Design of Earth Dam

P. Ghosh

Primary Considerations for Design

1. Character of the site Topography Foundations Materials available for dam construction Equipment and methods available Weather Stream flow Availability of money
2

2. Construction programme

3. Costs and benefits 4. Safety against failure

Location & Alignment of the Dam

The topography of the site influences the alignment of the dam and the volume of earth necessary (Fig. 1) Ordinarily the axis of the dam follows the ridge crests, but in some instances a deviation can result in economy of material

Fig. 1

Contd..

Location & Alignment of the Dam

The character of the foundation is a vital factor in the location of an earth dam Most river valleys are partially filled with alluvium. If this must be removed to provide a satisfactory foundation, the cost will be increased by both the excavation of the unsuitable material and its replacement by earth
4 Contd..

Location & Alignment of the Dam

The character of the foundation is also the major factor in determining what measures will be required to control the under seepage The location of possible borrow pits is important since the expense of hauling the materials is often a major part of the earthwork costs
5 Contd..

Location & Alignment of the Dam

The requirements of spillway are important factors in the location of an earth dam because the earth section is incapable of withstanding overflow Three alternatives are possible : dam (b) a tunnel through the abutment (c) masonry or concrete spillway dam section flanked by the earth dam
6 Contd..

(a) a side channel spillway around the end of the

Location & Alignment of the Dam

Weather can be an important factor in earth dam location because only limited earthwork can be done during wet weather or when the ground is frozen The access for equipment and labour, both to the site and from one path of the project to another, influences the location
7 Contd..

Technical Criteria for Adequacy of Design

Safety against structural failures: Both the upstream and downstream sides of the dam must meet the standards given in Table 1

Table 1

Technical Criteria for Adequacy of Design

Settlement: The following limits of settlement, however serve as a guide For the foundation alone, a limit of 1% of the dam height For the embankment, a limit of from 1-2% The tilting or differential settlement at any point should not exceed about 1% (1 in 100 ft). These settlements should be considered under two loading conditions such as full structural weight with (a) reservoir empty, (b) reservoir full
9 Contd..

Technical Criteria for Adequacy of Design

Leakage: The amount of leakage which can be permissible depends on the purpose of the structure In a flood control dam: a leakage of 100 cusecs is not excessive For a storage dam: 0.1% of the average stream flow Seepage Erosion and Boiling: Its difficult to establish safety limits against uplift A F.S. 1.5 2 is adequate for uplift against masonry A F.S. 1.5 5 is advisable for uplift in soil masses
10 Contd..

Design of foundation
Foundation stability: The stability of the foundation is computed by using assumed slopes for the embankment. If the stability is found to be adequate, the design of the embankment is undertaken Corrective measures: When the foundation is so weak that it affects the safety factor materially, corrective measures are necessary. These include: Removal of the weak materials Increase in the width of the base of the dam Reduction in pore pressure by foundation drainage Pre-consolidation of clay soils Densification of cohesion less soils

Design of foundation

Settlement: Settlement of foundation should not be

excessive

Foundation seepage control:

Seepage control is vital in foundation design for it affects the stability, leakage, and erosion resistance of both the foundation and the dam The measures for this control include the foundation cut-off, upstream blankets, and drains
12 Contd..

Design of foundation
Cut-offs: With any pervious foundation, a complete cut-off is one of the most effective measures for reducing both seepage and seepage pressures Position of cut-off: A location upstream (Fig. 2) minimizes seepage pressures in the greater part of the embankment and thereby increases the stability of the downstream half of the dam

Fig. 2

13 Contd..

Design of foundation
An exterior cut-off (Fig. 3) represents an extreme upstream location This is placed outside any possible zone of soil shear to avoid weakening of the foundation and to avoid damage from possible foundation movements

Fig. 3

14 Contd..

Design of foundation
A central location (Fig. 4) will be less effective in reducing seepage pressure throughout the embankment, but it will be less vulnerable to rupture and less likely to weaken the foundation

Fig. 4

15 Contd..

Design of foundation
A downstream partial cut-off (Fig. 5) is effective in reducing seepage concentration and tendency to boil at the downstream toe, but it aggravates the seepage pressures A downstream partial cut-off should not be used without a second one upstream

Fig. 5

16 Contd..

Design of foundation
Multiple cut-offs (Fig. 6) cannot be justified from the standpoint of either seepage quantity or pore pressure reduction They have been sometimes used when there has been some fear that a cut-off would fail and, therefore, lose its effectiveness

Fig. 6

17 Contd..

Design of foundation
Upstream Blankets:
Upstream blankets are employed to increase the length of the seepage path and to connect an upstream cut-off to the core when they do not coincide A wide variety of soils can be used for blankets. The best are the clays, because they are very impervious and they resist erosion when subjected to high seepage gradients
18 Contd..

