Title

A N IN TR O D U C TIO N TO B U D D H IST PH ILO SO PH Y : A N

A N N O TA TED TR A N SLA TIO N O F TH E TA R K A B H A SA
O F M O K SA K A R A G U PTA
A uthor(s) K A JIY A M A , Y U IC H I
C itation (1966), 10: 1-173
Issue D ate 1966-03-15
U R L http://hdl.handle.net/2433/72933
R ight
Type D epartm ental B ulletin Paper
Textversion publisher
K U R E N A I : K yoto U niversity R esearch Inform ation R epository
K yoto U niversity
AN INTRODUCTION
TO
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
AN ANNOTATED TRANSLATION OF THE
TARKABHASA OF MOKSAKARAGUPTA
BY
YUICHI KAJIYAMA
CONTENTS
l. Introduction p. 1
2. Abbreviations p. 15
3. Contents of the Tarkabhii$ii p. 19
4. Translation with Annotations
Chapter I: Indetenninate knowledge p. 23
Chapter II: Detenninate knowledge p. 63
Chapter III : Syllogism and polemics p. 86
5. Appendix p. 151
6. Sanskrit Index p. 159
INTRODUCTION
1 The (The Language of Logic): The present work is
an annotated translation of the Tarkabhii$ii (TBh) of who
wrote it some time between 1050-1202 A. D. This TBh should be dis-
tinguished from two other works bearing the sam.e name, viz. the
Tarkabhii$a of Kesavamisra and the ]aina-tarkabha$a of Yasovijayaj
though these three share the same character of being a compendium of
the system of a particular Indian philosophical school. While the latter
two texts are devoted to the Naiyayika and the jaina philosophy respec-
tively, TBh forms a brief but excellent introduction to
Buddhist philosophy including epistemology and logic. This is the ear-
liest of the three texts and seems to have set an example for the other
two.
Apart from great works on Buddhist logic and epistemology such as
those by Dharmakirti, Prajiiakaragupta, jfianasrimitra etc., we know, so
far as Sanskrit originals are available, three compendiums which system-
atically describe bauddhanyaya, dividing it into the three chapters of
Pratyak$a, svarthanumiina, and pararthanumiina: Dharmakirti's Nyiiya-
hindu (NB) with Dharmottara's Tika (NBT), Vidyakarasanti's Tarka-
sopana (TSop), and our TBh. The latter two works of course owe
much to NB and NBT, but they have their own merits of incorporating
later developments of Buddhist philosophy which were not known to
Dharmottara. Most parts of NBT are concerned with the explanation of
formal logic and epistemology viewed from the standpoint of the Sautran-
tika, omitting elucidations of other topics which are very important in
Buddhist philosophy in general. TSop is a small book which is so much
indebted to Dhannottara that it looks like a digest of NBT, and in places
where it goes beyond the latter it probably owes much to TBh. Com-
pared with these two works, TBh is far richer in information, a large
portion of which has remained unknown to the scholarly world.
This quahty of TBh is due to the fact that based his work
on many texts which were not utilized by Dharmottara or Vidyakarasanti.
-1-
He refers to most of the important works of Dharmakirti and their
commentaries, and cites m.any passages from Prajfiakaragupta, jfiana-
srimitra and RatnakirtLThe third chapter of his work may be called an
abridgement of the theories of jfianasrimitra and Ratnakirti, and this fact is
valuable to us, since TBh forms a good introduction to the works of the
said two scholars which have not been well studied as yet.
To illustrate the said character of our text, it may not be irrelevant
here to refer to some of the important theories discussed by
gupta
i
In 4 where he establishes the Buddhist theory that valid cogni-
tion is of two kinds, indeterrn.inate (pratyak$a) and deterrn.inate know-
ledge (anumiina), he enters into the criticism of other means of know-
ledge maintained by different schools of Indian philosophy, i. e. sabda,
upamiina, arthiipatti and abhiiva, and criticises also the Carvaka's view
that pratyak$a alone is the means of valid knowledge. In this discussion
his main source is Ratnakirti's PramiilJiintarbhiivaprakara1Ja.For the
refutation of the connection of the word and the thing meant by it,
adopts the sam.e criticism. of connection which was put for-
ward by Dharmakirti in his Sambandhaparik$ii ( 4.2). When he dis-
cusses the Buddhist attitude towards the vexed problem of whether the
validity of knowledge is known by itself independently, or dependently
on another proof attesting it (svata/} priimii1Jyam or Parata/}), he follows
Santiraksita and Manorathanandin in saying that neither of the two
principles should be applied to knowledge in general, some kinds of
knowledge being known to be valid by themselves and others by another
proof ( 2.4). Special importance is attached by to the
theory of self-consciousness (svasainvedana), which he discusses in detail,
quoting from Dharmakirti, Prajfiakaragupta, and and criticis-
ing the objections of Kumarilabhatta and Trilocana ( 6.2).
