Wireless Network

Wireless NETWORKS
by
Ananth Ravindran
Assistant Professor
UNIT I
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MULTIPLE RADIO ACCESS

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Oriented Networks Random Access for Data Oriented Networks , Handoff and Roaming Support, Security and Privacy
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Medium Access Alternatives: Fixed-Assignment for Voice
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ALTERNATIVES
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WIRELESS MEDIUM ACCESS
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WIRELESS MEDIUM ACCESS
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Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
b. CSMA-Based Wireless Random Access Techniques
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a. ALOHA-Based Wireless Random Access Techniques
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2. Random Access for Data-Oriented Networks
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b. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
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a. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
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1. Fixed-Assignment Access for Voice-Oriented Networks
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Fixed-Assignment Multiple Access Techniques

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Multiple access techniques enable multiple signals to
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occupy a single communications channel.
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communication is limited.
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The available spectrum bandwidth for our wireless
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Major Types
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Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
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Code division multiple access (CDMA)
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Time division multiple access (TDMA)
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Frequency Division Multiple Access
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Frequency Division Multiple Access

(i.e ) accommodates one user at a time.
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compared to TDMA systems
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The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when
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Each user is separated by Guard Bands.
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It assigns individual frequency to individual users.
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A guardband is a narrow frequency band between adjacent frequency channels to avoid interference from the adjacent channels
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BT ->
total spectrum allocation, BGUARD -> the guard band BC -> the channel bandwidth
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The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given by
Key Features
Intersymbol interference is low It needs only a few synchronization bits
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kHz)
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The bandwidths of FDMA channels are narrow (30
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cannot be used by other users
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If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and
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De Merits
It need to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.
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FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

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The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base stations.
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FDMA systems are costlier because of the single channel per carrier design,
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Time Division Multiple Access

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Time division multiple access

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TDMA vs FDMA
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TDMA
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FDMA
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message, and tail bits
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method
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Each frame is made up of a preamble, an information
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A set of N slots form a Frame.
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Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot
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spectrum into time slots
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Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio
TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several overlapping time slots
Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels
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reception
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TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and
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users, where each user makes use of non-
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over" into an adjacent radio service.
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users at the edge of the band do not "bleed
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Guard Bands are necessary to ensure that
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TDMA systems because of burst transmissions
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High synchronization overhead is required in
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Frame Structure
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The preamble contains the address and base station and the subscribers use to Trial bits specify the start of a data. about the data transfer. Guard Bits are used for data isolation.
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Synchronization bits will intimate the receiver
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identify each other.
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synchronization information that both the
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Efficiency of TDMA
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The efficiency of a TDMA system is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that overhead for the access scheme contains information as opposed to providing
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where b0H no over head bits per frame br - no of overhead bits per bp - no overhead bits per preamble in each slot bg - no equivalent bits in each guard time interval Nr - reference bursts per frame, Nt- traffic bursts per frame
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Tf is the frame duration, and R is the channel bit rate
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Then the frame efficiency is
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bT = T f R
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The total number of bits per frame, bT, is
m - maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio
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channel
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And the no of frames
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multiple access (CDMA).
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Direct sequence multiple access is also called code division
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Direct Sequence Multiple Access (DSMA)
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Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
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Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA)
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access

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The carrier frequencies of the individual users wideband channel
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carrier frequencies
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bursts which are transmitted on different
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The digital data is broken into uniform sized
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are varied in a pseudorandom fashion within a
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the symbol rate
changes at a rate less than or equal to the symbol rate
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Slow Frequency Hopping -> the channel
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change of the carrier frequency is greater than
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Fast Frequency Hopping System -> the rate of
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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

The narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal (pseudo-noise code)
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Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword.
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The chip rate of the pseudo-noise code is much more than message signal.
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Message
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PN sequence
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CDMA uses CO-Channel Cells transmit simultaneously without any knowledge of
All other code words appear as noise
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to detect only the specific desired codeword.
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The receiver performs a time correlation operation
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others.
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All the users use the same carrier frequency and may
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Multipath fading may be substantially reduced Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems
version of the signal at any time without switching frequencies.
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more base stations. The MSC may chose the best
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simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or
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CDMA
supports
Soft
handoff
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because the signal is spread over a large spectrum MSC can
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In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the
Near- Far problem.
To combat the Near- Far problem, power control is
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used in most CDMA