Embankment Design
Basic components
The core - the water holding element The shell or shoulders - the structural or supporting elements The drains - the water pressure relief system

Top elevation:
The elevation of the top of the dam is the sum of the maximum pond level, the free board, and the anticipated settlement
19

Embankment Design
Top width:
The top width of the dam depends on its anticipated use. A minimum width of 10ft is required for maintenance so that small trucks can operate on it Typical widths are from 10 ft for small dams to 35 ft for dams with a two-lane roadway
20 Contd..

Embankment Design
Core location:
An upstream core (Fig. 7) reduces the pore pressure in the downstream part of the embankment and increases its safety

Fig. 7

21 Contd..

Embankment Design
The upstream sloping core permits construction of downstream shell ahead of the core, because the core lies against it This is an advantage when the shell materials are available from the borrow pits ahead of those for the core or when a granular shell can be constructed during wet weather when construction of an impervious core is impossible On the other hand, the upstream core is less stable, particularly during sudden drawdown
22 Contd..

Embankment Design
The central core (Fig. 8) has balanced safety during sudden drawdown and utilizes a minimum of core material

Fig. 8

23 Contd..

Embankment Design
When a cut-off is employed, it is best for the cut-off and the core to join at their upstream sides as shown in Fig. 9

Fig. 9

24 Contd..

Embankment Design
Core materials:
Several types of cores are used, similar to the cutoffs: Earth Concrete or masonry The steel sheeting

25 Contd..

Embankment Design
Shell materials:
The design of the shell consists of selecting the shell material, deciding on the degree of compaction desirable and determining the slopes for the outer surfaces of the dam The shell material is picked primarily for its strength and availability. The strength of the material on the upstream side must be based on the material in the inundated condition The same design strength should be used on the downstream side below the highest position of the line of seepage
26 Contd..

Embankment Design
Shell slopes: The shell slopes are based on stability analysis. Typical slopes for dams 100 ft high are given in Table 2 Table 2
TENTATIVE DESIGN SLOPES - EARTH DAMS Soil type Upstream Downstream Gravel, sandy gravels, with core Clean sands with core Low density micaceous silts silts, 2.5(H) to 1(V) 3.0(H) to 1(V) 3.5(H) to 1(V) 3.0(H) to 1(V) 2.0(H) to 1(V) 2.5(H) to 1(V) 3.0(H) to 1(V) 2.5(H) to 1(V)
27 Contd..

Low palstic clays

Embankment Design
When the stability is insufficient there are several possibilities for improving it by Flatter slopes Increased strength through higher density Treatment for weak foundation Drainage of the foundation and embankment

28 Contd..

Embankment Design
For large dams a composite slope (Fig. 10) is frequently used For a uniform safety factor throughout, a slope in a homogeneous soil should become flatter toward the bottom as in Fig. 10

Fig. 10

29 Contd..

Embankment Design
This composite slope can be formed in two ways A series of straight slopes as in Fig. 11 A constant slope with berms as in Fig. 12

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

30 Contd..

Embankment Design
Berms: A berm is a level surface or indentation in the slope that can serve a number of purposes: 1. Increase slope stability by increasing dam width 2. Break the continuous downstream slope to reduce surface erosion 3. Provide level surfaces for maintenance operations or roads
31 Contd..

Embankment Design

High dams with a continuous downstream slope frequently suffer from serious surface erosion because the quantity of surface flow increases from the top to bottom Berms will break the rapid surface flow so that it can be channeled in to paved ditches and carried down the slope without damage to the soil, as shown in Fig. 13

Fig. 13

32

Embankment Design
For drainage, a berm spacing of about 50 to 75 ft in elevation is commonly employed A minimum width of about 6 ft is advisable for working small trucks and 8 to 15 ft for heavy equipments and cranes

33

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Drainage reduces the pore water pressures in both the foundation and the embankment, thus increasing its stability It prevents the seepage erosion, mass instability, boiling and piping The drainage system consists of two components: The protective filter which is in contact with the soil The conduit which collects and disposes of the seepage water
34 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Protective filter:
An effective drain must remove water from the soil without appreciable head loss and at the same time it must not permit the migration of the soil in to the drainage system and at the consequent progressive seepage erosion and clogging of the drain This dual function of free drainage and erosion prevention is served by a protective filter, sometimes called as an inverted filter or just filter
35 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

The size of the holes, Do in a filter must, therefore be less than D85 of the soil being filtered If the filter is a soil, then the diameter of the filter voids must not exceed D85 of the soil being filtered Tests have shown that the effective void parameter is from 1/4 to 1/5 the diameter of the smallest 15% of a soil, or Do D85 Do = 1/4 D15 to 1/5 D15
36

