Solid State Physics (Unit VI)

A Brief Overview of the Unit

 Free electron theory (Introduction), diffusion and drift current

(qualitative), fermi energy, fermi-dirac distribution function,
band theory of solids.

 Formation of allowed and forbidden energy bands, concept of

effective mass-electrons and holes, Hall effect (with
derivation), semiconductors and insulators, fermi level for
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, direct and indirect band
gap semiconductors
THE FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF SOLIDS
INTRODUCTION

 The electron theory of solids aims to

explain the structures and properties
of solids through their electronic
structure.

 The electron theory of solids has been

developed in three main stages.
(a) The classical free electron theory:
Drude and Lorentz developed this theory in 1900.
According to this theory, the metals containing free
electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.

(b) The Quantum free electron theory:

Sommerfeld developed this theory during 1928. According
to this theory, the free electrons obey quantum laws.

(c) The Zone Theory:

Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the
free electrons move in a periodic field provided by the
lattice. This theory is also called “Band theory of solids”.
 (a) The classical Free Electron Theory of Metals
(Drude - Lorentz Theory of Metals )
Postulates :
(i) Electrons move around nucleus or positive ions
randomly like gas molecules in a gas cloud. These
electrons obey classical kinetic theory of gasses
and they move randomly.
(ii) They may collide with each other elastically
(energy conserved).
(iii) The electron velocities in a metal obey the
classical Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution of
velocities.
(iv) They only have kinetic energy and no potential
energy.
(v) When an electric field is applied to the metal, the
free electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to the direction of applied electric field.
 Success of Classical Free Electron Theory

(i) It verifies Ohm’s law.

(ii) It explains the electrical and thermal

conductivities of metals.

(iii) It derives Wiedemann – Franz law. (i.e., the

relation between electrical conductivity and
thermal conductivity)

(iv) It explains optical properties of metals.

 Wiedemann-Franz law
ne 2 nkT
2 2

 K B

me 3
m e

The ratio of the electrical and thermal conductivities is

independent of the electron gas parameters;
Lorentz 
K2
k
2


 
 B
2
.
45 8
xW
1
0 2
K
number T3
e

K  

 
8 2 For copper at 0 C
L 2
.2
3xW
1
0 K
T
 Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory

I. The phenomena such a photoelectric effect,

Compton effect and the black body radiation
couldn’t be explained by classical free electron
theory.
II. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or
insulators couldn’t be explained using this model.
III. Though K/σT is a constant (Wiedemann – Franz
Law) according to the Classical free electron
theory, it is not a constant at low temperature.
IV. Ferromagnetism couldn’t be explained by this
theory. The theoretical value of paramagnetic
susceptibility is greater than the experimental
value.
 Mean Free Path

The average distance traveled by an electron

between two successive collisions inside a
metal in the presence of applied field is
known as mean free path.
NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x
1023 /mol

P=Pressure
d= Diameter of the gas molecules.
R= Universl gas constant=8.3145
J/mol K
T= Temperature in absolute scale
 Relaxation Time

The time taken by the electron to

reach equilibrium position from its
disturbed position in the presence
of an electric field is called
relaxation time.
 Drift Velocity
• In the presence of electric field, in addition to
random velocity there is an additional net velocity
associated with electrons known as drift velocity.
• Due to drift velocity, the electrons with negative
charge move opposite to the field direction.

Educational Video 1

Educational Video 2
 Quantum free electron Theory

• According to quantum theory of

free electrons energy of a free
electron is given by
En = n2h2/8mL2

• According to quantum theory of

free electrons the electrical
conductivity is given by
σ = ne2T/m
 Electrical Resistivity

• The main factors affecting the electrical

conductivity of solids are i) temperature and ii)
defects (i.e. impurities).

