied normal to crystal surface and also
to the current flow, a transverse potential difference is produced
between the faces F & F/ (fig..It is called Hall voltage VH.
Fig. Hall effect in p type semi conductor
Fig. Direction of magnetic force and Hall field in p-type

semiconductor
Before the application of magnetic field B, the holes move in an

orderly way parallel to faces F & F/. On the application of magnetic
field B, the holes experience a sideway deflection due to the Lorentz
force FL. The magnitude of this force is given by
F L = e B vd
Because of this force, holes are deflected towards the front face F
and pile up there. Initially the material is electrically neutral
everywhere. However, as holes pile up on the front side, a
corresponding equivalent negative charge is left on the rare face F/.
As a result an electric field is produced across F & F/.The direction
of electric field will be from front face to rare face. It is such that it
opposes the further pile up of holes on the front face F. A condition
of equilibrium is reached when FH due to transverse electric field EH
balances the Lorentz force. The transverse electric field EH is known
as Hall field.
In equilibrium condition
FL = FH
FH = e EH = e(VH/w) (3)
Substituting for FL and FH in eqn (3) we get
eBvd = eVH/w (5)
Substituting for vd from equation (2) in equation (5)
(6)
Hall voltage VH= (7)
Reciprocal of Carrier charge density is called Hall co-efficient RH

RH= 1/pe
Equation (6) can be written as
RH =
The Hall voltage is a real voltage & can be measured with a

voltmeter with the direction of magnetic field & current depicted in
this fig, the sign of Hall voltage is +ve.
For n-type semiconductor Hall voltage will be –ve, when the

direction of current is same as in the fig. Therefore by knowing the
sign of Hall voltage the type of semiconductor & the sign of the
majority charge carriers will be known.
The carrier concentration is given by
1 BI
p 
R H e VH te
In case of n-type semiconductor
1 BI
n 
R He VH te
DIELECTRICS
Materials such as glass, ceramics, polymers and paper are non-
conducting materials. They prevent the flow of current through them,
therefore they can be used for insulation purposes. When the main
function of non-conducting materials is to provide electrical
insulation they are called Insulators.
distance
Figure 1: Band diagram of an insulator

When non-conducting materials are placed in an electric field, they
undergo appreciable changes as a result of which they act as stores of
electric charges. When charge storage is the main function, the
insulating materials are called Dielectrics. For a material to be a
good dielectric, it must be an insulator. Hence any insulator is a
dielectric.
The forbidden energy gap (Eg) between the valence band and
conduction band is very large (fig.1) in dielectrics and excitation of
electrons from valence band to conduction band is not possible under
ordinary conditions. Therefore conduction cannot occur in a
dielectric. Even if the dielectric contains impurities, extrinsic
conduction cannot occur as observed in case of extrinsic
semiconductors. The resistivity of an ideal dielectric is infinity, in
practise dielectrics conduct electric current to a negligible extent and
their resistivities range from 1010 to 1020Ωm.
Electric dipole and dipole moment
Figure 2: Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is

called an electric dipole and the product of the magnitude of one of
the charges and the distance of their separation is called dipole
moment(µ).
Consider two charges –q and +q with a distance of separation is 2a

where a is the distance from the centre of dipole to one of the charge
as shown in figure 2. The dipole moment for this arrangement is
given by
µ= (2a)q…………(1)
Polar and Non-polar dielectrics:

A dielectric material doesn‟t possess any free electrons. All the
electrons are bound very strongly to the respective nuclei of the
atoms of the parent molecules. Each molecule consists of equal
number of positive and negative charges. All the positive charges are
concentrated in the nuclei, which are surrounded by electron clouds
in which all the negative charges are distributed.
If in the molecules of some dielectric materials, the effective centre

of the negative charge distribution coincides with the effective centre
of the positive charge distribution such materials are called non-
polar dielectrics.eg Hydrogen, carbondioxide etc.
In some dielectric materials, the effective centres of the negative and