A traditional doctrine of Buddhist logic says that the object of in-
determinate knowledge is the extrem.e particular (svalak$a1Ja). But
this theory entailed a difficult problem as to how universal concom.itance
or pervasion (vyiipti), which forms the basis of inference and which is
the relationship between two universals, can be grasped by pratyak$a.
i) The following illustrations are taken out of the content of the present work,
and for a detailed discussion and information the reader is referred to the section indicated
by 4, etc.
-2-
Following ]fianasrimitra and Ratnakirti, our author answers the question
by saying that a universal can (also) be an object of Pratyaka. For
this new interpretation, he takes advantage of the theory of two kinds
of exclusion (vyavaccheda), which was originally expounded by Dharm.a-
kirti in relation to another problem. An affirmative proposition t x is y ,
may be interpreted in two ways by putting on either x or Y a restric-
tion or stress which is expressed in Sanskrit by the particle eva. When
the proposition t A particular is the object of pratYaka ' is construed by
anyayogavyavaccheda, it means t A particular alone is the object of
Pratyaksa '; but when construed by ayogavyavaccheda the same sentence
means A particular is rightly included among the objects of Pratyaka'.
Once a universal was perm.itted to be grasped by indeterminate know-
ledge, it came to be classified under a universal of an individual which
is produced by the accumulation of many moments of the momentary
stream of a thing and whkh may be exem.plified by the idea of t this',
and a universal of a class which denotes all the members of a class, say,
jar. These two universals are respectively naIned urdhvatiilaka1Ja- and
tiryaglaksana-siimiinya. This classification is made by ]tUinasrirn.itra as
well as Ratnakirti, but seems to have orIginated from Mal).ikyanandin,
the ]aina author of the if he can be dated in the
9 th century A. D. (7.1).
Just as an affirmative proposition is construed in two ways, a nega-
tive proposition is also interpreted in two ways, this time by under-
standing the negation as of a term (paryudiisa-) and as of a proposition
(cf. n. 62). A proposition t x is not y , means t x
is a non-y or z ' when the negation is understood as ;
but if it is construed the same proposition means
only t It is false that x is y , without allowing a positive interpretation.
Among Buddhists, this theory of two kinds of negation was applied to
philosophy first by Madhyamikas such as Bhavaviveka. Buddhist logicians
followed them in adopting it for the explanation of their particular doc-
trines. According to Buddhist logic the non-cognition of a thing is
nothing but the cognition of the other things contained in the range of
one and the same cognition. That we do not see a jar here means that
we see here things other than the jar. This is an example of paryudiisa-
being applied to the explanation of non-cognition ( 13). The
-3-
theory of apoha (discrimination) which was propounded by Dignaga and
Dharmakirti had found various interpretations by the tim.e of
gupta, who mentions three: nivrtlyapohaviida, vidhiviida and
vidhivada. The latter two were made possible by applying wholly or
partly to anyiipoha (negation of other things) ( 26).
In the second chapter dealing with formal logic,
follows mainly NB and NBT, though not without new information. The
most im.portant of the latter m.ay be his classification of negative inference
into 16 formulae. Dharmakirti him.self classified negative inference into
4 kinds with 4 subordinate forms in PV, 3 kinds in HB and 11 kinds in
NB. The classfication into 16 is found in the works of Durvekamisra,
and Vidyakarasanti. Durveka, the commenta-
tor on NBT, did know the classification into 16, but it is unlikely that
he borrowed it from our author, since he is usually supposed to have been
contemporary with )iianasrimitra who was older than
by more than two generations. Vidyakarasanti, the author of TSop pro-
bably owes the same to our author. Weare not informed of the person
who first proposed this classification, althou.gh we have a vagu.e clue
through which we might be permitted to ascribe it to )fianasrimitra
( 13.5).
Another important piece of information we get from TBh II consists
of two theories of how to determine a cau.sal relation (kiiryakiiranabhiiva).
)fianasrimitra was of the opinion that a causal relation is ascertained by
three cognitions - one perception and two non-perceptions or one non-
perception and two perceptions - and criticised Dharmottara who proclaimed
that at least five cognitions are necessary for the determination of a
causal relation. refers to these two theories without showing
a bias towards either of them ( 11.3).