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that weaker signals will be received. This is called
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weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability
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noise floor at the base station demodulators for the
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determines the noise floor.
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Random Access for DataOriented Networks

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Random Access for Data-Oriented Networks

In all wireless networks such as cellular telephony or PCS services all voice-oriented operations use fixed-assignment channel access. And data related traffic is carried out using Random Access Techniques. Random access methods provide a more flexible and efficient way of managing channel access for communicating short bursty messages. It provides each user station with varying degrees of freedom in gaining access to the network whenever information is to be sent.
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ALOHA-Based Wireless Random Access Techniques
ALOHA protocol
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random access protocol which has since been known as the
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university's main computer center on Oahu, by use of a
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computers on several of the island campuses with the
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The initial system used ground-based UHF radios to connect
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word ALOHA means "hello" in Hawaiian.
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ALOHA Protocol is developed by University of Hawaii. The
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The original ALOHA protocol is also called pure ALOHA.
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Basic Concept
arrives from the upper layers of the protocol stack.
The BS checks the parity of the received packet. If the parity checks properly, the BS sends a short acknowledgment packet to the MS.
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either the same channel or a separate feedback channel.
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After a transmission, the user waits for an acknowledgment on
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Each packet is encoded with an error-detection code.
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transmitted.
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A user accesses a channel as soon as a message is ready to be
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A mobile terminal transmits an information packet when the packet
Collision
a possibility of collisions between packets.
After sending a packet the user waits a length of time more than the round-trip delay for an acknowledgment from the receiver.
collision, and it is transmitted again with a randomly selected delay to avoid repeated collisions.
probability of collision increases

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As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs because the
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If no acknowledgment is received, the packet is assumed lost in a
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The message packets are transmitted at arbitrary times, so there is
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Pure ALOHA
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Merits :
between mobile terminals
Its has low throughput under heavy load conditions. The maximum throughput of the pure ALOHA is 18 percent.
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De-Merits:
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simple, and it does not impose any synchronization
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The advantage of ALOHA protocol is that it is very
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Slotted ALOHA
The subscribers have synchronized clocks and each user will be synchronized with the BS clock. The user message packet is buffered and transmitted only at the beginning of a new time slot. This prevents partial collisions.
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length greater than the packet duration t.
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In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of
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The maximum throughput of a slotted ALOHA is 36 percent.
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New transmissions are started only at the beginning of new slot
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Application;
voice communication is carried out by slotted ALOHA.
Even though the throughput is higher than pure ALOHA it is still low for communication needs.
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De-Merit;
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present day wireless
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In GSM the initial contact between BS and MS for
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Reservation ALOHA
Reservation ALOHA is the combination of slotted ALOHA and time division multiplexing.
packets.
For high traffic conditions, reservations on request offers
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better throughput.
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possible for users to reserve slots for the transmission of
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In this certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it is
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Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
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It is used for short-range voice transmission where a small delay is acceptable.
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PRMA merges characteristics of slotted ALOHA and TDMA protocols.
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This allows each time slot to carry either voice or data, where voice is given priority.
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PRMA is a method for transmitting a variable mixture of voice packets and data packets.
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Speech packets are always periodic. Data packets can be random.

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Terminals can send two types of information, referred to as periodic and random.
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Other terminals not holding a reservation can use an available slot.
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Only the user terminal that reserved the slot can use a reserved slot.
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Each slot as named as either "reserved" or "available
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The transmission format in PRMA is organized into frames, each containing a fixed number of time slots.
Reservation ;
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The reservation status is reverted when the terminal sends nothing in that frame
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This frame is reserved till the terminal completes its transmission.
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After completion of transmission the base station grants the sending terminal a reservation for exclusive use of the same time slot in the next frame.
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A terminal having periodic information to send starts transmitting in contention for the next available time slot.
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Techniques
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CSMA-Based Wireless Random Access
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De-Merits of ALOHA
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3. There are no mechanisms to avoid collisions.
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retransmission process.
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2. Efficiency
is
reduced
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soon as the message is ready. by
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transmission, the users will start transmitting as
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the
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1. ALOHA protocols do not listen to the channel before
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collision
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CSMA- Carrier Sense Multiple Access

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transmitting information.
If there is another user transmitting on the channel, it is obvious that a terminal should delay the transmission of the packet.
packet without any restrictions. The CSMA protocol reduces the packet collision significantly
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compared with ALOHA protocol. But not eliminate entirely.
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If the channel is idle, then the user is allowed to transmit data
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In this each terminal will monitor the status of the channel before
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Parameters in CSMA protocols