• According to Matthiessen’s rule, the resistivity of a

solid is given by
ρpure= ρpure+ ρimpurity

where ρpure is temperature dependent resistivity due

to thermal vibrations of the lattice and ρimpurity is
resistivity due to scattering of electrons by impurity
atoms.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Based on ‘band theory’ (will be

discussed later), solids can be
classified into three categories,
namely,
1. Insulators,
2. Semiconductors &
3. Conductors.
 INSULATORS

• Bad conductors of electricity

• Conduction band is empty and
valence band is full, and these band
are separated by a large forbidden
energy gap.
• The best example is Diamond with
Eg=7eV.
 SEMI-CONDUCTORS

• Forbidden gap is less

• Conduction band and valence band are
partially filled at room temperature.
• Conductivity increases with temperature as
more and more electrons cross over the small
energy gap.
• Examples Si(1.2eV) & Ge(0.7eV)
 CONDUCTORS

• Conduction and valence bands are

overlapped
• Abundant free electrons already exist in the
conduction band at room temperature hence
conductivity is high.
• The resistively increases with temperature as
the mobility of already existing electrons will
be reduced due to collisions.
• Metals are best examples.
 EFFECTIVE MASS

Education
al Video
 Drift and Diffusion Currents
● Current
Generated by the movement of charged particles
(negatively charged electrons and positively charged
holes).

● Carriers
The charged electrons and holes are referred to as carriers

● The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes

move in a semiconductor:

 Drift - the movement caused by electric field.

 Diffusion - the flow caused by variations in the
concentration.
 Drift Currents
● Drift Current Density (n-type semiconductor)
 An electric field E applied to n-type semiconductor with a large
number of free electrons.
•Produces a force on the electrons in the opposite direction, because
of the electrons’ negative charge.
•The electrons acquire a drift velocity, Vdn (in cm/s):

N-type
E

Vdn e
I
 Drift Currents
● Drift Current Density (p-type semiconductor)
 An electric field E applied to p-type semiconductor
with a large number of holes.
• Produces a force on the holes in the same
direction, because of the positive charge on the
holes.
• The holes acquire a drift velocity, Vdp(in cm/s):

P-type

p Vdp
I
 Diffusion Current

●The basic diffusion process

●Flow of particles from a region of
high-concentration to a region of
low-concentration.
●The movement of the particles will
then generate the diffusion current
 Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Fermi-
level
Density of states tells The number of states available to
be occupied inside an interval [ E , E + d E]. The Fermi function
f(E) specifies how many of the existing states at the energy E
could be filled with electrons.

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 1023 J/K = 8.6  105 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K
 Fermi Level
• The highest energy level that can be occupied at 0K
is called Fermi level.

• At 0K, when the metal is not under the influence of

an external field, all the levels above the Fermi level
are empty, those lying below Fermi level are
completely filled.

• Fermi energy is the energy state at which the

probability of electron occupation is ½ at any
temperature above 0k.
Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T  0 K

1
For E > EF : f ( E  EF )   0
1  exp ()

1
For E < EF : f ( E  EF )   1
1  exp ()

EF

0 1 f(E)
Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T > 0 K
Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac
distribution
Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac
distribution
 Electronic structure of Solids

Overlapping levels
Outer levels begin to interact
gas

Electron energy
Band Formation in Solid

Probability density function for the lowest

electron energy state of the single, non
interacting hydrogen atom.

Overlapping Probability density of two

adjacent hydrogen atoms. The wave
functions of two atom electrons overlap
and that means the two electrons will
interact.
Band Formation in Solid
This interaction or perturbation results in the
discrete quantized energy level splitting into two
discrete energy levels. The splitting is consistent
with Pauli exclusion principle. When we push several
atoms together to make close to each other, the
initial quantized energy level will split into a band of
discrete energy levels.