In the third chapter discusses various topics which
form important problems of Buddhist philosophy: the proof of universal
momentariness ( 16.1); the refutation of the existence
of God ( 20. 1-2; 28-28.1) ; the problem of
solipsism (samtiiniintara) ( 20. 2. 4) ; the problem of how to ascertain
the universal concornitance of two terms and two theories about it, viz.
antarvyiipti and bahirvyiipti which are respectively represented by Rat-
nakarasanti and )fianasrimitra ( 22) ; the definitions and illustrations
-4-
of prasanga, prasangaviparyaya and viparyayabddhakapramiit,ta, the
syllogistic fonns which played important roles in Buddhist polemics in
the later period ( 24); the problem of the import of the word (apoha),
of which our author clearly distinguishes between three interpretations
held by Dignagaand .Dharmakirti, and jiHinasrimitra
( 26); the refutation of recognition (pralyabhijilii) ( 28.2) ; the proof
of two kinds of omniscient beings (sarvajila and sarvasarvajila)( 29-29.1);
the proof of succession of lives ( 29.2) and so forth. Vacaspatimisra, as
well as his teacher Trilocana, appears often as an opponent in these
discussions. Following the method of Dharmakirti in PV,
inserted these topics as illustrations of particular logical rules, fallacies
and. confutations, and. he bases his opinions mostly on Jiianasrimitra
and Ratnakirti.
At the end of the third chapter, our author briefly reproduces the
main theories of the four Buddhist schools, Sautrantika,
Yogacarin and Madhyamika ( 30-33). This portion is particularly inter-
esting and important, since we do not have many descriptions of the
same kind in other Buddhist texts and since it became a model when
(and probably Madhava) wrote a summary of Buddhist doc-
trines in the Tarkarahasyadipikii (and the Sarvadarsanasamgraha).
representation of the theories of the four schools are
closely related also to the same kind of summary in the ]iliinasiirasamuc-
caya, falsely ascribed to Aryadeva, and its commentary by Bodhibhadra.
The verses 21, 22a-b, 23, 25, 26a-b and 27 of the ]iliinasiirasamuccaya
are found in TBh too. And Bodhibhadra's review of siikiiraviida and
niriikiiraviida of the Yogacarins finds a counterpart in TBh 32.1. Though
our author does not enter into a detailed discussion of the important
schisms among Yogacarins, he seems to have been well aware of the
siikiiraviida of Jiianasrimitra and the niriikiiraviida of Ratnakarasanti
( 32.1).
TBh was counted among ten great works of Buddhist philosophy
enumerated by who evidently owed much to
when writing the portion of the Bauddhadarsana in the Tarkarahasya-
dipikii. R. Iyengar points out another reference to our text in an un-
published Jaina work, the Nyiiyama1Jidipikii, a commentary on the Pra-
ii) TRD 47, 20; Iyengar's preface to M, iv.
-5-
meyaratnamiilii of Anantaviryaiii. qu.otes the passages of TBh
on universal momentariness, the succession of lives and other problems
in his Syiidviidamanjari
iv
As .stated above, TSop and the ]niinasiiro-:
samuccayanibandhana of Bodhibhadra have much to do with our text,
though we are not sure if these two Buddhist authors are posterior to
Moksakaragupta.
2 Date of the Author: In the colophon of TBh
is mentioned as a resident of the Mahajagaddhala-vihara
v
We know
from substantial evidence
vi
that the Jagaddhala (or Jagaddala) Vihara
existed in Varendri, the paternal land of the Pala dynasty, which might
be placed so as to include the junction. of the present Rajshahi, Bogra
and MaIda of Bengal and an u.nknown amount of territory to the north
vii

But the implication of the colophon is only this, further presu.mptions

read in it being uncertainv iii. The Vihara is sometimes said to have
iii) . M Preface iv.
iv) See n.235, 374, 382 and 383.
v) tarka-
G has -riijajagaddhala- for mahiijagaddhala-.
vi) RC III, 7 : mandrii1Jam sthitimiighiim jagaddalamahiivihiiracitariigiim, dadhatim
lokesam aPi mahattiirodiritorumahimiin2m, which Majumdar translates: "(Varendrl) -which
had elephants of the Mandra type imported (into its forests) -where in the great monas-
tery at Jagaddala kindly love for all was found accumulated -which country bore (in its
heart) the image of (Bodhisattva) Lokesa -and whose great glory was still more increased
(or pronounced) by (the presence" of) the great (heads of monasteries) and the (images
of) Tara (the Buddhist goddess)". This is among 27 verses (III, 2-28) in which the poet
gives a glowing account of Varendra (d. Intro. xxxi).
vii) SR Intro. xxxvii. n. 6.
viii) Cf. SR Intro. xxxvii. n. 8. Haraprasad Sastrl, R. D. Banerjee, Rahula Samkrty
ayana, etc. ascribe the construction of the Jagaddala to Ramapala. E. Krishnamacharya,
following Haraprasad Sastrl, states (G Bhiimika, 1) : ayam hi uttara-
varendradese gangiikaratoyiisamgamapavitrite riimiivatinagare riimapiilena riijiiii
As Majumdar points out (RC xxxi), H. Sastrl confounded the verses of
RC describing Varendrj and those describing Ramavatl, the capital founded by Ramapala.