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

The finer grains of the filter D15(filter), must not, therefore, exceed 4 to 5 times the D85(soil) : D15(filter) 4 D85(soil) If the filter is to provide free drainage it must be much more pervious than the soil being filtered, with a ratio of permeabilities of at least 15 to 1 Since the permeability coefficient of similar soils varies approximately as the ratio of the square of the effective grain sizes, it follows that a ratio of grain sizes of at least 4 to 1 is desirable: D15(filter) 4 D15(soil)
37

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

38

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Filter design:
Theoretically the thickness of a filter need only be sufficient to establish a continuous layer of a thickness equal to 2 to 3 times the maximum grain diameter From the standpoint of minimum resistance to flow, as thin a filter as possible is desirable From the construction standpoint, it would be impossible to construct a thin layer and be certain that it would be continuous
39 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Much greater thickness are, therefore advisable from practical considerations. The values given in Table 3 are representative Table 3 MINIMUM FILTER THICKNESS Thickness for given head Filter 0-75 ft Fine sand coarse sand Gravel 6 inches 9 inches 12 inches 75-150 ft 12 inches 18 inches 24 inches 150-300 ft 18 inches 24 inches
40 30 inches

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Drain conduit:
The function of the drain conduit is to collect the water from filter and carry it away with little head loss

Trench drain:
The trench drain, Fig. 14, is effective in intercepting seepage through both homogeneous foundations and those containing horizontal pervious strata or seams

Fig. 14

41

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Trench drain:
An upstream location increases the stability at the cost of increased seepage loss and increased cost of conduits to carry the water downstream of the toe The minimum distance from the downstream toe that will provide a substantial increase in stability is 1/3 the base width
42 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Trench drain:
Placing it upstream more than 2/3 the base width from the downstream toe is seldom beneficial Depths of more than 15 ft have been employed when the construction conditions are favorable. The drain width is not critical; it can be as narrow as construction permits
43

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Mound drains:
When the dam rests on a hard foundation or where the need for the embankment drainage exceeds that for the foundation, a mound drain, Fig. 15, is employed The location for the mound is similar to that for the trench-just downstream from the cut-off and core, or within the middle third of the base in a homogeneous dam Fig. 15
44 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Mound drains:
When both a mound and a trench drain are employed, they are usually combined as in Fig. 16

Fig. 16

45 Contd..

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Blanket drain:
It is a continuous horizontal drain placed (Fig. 17) on top of the foundation to intercept water coming up through vertical fissures in the foundation and also to lower the line of seepage in the embankment It extends in an upstream direction from the downstream toe, a distance at least 1/3 but not more than 2/3 the base width of the dam

Fig. 17
46

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Sloping blanket:
A sloping blanket, Fig. 18, is occasionally used where there are conditions conducive to erosion of the core, such as large amounts of foundation settlement, or where a sharp reduction in pore pressure in the embankment is needed

Fig. 18
47

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Sloping blanket:
Construction of the sloping blanket is expensive because of the difficulties involved in forming the individual layers They can be kept separate during construction by placing cloth between them which eventually rots away Alternatively, a sheet of metal or wood is placed between them to act as a form. This is raised after each 4-inch to 6-inch layer is placed
48

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Drain well:
It is a cylindrical drain (Fig. 19) which extends deep in to the foundation It is used to relieve the seepage pressures in pervious strata that are too deep to be reached by the trench drains and to drain localized concentrations of seepage where a continuous trench or blanket is not warranted

Fig. 19
49

Design of Internal Drainage Systems

Toe drains:
The toe drain is a mound drain placed at the downstream toe, as shown in Fig. 20 In large dams, it prevents saturation of the lower face of the embankment and acts as a disposal zone for the internal drainage system

Fig. 20
50

Embankment Details
Camber:
The effect of non-uniform settlement or deflection of the earth dam is to develop a sag in both the alignment and the crest elevation This tends to form tension cracks in the core which could lead to leakage and seepage erosion By cambering the core (and even the axis of the dam) so that it is initially convex in the upstream direction and in crest elevation, the deflection can be counteracted
51 Contd..

Embankment Details
Abutment slopes:
Settlement and deflection of the dam and foundation under load cause the embankment to move vertically downward and downstream with respect to the abutments To avoid the development of cracks between the embankment and the abutment (and especially along the contact with the core), careful shaping is necessary In the vertical plane the abutment should be sloped at 1(H) to 12(V) or flatter, with no abrupt changes in 52 slope

Embankment Details
Riprap:
Coarse material placed on the embankment top prevent erosion by surface water waves is termed as riprap (Fig. 21) It is required on the upstream face, and on the downstream face below the tail water level

Fig. 21
53