However, since no two electrons can have the same

quantum number, the discrete energy must split into
a band of energies in order that each electron can
occupy a distinct quantum state. When a large
number of atoms get close to make a crystal,
difference between energy states are very small.
Allowed And Forbidden Energy Bands

When two atoms with n=3 energy

level are brought close together,
first the outermost level (n=3) is
split and then the second level
and finally the first level (n=1).
This energy-band splitting and
the formation of allowed and
forbidden bands is the energy-
band theory of single crystal
materials.
 Concept of Hole
In solid-state physics, an electron hole (usually referred to simply as a hole) is the
absence of an electron from a full valence band. Since in a normal atom or crystal
lattice the negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of
the atomic nuclei, the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge at the
hole's location. Holes in a metal or semiconductor crystal lattice can move
through the lattice as electrons can, and act similarly to positively-charged
particles. They play an important role in the operation of semiconductor devices
such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. However they are not actually
particles, but rather quasiparticles or virtual particle.
The Fermi level EF for an
intrinsic semiconductor
lies midway in the
forbidden gap.
 Fermi level
The number of free electrons per unit volume in an intrinsic
semiconductor is
3/ 2
 2 me kT
*
 EF Ec 
n  2  
 exp  
 kT 
2
 h 
The number of holes per unit volume in an intrinsic
semiconductor is

3
 2mh k T 2  EV  E F 
p= 2  . exp 
 h   
2
KT

Since n = p in intrinsic semiconductors.

 If we assume that, m*  m*
e h

 E  Ec 
EF   v  [ since loge1 = 0]
 2 

Thus, the Fermi level is located half way between the

valence and conduction band and its position is independent
of temperature. Since mh* is greater than me*, EF is just
above the middle, and rises slightly with increase in
temperature
 Forward Biased of a PN Junction

Initial stage: Electrons and Final Stage: Disappearance of

holes are rushing towards depletion region.
each other and recombining
at the depletion region.
Reversed Biased PN Junction

Depletion Layer increases

 Direct and Indirect Bandgap

Direct Band-gap
Indirect Band-gap
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Those materials for which maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction band
lie for same value of k, called direct bandgap materials (i.e. satisfies the condition of
energy and momentum conservation). For example: GaAs, InP, CdS..etc

Those materials for which maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction
band do not occur at same value of k, called indirect bandgap materials. For
example: Si and Ge
 Direct Band Gap Absorption
A Direct Vertical Transition
E

Conservation of Energy
h = EC(min) - Ev (max) = Egap

K (wave number)
h
The Photon Conservation of
Momentum Momentum
is Negligible Kvmax + qphoton = kc
 Indirect Band Gap Absorption

K (wave number) h
 Hall Effect
In a magnetic Field B, the electron experiences a force
perpendicular to its velocity. A current j, causes a build up
of charge at the edges which generates an Electric field E
which balances the Lorentz force
Initially, v  vx x̂  vy ŷ  vz ẑ
E  Ex x̂
B  Bz ẑ
Electrons flowing without a magnetic field

semiconductor slice
t

+ _

d
I I
 When the magnetic field is turned on ..

I qBv

B-field
 As time goes by...

high
potential

qE

low
qBv = qE potential
 Finally...

VH
I

B-field
A quick review: The Lorentz Force

F = q[E + (v  B)]
 A quick review: The Lorentz Force
The Velocity Filter:
E
Undeflected trajectories in crossed E & B fields: v = B

Cyclotron motion: FB = mar  qvB = (mv2/r)

•Orbit radius:
mv p
r  momentum (p) filter
qB qB
As a result, electrons
move in the y
direction and an electric
field component
appears in the y
direction, Ey. This will
continue until the
Lorentz force is equal
and opposite to the
electric force due to the
buildup of electrons –
that is, a steady
condition arises.
 net force in
x direction  d 1
Fx  m  vx  e( Ex  vy B)
 dt  
net force in  d 1
y direction Fy  m  vy  e(vx B)
 dt  
• Lorentz force likes to deflect jx
• However, E-field is set up which balances Lorentz force

• Balance occurs when Ey = vxBz = Vy/ly

• But jx = nevx (or ix = nevxAx)
where RH = 1/ne
Rxy = Vy / ix = RH Bz × (ly /Ax),

Where ly is transverse width of sample and Ax is the transverse cross sectional area
of the sample, i.e. depends on shape of sample