This seems to have led many scholars to think that Ramapala constructed the Jagaddala-
vihara in Ramavatl. In fact, however, RC says that the Vihara was in Varendrl and not
that it was in Ramavatl, nor that it was founded by Ramapala.
Another source which led Rahula Samkrtyayana to make the reference to ]agaddala
having been built in the seventh year of Ramapala's reign is the colophon of Jagaddala-
nivasl's Bhagavatyiimniiyiinusiiri1Ji vyiikhya (Cordier Cat. Mdo, XV) which runs in Peking
Reprint Edition no. 5209 : mi yi bdag po riimapiilas sa skyon mdsad gnas kyi mu tig
phren pa ni, dPal Idan rgyal po dsagattalar gnas par byed Pa bdag gis rnam bsad byas
so... dPal ldan na rgyal skyon gis rgyal srid mdsad 10 bdun pa la dgun zla
tshes bii la dPal byan chub chen Iha khan du bris This may be rendered: This
-6-
been established by Ramapala (c. 1100 A. D.), the 14th king of the Pala
dynasty, after his recovery of Varendri which had been once lost. This
information, however, is not tl1.1Stworthy, though a possibility of the
construction of the Vihara by Ramapala may not be totally excluded.
Varendri was existent long before and after this king, and there is no
positive evidence for the theory mentioned above. Such being the case,
weare not certain of the termini of the Vihara, and hence of the date
of
In the absence of external evidence, we have to rely on internal
data for determining the date of our author. Considering the many
scholars to whom refers and who cite from him, we can
safely place him between Ratnakarasanti, ]iianasrimitra and Ratnakirti
on the one hand and on the other
ix
In 1292 A. D.
wrote his Syiidviidamafzjari, in which he cites several times Passages
from TBh, referring twice to our author by name
x
The three Buddhist
logicians named above from whom our author quotes passages so pro-
fusely are more or less associated with DiParhkarasrijiiana (Atisa) who
left the Vikramasila Vihara in 1040 A. D. and entered Tibet in 1042 A. D.
To begin with, ]iianasrimitra seems to have been a younger con-
temporary of Ratnakarasanti, since he cites Passages from the latter's
vyakhya was made by me, a resident of Srirajajagattala, which is the necklace of the
land protected by King Ramapala... It was transcribed at the Sri-Mahabodhi temple on
the fourth day of the month of in the seventh year of the coronation of Sri-Manapala.
I think it is impossible to derive from this colophon the conclusion that the Jagaddala
Vihara was built by Ramapala. After all, what we know from these sources is no more
than this: The Jagaddala Vihara was existent in Varendri, and flourished under Ramapala
too. Ramapala's date is also a vexed problem, on which R. D. Banerjee and R. C. Majumdar
had exchanged a long series of discussions. But for our present purpose, it is enough if
we follow Kosambi and Gokhale in taking A. D. 1100 as a fair date in Ramapala's reign.
ix) Vidyabhushana (A History of Indian Logic) places at 1100 A. D.,
Krishnamacharya between c. 1100-1200, and Iyengar at 1110. None of these datings is bas-
ed on evidence, though they seem to have been inferred from the date of Ramapala.
Among other scholars who are close in time to we may mention Sucari-
tamisra who is criticised by jnanasri and Ratnakirti. Manorathanandin whom our author
seems to 'follow in a few discussions and who completed his com. on PY before 1200 A. D.,
Durvekamisra to whom seems to owe a few theories, Bodhibhadra, and
Vidyakarasanti who was probably indebted to our author. But the dates of all these
scholars are not fixed beyond doubt. and cannot be taken into account for determining the
date of our author.
x) Mallisena states in the colophon of SYM that he completed the work in 1214 Saka
= 1292 A. D. (cf. SYM Intro. xiii).
-7-
Prajfuiparamitopadesa in his Sakarasiddhisastra
xi
Both are enumerated
among the teachers of Atisa. Ratnakirti made the summaries of Jfiana-
srimitra's works and was refuted by Udayana in the Atmatattvaviveka
CATV) together with hismaster
xil
. Ratnakirti is, therefore, most pro-
bablya direct disciple of jiianasrimitra, and may have been younger than
the latter at least by one generation. About these three Buddhists and
their contemporaries, we may collect a good amount of information from
Tibetan sources; but the Tibetan tradition is such that the more we
learn from it, the more we become confused. Therefore, we should be
statisfied with the unanimous opinion that jiianasrimitra was an elder
contemporary of Atisa
xiii
.