1. Detection delay - is a function of the receiver sense whether or not the channel is idle
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a mobile terminal.
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it takes for a packet to travel from a base station to
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2. Propagation delay- is a relative measure of how fast
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hardware and is the time required for a terminal to
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be sensing the channel at the same time.
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two packets.
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will also send its packet, resulting in a collision between the
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poised to send, the latter user will sense an idle channel and
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If the transmitting packet has not reached the user who is
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sending a packet, another user may be ready to send and may
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Propagation delay is important, since just after a user begins
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where tp -> propagation time in seconds, Rb -> channel bit rate m -> expected number of bits in a data packet
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Propagation delay (td)
Various strategies of the CSMA

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1. CSMA In this type of CSMA strategy, after receiving a negative acknowledgment the terminal waits a random time before retransmission of the packet.
NON-PERSISTENT
2. 1-PERSISTENT CSMA The terminal senses the channel and waits for transmission until it finds the channel idle. As soon as the channel is idle, the terminal transmits its message with probability one. 3. p-PERSISTENT CSMA When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted with probability p . It may or may not be immediate.
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4. CSMA/CD In this the user monitors the channel for possible

same time the transmission is immediately aborted in midway.
can announce the availability of the reverse channel through the
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forward control channel. The BS uses Busy-Idle bit to announce.

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area. So it may not know when the channel is idle. For this the BS
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may not have the knowledge about other MS operating in that
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different frequencies for forward and reverse channel. Each MS
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that is used to serve the hidden terminals. Cellular networks uses
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Data sense multiple access (DSMA) - is a special type of CSMA
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collisions. If two or more terminals start a transmission at the
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6. Busy tone multiple access (BTMA)- this is a special type of technique where the system bandwidth is divided into message channel and busy channel. Whenever a terminal sends data through message channel it will also transmits a busy-tone in busy channel. If another terminal senses the busy channel it will understand that the message channel is busy and it will also turns its busy tone. This acts as an alarm for other terminals.
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Handoff
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Process of transferring a moving active user from one base station to another without disrupting the call.
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Handoff Strategies
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Ist generation handoff MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff) Inter system handoff Guard channel concept Queuing Umbrella approach Soft and hard handoff Cell dragging.
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Ist generation handoff In this almost all the work were carried out by MSC with the help of Base Station.
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If the level decreases it will perform handoff by its own.
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Using the Locator Receiver the MSC will measure the signal strength of the moving mobile.
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MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff)
Since all the measurements were done by the mobile, the
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period of time a handoff is initiated.
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the current base station by a certain level or for a certain
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neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from
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When the power received from the base station of a
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results of these measurements to the serving base station.
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from surrounding base stations and continually reports the
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In this every mobile station measures the received power
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Inter system handoff -occurs if a mobile moves from
Queuing If more number of users request handoff the they will be placed in queue before allotting channels
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reserved only for handoff.
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Guard channel concept In this some channels are
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while roaming
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controlled by a different MSC (service provider) or
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one cellular system to a different cellular system
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Umbrella approach
In urban areas the cell size will be very small and high
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use Micro and Macro cells concurrently.

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To perform handoff on these high speed users we
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speed users will cross quickly.
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successful handoff.
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Speed of the user is a main factor in deciding a
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Umbrella approach
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Cell dragging
Cell dragging occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio path between the pedestrian subscriber and the base station. Even after the user has traveled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the received signal at the base station does not decay rapidly resulting in Cell Dragging
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Soft and hard handoff

will be assigned with a new set of channels. Soft Handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, the station. CDMA uses soft Handoff.
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channel itself will be switched to the new base
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Hard handoff- when the user moves to a new cell, he
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PRIVACY
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WIRELESS SECURITY AND

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The broadcast nature of wireless communications wanted or unintentional interference.
Analog techniques are extremely easy to tap. Digital systems such as TDMA and CDMA are much Wireless security harder to tap. unauthorized
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is
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necessary or damage
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to prevent to
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renders it very susceptible to malicious interception and
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the
access
computers
using wireless networks.