positive charges in the molecules do not coincide with each other in
the absence of an external electric field. Each molecule behaves like
a permanent dipole and the materials comprising of such dipoles
are called polar dielectrics. egHCl, H2O etc.
Polarization
If a dielectric is placed in an electric field of strength „E‟, the

electron cloud will be displaced in the direction opposite to „E‟ by a
distance „d‟ with respect to the nucleus. The centres of gravity of
positive and negative charges in the atom no more coincide.
The atom is equivalent to the system of two charges, q=Ze of equal
magnitude but opposite in sign separated by a distance „d‟ and the
atoms behaves like a dipole and it is called induced dipole. The
atom is said to be polarized.
E=0 E>0
Figure 5
The induced dipole sets up its own electric field which is opposite in
direction to the external field.
The dipole moment µ is a vector, directed along the axis of the
dipole from the negative charge to the positive charge.
When the molecule is polarized, restoring forces due to coulomb
attraction come into play which tends to pull the displaced
charges together. The charges separate until the restoring force

balances the force due to the electric field.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the field strength.
The larger the field, greater the displacement of charges and hence
larger the induced dipole moment. The induced dipole moment is
given by
µ=αE
α is the polarizability of the molecule. It characterizes the capacity

of electric charges in a molecule to suffer displacement in an electric
field. The unit of polarizability is Fm2. The induced dipole moment
vanishes as soon as the electric field is switched off.
Dipole in an electric field
Figure 6: An electric dipole in a uniform electric field
When a polar molecule is placed in a uniform electric field „E‟

(figure 6), the field exerts a force +qE on the charge +q and –qE on –
q. The net force on the dipole is zero since the two forces acting on it
are equal and opposite to each other. Therefore, there is no
translational force on the dipole in the uniform field. The two forces
are anti parallel and separated by perpendicular distance, hence
constitutes a couple, which tends to rotate the dipole. The torque on

the dipole is given by
  qE 2a sin = E sin (q2a=µ)
Displacement of positive and negative charges in the molecules of a

dielectric under the action of applied electric field leading to the
development of dipole moment is known as dielectric Polarization.
Figure 7
Consider an electrically neutral slab inserted between the plates of a

parallel plate capacitor as shown in figure 7. Dielectric is imagined
to be divided into large number of identical cells of volume dv.
Under the action of external electric field, charges are induced in
each cell and each cell acquires a dipole moment dµ.
Then intensity of polarization “P” is defined as the total dipole
moment per unit volume of the material.
d 
P  dv = v
Dielectric constant
For isotropic materials the electric flux density E and the electric
induction (or electric displacement) D are related by the equation
D=ε0εrE
where ε0=8.854x10-12F/m, is the dielectric constant of vacuum and εr

is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity for the material. It
has no units.
Dielectric susceptibility
The magnitude of polarization is directly proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.
Thus, P=χε0E (for linear dielectrics)
χ (chi) is the proportionality constant and is called the dielectric

susceptibility of the material. It characterizes the ease with which the
dielectric material can be influenced by an external field. P is a
measure of the polarization produced in the material per unit electric
field.
Relation between εrand χ

In order to describe the combined effects of the applied electric field
E and electric polarization P, an auxiliary vector D called Electric
displacement vector is introduced. D=ε0E+P
Substituting for P=χε0E in the above equation
D=ε0E+χε0E
D= (1+χ)ε0E
D=ε0 εrE
whereεr = 1+χ
ε0 is the absolute permittivity of the free space and εr is the relative

permittivity or the dielectric constant of the material.
Types of Polarization
i) Electronic or Atomic Polarization:
Figure 8
This is the polarization that results from the displacement of electron
clouds of atoms or molecules with respect to the heavy fixed nuclei
to a distance that is less than the dimensions of atoms or molecules
(figure 8). This polarization sets in over a very short period of time,
of the order of 10-14-10-15s. It is independent of temperature.
The polarization is given by Pe=NαeE …..(1)
where N is the number of atoms/unit volume, αeis electronic
polarizability.
P
We have P=χε0E or   …(2)
0E
Dielectric constant εr=1+χ ….(3)
Substituting eqn. (2) in eqn. (3)
Pe
εr = 1+ …..(4)
0E
Substituting for Pe from eqn (1) in eqn (4)
N e E
εr =1+
0E
N e  0 ( r  1)
εr = 1+ ……… (5) or  e 
0 N
εr is the dielectric constant of a non polar gaseous dielectric. The
above equation indicates that the dielectric constant depends on the
polarizability of a molecule and the number of molecules in a unit
volume of the dielectric.
ii) Ionic Polarization:

Ionic polarization occurs in ionic crystals. It is brought about by
the elastic displacement of positive and negative ions from their
equilibrium position. Eg. Sodium chloride crystal.
A NaCl molecule consists of Na+ ion bound to Cl- ion through ionic
bond. If the interatomic distance is „d‟, the molecule exhibits an
intrinsic dipole moment equal to “qd” where q is the charge of the
electron and d is the distance of separation.
Figure 9
When ionic solids are subjected to an external electric field, the

adjacent ions of opposite sign undergo displacement (figure 9). The
displacement causes an increase or decrease in the distance of
separation between the atoms depending upon the location of the ion
pair in the lattice. This polarization takes 10-11-10-14s to build up and
is independent of temperature.
Ionic polarization is given by Pi= NαiE
For most materials, the ionic polarisability is less than electronic
polarizability. Typically αi= 1  e
10
iii) Orientation or dipole Polarisation
This polarization is a characteristic of polar dielectrics which
consists of molecules having permanent dipole moment. In the
absence of external electric field, the orientation of dipoles is random

resulting in a complete cancellation of each others effect (figure 10).
When the electric field is applied, the molecular dipoles rotate
about their axis of symmetry and tend to align with the applied field
and the dielectric acquires a net dipole moment and it is orientation
polarization.
Figure 10
The dipole alignment is counteracted by thermal agitation. Higher

the temperature, the greater is the thermal agitation. Hence,
orientation polarization is strongly temperature dependent.
In case of solids, the rotation of polar molecules may be highly
restricted by the lattice forces, leading to a great reduction in their
contribution to orientation polarization. Because of this reason, while
the dielectric constant of water is about 80, that for solid ice is only
10.
As the process of orientation polarization involves rotation of
molecules, it takes relatively longer time than other two
polarisations.
The build up time is of the order of 10-10s or more. The orientation
2 N 2 E
polarizability α0 = and orientation polarization P0 =
3kT 3kT
Orientation polarization is inversely proportional to temperature and
proportional to the square of the permanent dipole moment.
4. Space charge or Interface polarization:

This polarisation occurs in multiphase dielectric materials in which
there is a change of resistivity between different phases, when such
materials are subjected to an electric field, especially at high
temperatures, the charges get accumulated at the interface, because
of sudden change in conductivity across the boundary (figure 11).
Since the accumulation of charges with opposite faces occurs at
opposite parts in the low resistivity phase, in effect it leads to the
development of dipole moment within the low resistivity phase
domain. Eg. Non homogenous materials such as composites.
Figure 11
Internal field in a solid for one dimensional infinite array of

dipoles
When a dielectric material, either solid or liquid is subjected to an

external electric field, each of the atoms develop a dipole moment
and acts as an electric dipole. Hence the resultant field at any given
atom will be the sum of applied electric field and the electric field
due to the surrounding dipoles. The resultant local field is called the
internal field (Ei)and is defined as the electric field that acts at a site
of any given atom of a solid or liquid dielectric subjected to an
external electric field and is the resultant of the applied field (E) and
the field due to all the surrounding dipoles (E') .
Ei=E+E'
Figure 13: Linear array of atoms in an electric field
The total field at „X‟ which is the internal field Ei, is the sum of the
applied field (E) and the field due to all the dipoles (E')
1.2
Ei=E+E' =E+
 0 d 3
Thus, the combined effect of induced dipoles of neighbouring atoms
is to produce a net field at the location of a given atom, which is
larger than the applied field.
ClausiusMosotti Equation
Let us consider a solid dielectric, which exhibits electronic
polarizability. If αe is the electronic polarizability per atom, it is
related to the bulk polarization P through the relation
P=αeNEi
P
Therefore αe= ….(1)
NEi
where N is the number of atoms per m3 and Ei is the local field.
P
From Lorentz field equation Ei=E+ ….(2)
3 0
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) we get
P
αe =
P
N[E  ]
3 0
P
We have E=
 0 ( r  1)
Substituting for E in the above equation, we obtain
αe = P
P P
N[  ]
 0 ( r  1) 3 0
N e 1 1
 =
0 1 1  2
[  ] [ r ]
 r 1 3 3( r  1)
3( r  1) N e