Almost all the works of jiianasrimitra contain abundant citations from
Vacaspatimisra, especially from his Nyiiyaviirtlikatiitparyatikii CNVT)xiv.
S. Dasgupta, E. Frauwallner and A. Thakur argued from different materi-
als to the same conclusion that VacasPatimisra should be placed after
jayantabhatta, not before as had been so long believed
xv
. P. Hacker
established the date of jayanta's Nyiiyamanjari as about 890 A. D. on
the basis of substantial evidence that he was in the court of Sailkaravar-
xi) For the relation of JiHinasrImitra and Ratnakarasanti see n. 418 below.
xii) JNA Intro. 34-36 ; RNA Intro. 21-22.
xiii) Cf. Bhattacharya 53. When Tibetan monks came to VikramasIla to invite AtIsa to
their country, they found that RatnakIrti was among the eminent pandits under AtIsa.
AtIsa, receiving the invitation, acted according to the instruction of JnanasrI. Sometime
later when Naropa came on his last visit to VikramasIla, "he leaned on the right arm of
AtIsa while JfianasrImitra helped him with his left arm". This information is derived
from S. C. Das's Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow (Journal of Buddhist Text Society,
I, i" 1893, 7 ft.) But some other pieces of information contradict the last story; the
biographer of Naropa, for instance, dates him in 1016-1100 A. D. which means that Naropa
was younger than AtIsa, let alone JnanasrImitra (d. H. V. Guenther, The Life and Teacht'ng
of Naropa, Intro.). So far as JfianasrImitra is concerned, however, Blue Annals, Taranatha
and other sources agree in enumerating him together with Ratnakarasanti among the
teachers of AtIsa. SR lxxviii introduces JfianasrImitra, a poet whose two verses are
included in SR as "perhaps identical with the younger contemporary of AtIsa, DIparhkara
(Tar. p. 241)". But this is a mistake on the part of the editor of SR, since Taranatha
says in the page referred to by him: JnanasrImitra ist... der Lehrer, dem SrI AtIsa zu
grossen Dank verpflichtet war. Now it is almost certain that the poet is the same as
JfianasrImi tra, the philosopher.
xiv) Cf. JNA Intro. 21 ; Index, Vacaspati. Tatparyapkakara.
xv) Dasgupta, II, 107 (1932) ; Frauwallner, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Nyaya,
WZKM, 43, S. 266-277 (1937) ; RNA Intro. 21.
- 8
man of Kasrnir who ruled 883-902 A. D.xvi Thakur holds the same, though
he seems not to have seen Hacker's article.
xvIi
This discovery, how-
ever, entailed another problem, the date of VacasPatimisra himself who
had been usually placed 841 A. D. on the basis of the date 898
which is given in the manuscripts of his Nyiiyasucinibandha (NSN) and
which. is construed as referring to Vikrama Sarhvat. Hacker, D. Bhat-
tacharya and Thakur solve this question by taking the date 898 as of Saka
Sarhvat and accordingly placing VacasPati at 976 A. D.xviii Considering
this date of Vacaspatimisra and the Tibetan information that ]fianasrimitra
was an elder contemporary of Atisa (982-1055 A. D.) we may place
the activity of ]fianasrimitra in c. 980-1030 A. D. and that of Ratnakirti
in c. 1000-1050 A. D.
There is, however, information which might contradict the date of
]fianasrimitra as given just above. As is well known, one of the manu-
scripts of Udayana's bears the date 906 Saka (984 A. D.).
ATV in which Udayana criticises most of the works of ]fianasrimltra and
some of Ratnakirti's is certainly the oldest of his major works, though
we are not sure if it was written before his two smaller tracts,
1Jiivali and Thus, ATV must be placed before 984 A. D.
or at latest at a date soon after it. It then follows that ]fianasrimitra
wrote most of his works in a very short period between 976 or 980 and
c. 984, which is very unlikely. This assumpion becomes absolutely im-
possible when we trust the tradition that in ATV Udayana referred to
Ratnakirti, who must have made the summaries of his master's works at
least a generation after his master wrote them. xx
xvi) JayantabhaHa und Vacaspatimisra. ihre Zeit und ihre Bedeutung fur die Chronolo-
gie des Vedanta. Beitrage zur indischen Philologie und Altertumskunde. Festschrift W.