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Access point (AP)-> is the central point (like a hub) that creates a basic service set to bridge a number of STAs from the wireless network to other existing networks.
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computer, laptop, or PDA
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Station (STA) -> is a wireless network clienta desktop
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network:
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There are two names you need to know in a wireless
Modes of unauthorized access

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Accidental association Malicious association Ad-hoc networks Non-traditional networks Identity theft (MAC spoofing) Man-in-the-middle attacks Denial of service Network injection Caffe Latte attack
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_security
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1. Accidental association
Violation of security perimeter of corporate network unintentionally.
when a cyber criminal runs some software that makes his/her wireless network card look like a legitimate access point. attacks on the wired network, or plant Trojans
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Once access is gained, he/she can steal passwords, launch
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These types of laptops are known as soft APs and are created
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access point (AP).
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connect to a company network through their cracking company
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when wireless devices can be actively made by attackers to
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2. Malicious association
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3. Ad-hoc networks
between wireless computers that do not have an access point little protection, encryption methods can be used to provide
should be regarded as a security risk. Even barcode readers, secured
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handheld PDAs, and wireless printers and copiers should be
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network Bluetooth devices are not safe from cracking and
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Non-traditional
networks
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4. Non-traditional networks
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such
security.
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in between them. While these types of networks usually have
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Ad-hoc networks are defined as peer-to-peer networks
as
personal
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5. Identity theft (MAC spoofing)
offering a steady flow of traffic through the transparent hacking computer to the real network
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real access point through another wireless card
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network. Once this is done, the hacker connects to a
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In this the hacker will include a soft AP in to a
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6. Man-in-the-middle attacks
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a computer with network privileges.
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in on network traffic and identify the MAC address of
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Identity theft occurs when a cracker is able to listen
7. Denial of service
attacker continually bombards a targeted Access
on the network and may even cause the network to crash
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These cause legitimate users to not be able to get
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and other commands.
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successful connection messages, failure messages,
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Point or network with bogus requests, premature
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A Denial-of-Service attack (DoS) occurs when an
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8. Network injection
and require rebooting or even reprogramming of all intelligent networking devices

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A whole network can be brought down in this manner
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intelligent hubs.
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commands
that
affect
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The cracker injects bogus networking re-configuration routers, switches, and
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network traffic.
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of access points that are exposed to non-filtered
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In a network injection attack, a cracker can make use
9. Caffe Latte attack

It is not necessary for the attacker to be in the area of By using a process that targets the Windows wireless stack, it is possible to obtain the WEP key from a remote client Protocol (ARP) requests, the assailant takes advantage of the shared By sending a flood of encrypted
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Address Resolution and the message
the network using this exploit.
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key
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modification flaws in WEP.

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authentication
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The Caffe Latte attack is another way to defeat WEP.
The Attack Methodology

your target.
WEP.
4. Active attack - Launch denial of service (DoS) attacks.

http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb457019.aspx
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methods are enforced and how they can be circumvented.
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3. Authentication and authorization - Determine what
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2. Passive attack - Analyze the network traffic or break the
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1. Footprint the wireless network- Locate and understand
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Defense Mechanisms
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Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Wi-Fi Protected Access- 2 (WPA-2)
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Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
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Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

wireless networks at the data link layer.
widely used software stream cipher and is used in popular protocols.

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RC4 (also known as ARC4 or ARCFOUR ) is the most
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data protection.
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WEP utilizes a data encryption scheme called RC4 for
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WEP is a standard network protocol that adds security to
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is to prevent any repetition.

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used for randomization of key. The purpose of an IV
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Initialization vector (IV) is a fixed-size input which is
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104) and a 24 bit initialization vector.
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128-bit WEP protocol using a 104-bit key size (WEP-
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a 24 bit initialization vector .
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Standard 64-bit WEP uses a 40 bit key (WEP-40) and
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RC4 generates a pseudorandom stream of bits.
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Authentication
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Access Point.
2. The Access Point replies with a clear-text challenge. 3. The client encrypts the challenge-text using the configured WEP key, and sends it back in another authentication request. 4. The Access Point decrypts the response. If this matches positive reply.
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the challenge-text the Access Point sends back a
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1. The client sends an authentication request to the
Dis Advantages
The same traffic key must never be used twice. In August 2001, Scott Fluhrer, But a 24-bit IV is not long enough to ensure this on a busy network.
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Mantin, and
RC4 cipher and IV is used in WEP. eavesdropping on the network.
A successful key recovery could take as little as one minute
WEP is replaced by WPA(Wi-Fi Protected Access)