( r  2) 0
( r  1) N e

( r  2) 3 0
The above equation is known as Clausius Mosotti equation.
SOLVED NUMERICALS:
1. What is the probability of a level lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi
level not being occupied by electrons at T = 300K?
Solution:
Probability of electrons not being occupied = 1-f(E)
= 1- (e(E-EF)/kBT+ 1)-1
= 1 - (e 0.01/0.026 + 1)-1
= 1-[1/(1.47 + 1) ] = 0.405
2. Find the temperature at which there is 1% occupancy probability

of a state 0.5 eV above Fermi energy.
Solution:
f(E) = 0.01 = 1/[e (E-EF)/kBT + 1] for E-EF= 0.5 eV
Solving we get 0.01 = 1/[e5797/T + 1].

Thus e5797/T = 1/0.01 - 1 = 99.
Taking log we get, T = 5797/4.595 = 1261.1 K
3. The effective mass of holes in a material is 4 times that of

electrons. At what temperature would the Fermi energy be shifted
by 10% from the middle of the forbidden energy gap? Given band
gap = 1 eV.
Solution:EF = (EC + EV)/2 + (3kT/4) log(mh/me)
Fermi level is shifted by 10% = 0.1 eV.
Originally Fermi energy was 0.5 eV above EV .
Now it is 0.5+0.1 = 0.6 eV above EF.
(EV+ 0.6) eV = (EC+EV)/2 + (3kT/4)log(4) ----(1)
And (EV+ 0.5) eV = (EC+EV)/2 -----------(2)
Subtracting 2 from 1 we get 0.1 eV = (3kT/4)log(4)
0.1602x10-19J = (3x1.38x10-23xT/4)0.6021.
T = 1116K
4. For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width Eg=0.7eV.
Calculate the concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300K
assuming that me*=mo (rest mass of electron).
 2mkT 
3/ 2
ni  2  e  Eg / 2 kT ni=33.49x1018 /m3
 h 
2
5. The Fermi level in silver is 5.5eV at 0K. Calculate the number of

free electrons per unit volume and the probability occupation for
electrons with energy 5.6eV in silver at the same temperature.
Solution:
 h 2  3 
2/3
E F0     n2/3 n  5.84 x1028 m 3 .

 8m    
6. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level

0.02eV above the Fermi level at 200K and 400K in a material.
1
f (E) 
E  EF
1 e
kT
1
f (E)  0.02 x1.6 x1019
=0.24
1  e 1.38x10 x 200
 23
f(E) =0.36 at 400K.

7. A semiconducting material 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm
thick has a magnetic flux density of 0.5 Wb/m2 applied
perpendicular to the largest faces. A current of 20 mA flows
through the length of the sample, and the corresponding voltage
measured across its width is 37µV. Find the Hall coefficient of
the semiconductor.
Solution:
Hall coefficient RH = Ey/JxBz= -1/ne.
Since Ey = Vy/w, RH = Vy/wJxBz
Thus RH = (37x10-6x10-3)/(20x10-3x0.5) = 3.7x10-6 m3C-1
8. Calculate the dielectric constant of NaCl, if a NaCl crystal is

subjected to an electric field of 1000 V/m and the resulting
polarization is 4.3x10-8 C/m2.
P   0 ( r  1) E
P 4.3x10 8
( r  1)    0.0049
 0 E 8.856 x10 19 x103
 r  1.0049
9. The dielectric constant of Helium at 0°C is 1.000074. The density

of atoms is 2.7x1025/m3. Calculate the dipole moment induced in
each atom when the gas is placed in an electric field of 3x104 V/m.
Dipole moment induced in each atom is  e E where the electronic