Schubring. S. 162-163 (1951).
xvii) RNA Intro. 2l.
xviii) Hacker. op. cit. 163; Bhattacharya. op. cit. 29. 54 etc. (1958); RNA Intro. 2. 3
with n. 2.
xix) Bhattacharya 4-5 ; Frauwallner. Jnanasri, WZKM Bd. 38. 231 with A. 1 (1931) :
Chronological order of Udayana's works is: ATV, Kusumiinjali. TiitParya-
pariSuddhi, Kiraffiivali. Two small works, and were. according
to Bhattacharya, written after Tiitparyaparisuddhi. from which they borrow benedictive
verses. In the above mentioned work, Frauwallner placed Ratnakirti at c. 950 and his master
jnanasri in the first half of 10th cent. A. D. For an argument against this see n. 333 below.
xx) According to Satikaramisra, a commentator on ATV. Udayana refuted in ATV
Ratnakirti's Citriidvaitasiddhi Cd. Bhattacharya 18) ; Thakur says on the basis of a passage
in ATV that Udayana seems to have been aware of the relationship between Jnanasrimitra
and Ratnakirti (JNA Intro. 31).
-9-
We may su.ppose that Vacaspatimisra had already written his master-
piece, NVT, and the Nyiiyaka1Jikii, both of which were the objects of
jfianasrimitra's refutation, earlier than 976 A. D., say, by abou.t 950 A. D.
This may push back the beginning of the activity of Jfianasrimitra by
30 years and make it possible to insert him and Ratnakirti in between
Vacaspati and Udayana. Bu.t we can assume with equal weight that
Vacaspati must have written NVT together with NSN, which is a supple-
ment to the fonner.
xxi
Bhattacharya enumerates many factors which are
inconsistent with the supposition which places the activity of VacasPati
and Jfianasri at so early a date as 950 A. D. Is the date 984 A. D. in
which Udayana is said to have written the Lak$a1Jiivali so certain as to
disprove the Tibetan tradition that jfianasrimitra was an older contempo-
rary of Atisa?
Hacker does not touch the date of Udayana, appreciating that the
latter gives the date 906 Saka with a clear reference to the era. But
Bhattacharya and Thakur are of the opinion that the date, which is
written only in a single manu.script dated so late as 1708 SaIhvat, should
be reconsidered as the date of Vacaspati was. And Bhattacharya actually
proposes 1025-1100 A. D. for Udayana's life.
xxii
Bhattacharya's proposal
is based mainly on two traditions: the Tibetan one relating to jfianasri-
mitra and Ratnakirti to which we have referred above, and the other
concerning the debate between Udayana and the father of whose
date can be known with a fair certainty.
xxiii
Bhattacharya's prolonged
argument seems to lack incontestable evidence, but it is persuasive enough
at least to make us doubt the date given in the manuscript of the
Lak$a1}iivali. And when Udayna's date is in the balance, we should
derive the most natural conclusion from the date of Vacaspatimisra,
which is now agreed to by many scholars, and we may return to our
former suggestion in assessing jfianasrimitra's activity as 980-1030 and
that of Ratnakirti as 1,000-1050 A. D.
To come back to Moksakaragupta, he may thus be placed between
xxi) This is maintained by Bhattacharya, 29.
xxii) Bhattacharya 54.
xxiii) Bhattacharya, 49-50. This event is stated by Bhagiratha, a commentator of the
18 th century on the father Srihira had an academic contest with Uda-
yana. In other words Udayana was older than by only one generation. Bhat-
tacharya thinks that the debate took place probably in the decade 1075-85 A. D.
-10-
1050 and 1292 A. D. It is almost certain that the jagaddhala Vihara
was finally destroyed by the sack of the Muslims in 1202 A. D. when
Sakyasribhadra of Kasmir is said to have fled, on seeing the devastation
of the Vikramasila, to jagaddala of at last entering Tibet in
1204 A. D.xxiv We are not absolutely sure if this jagaddala of
is in reality identical with the jagaddhala Vihara of Bengal, as is supposed
by scholars.
xxv
Apart from it, however, Cordier Catalogue, Rgyud XXVI,
50 and Mdo XXVII, 8 mention Danasila and Vibhiiticandra, who entered
Tibet also at the very beginning of the 13 th century, as of Varendra-
jagaddala and jagaddalavihara respectively, both of which mu.st be under-
stood as our jagaddhala Vihara itself. Hence we have to assume that the
Vihara existed until it was destroyed in 1202 A. D. Although it is very
natural to think that Buddhist activities dwindled rapidly under the Senas,
the who had overwhelmed the Palas by about 1150 A. D., we
are not sure that the Senas did persecute Buddhists or that the Vlhara
perished with the Palas. Until the Tibetan information mentioned im-
mediately above is disproved, therefore, we should not put back the date
of the Vihara or that of Moksakaragupta. Nor can the fact that he does
not refer to Udayana indicate with certainty that he lived before Udayana.
Thus, until we get other evidence, we cannot narrow the duration of time
1050-1202 A. D. within which Moksakaragupta's activity must fall.