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depending on the traffic.
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Using a passive attack they were able to recover the RC4key after
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ES S
Shamir published a cryptanalysis of WEP that decodes the way the
NE
Adi
Wi-Fi Protected Access(WPA)

TW
The Wi-Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take the place of
packets.
EC
(TKIP) to bolster encryption of wireless

20 43
WPA uses Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
W IR
EL
WEP.
ES S
NE
OR
KS
Wi-Fi Protected Access(WPA)

TW EC 20 43
W IR
EL
ES S
NE
OR
Ananth.R
KS
TKIP
TW
encryption key that must be manually entered on
TKIP uses a 128-bit per-packet key, it dynamically collisions
sequencing rules, and a re-keying mechanism.

EC
It has an extended initialization vector (IV) with
20 43
W IR
generates a new key for each packet and prevents
EL
ES S
NE
wireless access points and devices and does not change
OR
KS
TKIP encryption replaces WEP's 40-bit or 104-bit
WPA with TKIP provides 3 levels of security

combines the secret root key with the initialization
(MIC)
EC
3. TKIP implements a 64-bit Message Integrity Check
20 43
will be rejected by the access point.
W IR
against replay attacks. Packets received out of order
EL
2. WPA implements a sequence counter to protect
ES S
NE
vector before passing it to the RC4 initialization.
TW
OR
KS
1. TKIP implements a key mixing function that
Merits and Demerits

TKIP uses the same underlying mechanism as WEP, and consequently is vulnerable to a number of similar attacks. But the message integrity check, per-packet key hashing, broadcast key rotation, and a sequence counter prevents many attacks. The key mixing function also eliminates the WEP key recovery attacks Beck-Tews attack has successfully extracted the keystream
EC
20 43
W IR
EL
ES S
NE
TW
OR
KS
Ananth.R
EC
20 43
Ohigashi-Morii attack Japanese researchers Toshihiro Ohigashi and Masakatu Morii reported a simpler and faster implementation of a similar attack. It utilizes a similar attack method, but uses a man-in-the-middle attack
W IR
EL
ES S
NE
TW
OR
KS
Ananth.R
WPA 2
original WPA technology on all certified Wi-Fi hardware
WPA2 Pre-Shared Key (PSK) utilizes keys with 256 bits
EC
20 43
W IR
EL
WPA2 uses Pre-Shared Key (PSK) instead of TKIP
ES S
since 2006.
NE
TW
OR
WPA2 (Wireless Protected Access 2) replaced the
KS
Ananth.R
1. WPA2-Personal2. WPA2-Enterprisethrough
protects
TW
There are two versions of WPA2
W IR
EL
network access by utilizing a set-up password verifies network users WPA2 is backward
compatible with WPA.
EC
20 43
server.
ES S
NE
OR
unauthorized
Ananth.R
KS
EC
20 43
W IR
EL
ES S
NE
TW
OR
Ananth.R
KS

Wireless Network

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Wireless NETWORKS

MULTIPLE RADIO ACCESS

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Medium Access Alternatives: Fixed-Assignment for Voice

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WIRELESS MEDIUM ACCESS

WIRELESS MEDIUM ACCESS

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

b. CSMA-Based Wireless Random Access Techniques

a. ALOHA-Based Wireless Random Access Techniques

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2. Random Access for Data-Oriented Networks

b. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

a. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

1. Fixed-Assignment Access for Voice-Oriented Networks

Fixed-Assignment Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access techniques enable multiple signals to

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occupy a single communications channel.

The available spectrum bandwidth for our wireless

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Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Time division multiple access (TDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access

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Frequency Division Multiple Access

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compared to TDMA systems

The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when

Each user is separated by Guard Bands.

It assigns individual frequency to individual users.

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Intersymbol interference is low It needs only a few synchronization bits

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The bandwidths of FDMA channels are narrow (30

cannot be used by other users

If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and

FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

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Time Division Multiple Access

Time division multiple access

message, and tail bits

TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method

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Each frame is made up of a preamble, an information

A set of N slots form a Frame.

Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot

spectrum into time slots

Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio

TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and

users, where each user makes use of non-

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over" into an adjacent radio service.

users at the edge of the band do not "bleed

Guard Bands are necessary to ensure that

TDMA systems because of burst transmissions

High synchronization overhead is required in

Synchronization bits will intimate the receiver