 0 ( r  1) 8.854 x10 12 x0.000074
polarizability  e   25
 2.4255 x10 41
N 2.7 x10
41
Dipole moment= 2.4255x10 x3x10  7.2767 x10 37 Cm
4
10. An elemental solid dielectric material has a polarizability 7x10-40

Fm2.Assuming the internal field to be Lorentz field, calculate the
dielectric constant for the material if the material has 3x1026
atoms/m3.
( r  1) N e 3x10 28 x7 x10 40
   0.7906
( r  2) 3 0 3x8.854 x10 12
( r  1)  ( r  2) x0.7906
2.5812
r   12.33
0.2094
S. No Sample Questions
1. An electron is accelerated by an electric field of 4V/cm, is
found to have mobility 8x 10-3 m2 / Vs. What is its drift
velocity?
2. How many valence electrons will a donor impurity has in a n-
type semiconductor?
3. What is a hole in context of semiconductors?
4. In Hall effect experiment what is the polarity of Hall voltage
for a n-type semiconductor?
5. What will be the Fermi velocity of an electron in copper if
Fermi energy (EF )= 6 eV ?
6. At 300K, if probability for occupancy of an energy state E by
an electron is 0.75, calculate probability for occupancy of the
same state by a hole?
7. Write any two assumptions of Drude-Lorentz theory?
8. Sketch the graph of Fermi factor f(E) verses E for the case
E=EF at at T> 0K in metals.

9. Define density of states in metals.
10. Write an expression for density of states in metals.
11. Sketch the variation of fermi level with temperature for n type
semiconductor.
12. What are Fermions?
13. Outline the phenomenon of Hall effect in materials.
14. For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12eV, determine
the position of the Fermi level at 300K if me*=0.12mo and
mh*=0.28mo.
15. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
16. Find the probability that energy level at 0.2 eV below Fermi
level being occupied at temperature 1000K?
17. What is the value of Fermi function when E=Efat T>0K?
18. What is the effect of increase of impurity concentration on
band gap in extrinsic semiconductors?
19. Mention any two demerits of classical free electron theory.
20. Find the probability of a level lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi
level being occupied by electrons at T = 0K?
21. What is the magnitude of Lorentz force in Hall effect
experiment?
22. With neat sketch, show the Fermi level position in p-type
semiconductor.
23. Give the expression for Ohm‟s law in terms of J,σ and E.
24. What is Fermi factor in Fermi Dirac distribution?
25. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal if
its resistivity is 2.5x10-8Ωm and it has 5x1028 conduction
electrons/m3
26. Sketch the position of Fermi level at 0K in a band diagram of
a n-type semiconductor, at low doping
27. Find the Fermi velocity of conduction electron if the Fermi
energy of silver is 8eV.

28. Determine the probability of occupancy of an energy level
situated 0.05eV above the Fermi energy at temperature of 0K
29. Write an expression for carrier concentration of p-type
semiconductor.
30. Write any two postulates of classical free electron theory of
solids.
31. Give the relation between electrical conductivity and mobility
of charge carriers in a conductor.
32. If a system is composed of indistinguishable, half integral spin
particles and obeys Pauli exclusion principle, then what
statistics is obeyed by the system?
33. What is the value of the Fermi factor for metals at room
temperature?
34. Plot variation of Fermi factor with temperature in a metal.
35. Distinguish between free electron theory and band theory of
solids in terms of influence of lattice on the electron moving
in a metal.
36. Give expression for Fermi level at 0 k in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
37. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a
state with energy 0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied?
38. What is Hall Effect?
39. Sketch the variation in the energy of the Fermi level in a „n‟
type semi-conductor as a function of temperature?
40. Describe in words Wiedemenn-Franz Law
41. What is the formula for intrinsic carrier density (ni)?
42. A wire of diameter 0.2 meter contains 1028 free electrons per
cubic meter. For an electric current of 10A, calculate the drift
velocity for free electrons in the wire?
43. The fermi level in an intrinsic semi-conductor is at .25 eV.
What is the width of the band gap?