3 The Text: The Sanskrit text of TBh was edited twice: once by
Embar Krishnamacharya as Vol. XCIV of the Gaekwad's Oriental Series
(G), and secondly by H. R. Rangaswami Iyengar as a part of the
Tarkabhii$ii and Viidasthiina published in Mysore in 1952 eM). The
manuscripts used by both the editors are not perfect. G omits many
passages found in M, and especially in the first few pages it is unreliable
owing to the corruption of the Mss. utilised. According to Iyengar, three
leaves are missing out of the Mss. of the Mysore Oriental Library on
which M is based. In general, however, M is a far better edition than
G, and agrees well with the Tibetan translation except in some details.
The Tibetan translation Rtog gehi skad is listed in the Tohoku Catalogue
xxiv) Ct. Tiiranatha, 255; Sumpa Khan-po's Pag sam Jon zang, ed. S. C. Das, 122.
xxv) Ct. e. g. SR xxxvii, n. 7. But we are not absolutely sure that the Jagaddalavihara
and Jagaddala of are the same. B. B. Basu, for example. refers to a place named
Jagaddala in Orissa which is different from the Jagaddalavihara of Bengal (Basu, Archaeo-
logical Survey Reports of Mayurbhanj).
-11-
as no. 4246, in the Catalogue of Peking Reprint Edition as no. 5762,
and in Cordier Catalogue as Mdo CXII, 28. This is the largest and
complete text, complementing the lacunae of the Sanskrit text.
The following translation is made from M in principle; but whenever
the better reading is found in G or T, it is adopted with the necessary
notification; the lacunae in the Sanskrit text are filled up by translating
the corresponding portions of the Tibetan. Sectioning and titling of the
sections are made by the translator; in order to make the context of the
translation clearer, supplementary words are inserted in brackets; Sanskrit
words equivalent to the preceding English translation or English words
corresponding to the Sanskrit words used in the translation are given in
Parentheses when necessary; in footnotes, numbers refer to the pages
and lines of the texts concerned in principle, but with s., k., or v. they
refer to the number of sutra or verse; in the footnote, when a citation
from another text is marked by the preceding =, it is exactly identical
with the concerned Passage in TBh, and when not so marked, the reader
is asked to compare both. The translator believes that TBh, presenting
rich information in brief and lucid language, could be used at least as the
basis of a dictionary of Buddhist logical terminology which he is attempt-
ing. In view of this, he has tried in footnotes to trace back the citation
in TBh to the original and to supply the theory discu.ssed by o k ~ k r
gupta with a brief su.rvey of the tradition behind it, though the range of
his search is limited mainly to Sanskrit editions. Althou.gh he does not
imagine that he has fully succeeded, it is hoped that the present work
with detailed notes and commentaries cou.ld serve as a handbook of Bud-
dhist philosophy.
During his stay in London in 1962, the translator read and discu.ssed
some portions of Chap. III of TBh with Professor John Brough of the
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, many of
whose valuable suggestions are incorporated into the present work. Espe-
cially when reading 20.2.4 in which our text, Sanskrit as well as Tibetan,
is far from perfect, his analysis and Partial rendering proved to be ex-
tremely helpful. The translator expresses his sincere graditude. Of the
Pramiiflasamuccaya of Dignaga, the translator has derived information
from the works of Professor M. Hattori of Kyoto University (the part
on epistemology) and Professor H. Kitagawa of Nagoya University (the
-12 -
part on logic). Prof. Kitagawa's work in its final form was published
just as the present work was completed for the press; Prof. Hattori's
work is to be published in the Harvard Oriental Series, but the translator
could refer to the typescripts which were made available to him by the
kindness of the author. Professor Y. 0 jihara has been ready to help the
translator whenever the latter appoached him with questions, especially
those concerning Sanskrit grammar. The translator acknowledges his
indebtedness to all these scholars. Thanks are also due to Mr. Peter
Challis, who read through the English translation and helPed the transla-
tor revise it.
-13 -
ABBREVIATIONS
AK=L'Abhidharmakosa de Vasubandhu, tr.
L. de la Vallee Poussin.
ATV=Atmatattvaviveka of Udayana. Bib-
liotheca Indica 5 & Chowkhamba Skt.
Series.
AYV= Hemacandra' s Anyayogavyavaccheda-
dvatrimsika, included in SVM.
BCA & BCAP=Bodhicaryavatara of San-
tideva with the Panjika of Prajnakara-
mati. ed. P. L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit
Texts No. 12.
Bhattacharya=D. Bhattacharya, History of
Navya-Nyaya in Mithila.
Bhattaputra-Jayamisra=Slokavarttikatika
.. .
(Sarkarika) of BhaHaputra-Jayamisra, ed.
Kunhan Raja.
Blue Annals=G. N. Roerich, The Blue An-
nals (Deb-ther shon-po).
BSOAS=Bulletin of the School of Oriental
and African Studies.