44. Electrical conductivity of Cu is 5.78×107Ω-1m-1. If the free
electron density of Cu is 8.46×1028m-3. Find the mobility of
electrons?
45. The fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor is at 5 eV. At
0K, calculate the probability of occupation of electrons at E=
5.5eV?
46. A sample of silicon is doped with 107 phosphorous
atoms/cm3. Find the Hall voltage, if the sample is 100µm
thick, Ix=1 mA and Bz= 10-5Wb/m2?
47. Write any one drawback of classical free electron theory?
48. Write the relation for specific heat of a metal as per quantum
free electron theory
49. Write the condition at which the value of f(E) = 1 at 0 K.
50. Mention any two assumptions of quantum free electron
theory.
51. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of
resistivity 1.54×10-8Ωm. If the metal has 5.8×1028 conduction
electrons per m3.
52. Find the probability with which an energy level 0.02 eV
below Fermi level will be occupied at room temperature of
300K.
53. A copper strip of 2.0 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick is placed in a
magnetic field of 15000 gauss. If a current of 200 A is setup
in the strip with the Hall voltage appears across the strip is
found to be 0.18 V. calculate the Hall coefficient.
54. Which statistical rule is obeyed by electrons in quantum free
electron theory?
55. Where does the Fermi level lie in case of n type
semiconductor with high impurity concentration?
56. Electron concentration in a semiconductor is 1020m3.
Calculate Hall coefficient?

57. What is doping in semiconductors?
58. Evaluate the probability of occupation of an energy level 0.4
eV below the Fermi energy level in metal at zero Kelvin.
59. Copper has electrical conductivity of 9x107Ω-1m-1 and
thermal conductivity of 300 Wm-1K-1 at 305K. Find the
Lorentz‟s number on the basis of classical free electron
theory?
60. If the probability of absence of electron in an energy level of
valance band of semiconductor is 0.65 what is the probability
of occupation in the same level by a hole?
61. In the band diagram of a p-type semiconductor show the
position of the Fermi level when the doping concentration is
low?
62. Graphically show the variation of ln(ne) with increasing
temperature in Kelvin where ne is the electron concentration in
an intrinsic semiconductor.
63. A wire of 4 mm radius carries a current of 8A. Find the
current density?
64. Write the postulates of classical free electron theory and
explain the failures of classical free electron theory.
65. Write the success of Quantum free electron theory.
66. Explain the variation of Fermi factor in metals with
temperature.
67. Explain Fermi Dirac distribution function. Show that at
temperatures above 0K probability of occupancy of Fermi
level in metals is 50%.
68. Derive an expression for the electron concentration in metals
at 0K.
69. Derive an expression for the electron concentration in intrinsic
semiconductor.
70. Show that Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor lies in the

middle of the band gap.
71. With a neat sketch explain the variation of Fermi level in an
n-type semiconductor with the increase in temperature.
72. What is Hall Effect? Arrive at an expressions for Hall voltage
in an n-type semiconductor.
73. Explain the change of band gap with variation in the doping
concentration of an n type semiconductor.
74. Explain the variation the carrier concentration with increase in
temperature in an n type semiconductor.
75. Define polarization? Explain the four types of polarization.
76. Arrive at ClausiusMosotti Equation.
77. Define dielectric polarizability and dielectric susceptibility.
Appendix
Expression for hole concentration in valence band
If f (E) is the probability for occupancy of an energy state at
E by an electron, then probability that energy state is vacant is given
by [1- f(E)]. Since hole represents the unoccupied state in valence
band, the probability for occupancy of state at E by a hole is equal to
probability of absence of electron at that level. The hole
concentration in valence band is therefore given by
Ev
p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE
bottomband
v
(7)
Ev
E
Valence band
1-f(E ) rapidly approaches to zero for lower energy levels, the above
equation rewritten as
Ev
p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE

v
4
Ev
 1  f E  3 2mh 2 Ev  E 2 dE
3 1
p *

h
E  EF
kT
Now 1  f E   1 
1 e
 (8)
 E  EF   E  EF 
1  e  1  e 
 kT   kT 
E  EF
For E<EF (E-Ev) is negative. Therefore e 0
kT
 E  EF 
Therefore 1  e  1
 kT 
 ( EF  E )
and equation 8 reduces to 1- f(E)= e kT
 EF  E 
4
 
E 3 1

p h 
* 2 2 kT
3
2 m h ( E v E ) e dE

1
 E F  Ev  Ev  E E 
4
3
  v 
 2
p  3 (2mh* ) 2 e   E  E e
kT   kT 
v dE
h 
Let Ev-E=x then -dE = dx or dE = -dX

LowerLt UpperLt
x  E v  ( ) E  E v
x  Ev   x  Ev  Ev  0
x x0
1
 E E   E E 
4  F v  0
3  v 
 E v  E 
2
p * 2
( 2m ) e
h
 kT 
e  kT 
( dE )
h3 
1
 E E   E E 
4
3  F v    v 
 E v  E 
2
p * 2
( 2m ) e
h
 kT 
e  kT 
dE
h3 0
 1

 x 2 e dx 
 ax
Above equation is of the standard form where
0 2a a
1
Ev-E= x and a=
kT
 E F  Ev 
4 
3  3

p  3 (2mh* ) 2 e  kT 
(kT ) 2
h 2
3
 2mh * kT  2  ( EFkT Ev )
p  2 2  e
 h 
3/ 2
 2 mh*kT 
Let N v  2  2 
 h 
where Nv is temperature-dependent material constant known as
effective density of states in the valence band.
 ( E F  Ev )
p  Nve kT
Expression for the band gap of a Semiconductor:

The band gap is the energy separation between the conduction
band and the valence band of a semiconducting material.
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
  ni ee  ni eh
  ni e( e  h )
Substituting the value of ni, we get
3 3
 2kTm 2  m m  4
* *
 E 
  2 2  x  e 2 h  exp  g e(  e   h )
 h   m   2kT 
  Eg 
The above equation can be written as   A exp  
 2kT 
3 3
 2kTm  me mh  4
* *
2
Where A  2  x  e(  e   h )
 h   m 
2 2
1 E  RA
As   :   B exp  g  We know that   then
  2kT  l
l  Eg 
RB exp  
A  2kT 
 Eg  Bl
R  C exp   Where C 
 2kT  A
Eg
Taking log on both sides ln R  ln C 
2kT
Eg
Therefore  (ln R  ln C )
2kT
The band gap is given by E g  2kT (ln R  ln C )
Eg
ln R  ln C  is of the form y  mx  c : By taking ln R in the y-
2kT
1
axis and in the x-axis, if a graph is plotted, a straight line is
T
obtained as shown in below figure.
ln R
Slope
N M
Eg
m
2kT
Therefore
E g  (m)kT
ln C
1/T
By finding the slope of the straight line, the band gap of the
semiconductor is determined using the relation, Eg = 2k x slope of
the straight line drawn between ln R and 1/T.
Lorentz field
Figure 16
The local field in a three dimensional solid is determined by the

structure of the solid.
Let us consider a dielectric slab kept in a uniform electric field, E

(Figure 15 ). Let a molecule be at the point O and is surrounded by a
spherical cavity of radius r. Let r be arbitrary but sufficiently large
compared to molecular dimensions and sufficiently small compared
to the dimensions of the dielectric slab. The spherical cavity contains
many molecules within it. The molecule at O experiences three
electric fields acting on it.
i) The external electric field E.
ii) The field E1 due to induced charges on the surface of the spherical
cavity.
iii) The field E2 due to the molecular dipoles present in the spherical
cavity.
Therefore, the total internal field intensity, Ei is given by
Ei=E+ E1+E2
To calculate E1, let us imagine that the dielectric is removed from the
sphere. For the actual pattern of the electric field not to be distorted,
a surface electric charge should be placed on the spherical surface.
At each point of the sphere, the surface charge density is given by
σ=P cos θ
where θ is the angle between radius vector r and the direction E. The
charge on the element dS of the surface of the sphere will be
dq=σdS =P cos θ dS
This charge will produce electric field intensity dE1 at the centre of
the sphere
dq P
dE1= = cosθdS
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
This electric field can be resolved into two components: one
component dE1 cos θ parallel to the direction of E and the other
dE1sinθ perpendicular to the direction of E.
P
dE1cosθ= cos2 θ dS
4 0 r 2
P
dE1cosθ= cosθsinθdS
4 0 r 2
It is obvious that the perpendicular components of the upper and
lower half of the sphere cancel each other and only the parallel
components contribute to the total intensity E1. E1 is obtained by
integrating dE1 over the whole surface area of the sphere. Thus,
 
E1=  dE1 cos  dS   cos  dS
P 2
0
4 0 r 2 0
But dS=2πr2sinθdθ. Therefore,



P
E1 = cos 2 sin  d
2 0
0
Let cosθ= x and therefore, -sinθ dθ =dx.

when θ=0, cos θ=1 and θ=π, cos π=-1
1 1
 x3  P   1 1   P   2  2P

P P P
E1= - x dx  
2
         
2 0 2 0  3 1 2 0  3 3  2 0  3  6 0 3 0
1
As there exists symmetrical distribution of molecular dipoles around

the molecules at O within the cavity, their contribution cancel each
other.
Therefore E2=0.
Hence the total internal field is given by Ei=E+ E1
P
Ei=E+
3 0
The field given by the above equation is called Lorentz field or
local field.

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UNIT- III: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF

METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Assumptions of Classical Free Electron Theory:

If „E‟ is the electric field applied to the metal, „  ’ is mean collision

Current density (J):

Electric Field (E):

Mean Free Path (  ):

Mean Collision Time (  ):

Relation between v,  and  :

Expression for electric current in a conductor: (I)

Expression for Conductivity:

We know that drift velocity (vd) is given by

Substituting for vd in the above equation

) where „L‟ is the length of the conductor

Rearranging the terms of the above equation

Failures of classical free electron theory:

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:

3. Distribution of electrons in energy states obey Fermi-Dirac

Fermi level and Fermi energy:

Fermi-Dirac statistics is applicable to fermions. Fermions are

Where k is the Boltzmann‟s constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin,

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature:

Case 1: the probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K

Case 2: the probability of occupation for E>EF at T = 0K.

Case 3: probability of occupation at temperature > 0K

1. At ordinary temperatures, though the value of probability is 1

3. For values just beyond EF, f(E)>0

It implies that the probability of occupancy of Fermi level at any

Hence Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which the

Density of states g (E):

The number of states lying in the range of energies between E and

Carrier concentration in metals and Fermi energy at 0K

But, f (E) =1, at T= 0K

Success of Quantum Free Electron theory

Hall effect helps to i) determine the sign of charge carrier in

To explain Hall Effect in metals (conductor), consider a rectangular

where n- concentration of electrons

Any plane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential

Fig. Hall effect in conductors

Fig. Direction of magnetic force and Hall field in a conductor

In the absence of magnetic field B, the charge carriers move in a

Substituting for vd from equation (2) in equation (5)

Hall voltage VH= (7)

Reciprocal of Carrier charge density is called Hall co-efficient RH

The charge carrier concentration is given by

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS:

split into a number of levels corresponding to the number of atoms.

The range of energies possessed by electrons in a solid is known as

The energy band formed by the energy levels of the valence

The forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence

which exhibits higher conductivity is called an extrinsic

Concept of Effective Mass of the Electron and Holes:

Consider an isolated electron of mass m and charge –e in an electric

electron gets accelerated, then -eE = ma. However, an electron

Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

Using this eqn in eqn. (3) we get

Add and subtract Ec to the exponential term in the above equation.

Let E-Ec = x then dx = dE

The integral is similar to standard integral.

Rearranging the term we get