Da.sgupta=S. Dasgupta, A History of Indian
Philosophy.
DP=Dharmottarapradipa of PaI].c;1ita Durve-
kamisra, ed. Dalsukhbhai Malvania. Ti-
betan Sanskrit Works Series, Vol. 2.
Fragment; Randle, Fragment=H. N. Randle.
Fragments from Dihnaga.
G=TarkabhalJla of ed. Em-
bar Krishnamacharya. with a Skt. com-
mentary by the editor. GOS no. XCIV.
Gnoli=PV Chap. I. with Dharmakirti's Sva-
vrtti.
Hattori = Masaaki Hattori. The PramaI].a-
samuccaya of Dignaga (Book
pariccheda)Tibetan Text and an annota-
ted English Translation. Typescripts.
HB=Hetubindu of Dharmakirti. a Skt. re-
construction included in HBT & the Tib.
edition (Peking Reprint ed. no. 5712).
HBT=Hetubindupka of BhaHa Arcata, ed.
Sukhlalji Sanghavi. GOS CXIII.
IBK= Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyii or Jour-
nal of Indian and Buddhist Studies.
JBRS=Journal of the Bihar Research Society.
JNA= Jnanasrimitranibandhavali, ed. A.
Thakur. Tibetan Skt. Works Series Vol. V.
JSS and JSSN= Jnanasarasamuccaya falsely
ascribed to Aryadeva & its com. Jiiana.
sarasamuccayanibandhana of Bodhibhadra.
The Tibetan text of JSS is available in S.
Yamaguchi. Chiikan Bukkyo Ronko (4tE
f9l!txiffi02Z) pp. 265-341. For JSSN Peking
Reprint Edition No. 5252 is used.
KarI].akagomin = KarI].akagomin' s PramaI].a-
varttikasvavfttipka. ed. Rahula Samkrty-
ayana. Kitab MahaL 1943.
-1:/
CHidenori Kitagawa, A Study of Indian
Classical Logic-Dignaga's System.
Kunst=Arnold Kunst. Probleme der bud-
dhistischen Logik in der Darstellung des
Tattvasamgraha.
M= Tarkabha!lla of includ-
ed in Tarkabha!ila and Vadasthana, ed.
H. R. Rangaswami Iyengar, Mysore, 1952.
Manameyodaya = Manameyodaya by Nara-
yaI].a. ed. & tr. Kunhan Raja, Adyar.
MIK= Miscellanea Indologica Kiotiensia.
= Sabara' s MlmamsabhalJlya
in Mlmarhsadarsanarh sabhalJlyarh, ed.
Jlvananda Vidyasagara BhaHacarya. Cal-
cutta.
Mookerjee=Satkari Mookerjee, The Bud-
dhist Philosophy of Universal Flux.
Mookerjee and Nagasaki=S. Mookerjee and
H. Nagasaki. The Pramal].avarttikam of
Dharmaklrti. Eng. tr. (Nava Nalanda
Mahavihara Research Publication Vol. IV).
NB & NBT=Nyayabindu of Dharmaklrti
with Nyayabindupka of Dharmottara, ed.
T. Stcherbatsky. Bibliotheca Buddhica VII.
See NS.
-15 -
ed. T. St-
cherbatsky. Bib. Bud. XI.
NK=M. Bhimacarya Jhalakikar, Nyayakosa.
Bombay Skt. and Prakrit Series No. XLIX,
1928.
of Vacaspatimisra.
New Series Vol. XXVI.
NS & NBh=Nyayasutra of Gautama with
Vatsyayana's ed. G. Jha.
Poona Oriental Series No. 58.
NV & NVT=Nyayavarttika of Uddyotakara
& NyayavarttikatatparyaFka of Vacaspa-
timisra, included in Nyayadarsanam, ed.
A. M. Tarkatirtha. Calcutta Skt. Series
No. XVIII.
of Sri Va-
dirajasurL ed. Mahendra Kumar Jain. Ka-
shL 1954.
of in-
cluded in PKM.
by Prabha-
candra, ed. Mahendra Kumar Shastri.
Bombay, 1941.
PPU=Prajiiaparamitopadesa of Ratnakara-
santi. Peking Reprint Edition No. 5579.
Prasannapada = (MUlamadhyamakakarikas
de Nagarjuna avec) la Prasannapada Com-
mentaire de Candrakirti (Bib. Bud.), ed.
de la Vallee Poussin.
PS, & -vrtti. Pek-
ing Reprint Edition Nos. 5700, 5701 (V=
tr.), 5702
varman's tr.)
PV= varttika of Dharmakirti. For
Chap. 1 (Svarthanumana) R. Gnoli's ed
(SOR XXIII) is used : For Chaps. II
III & IV
(Pararthanumana)
ed. Rahula Samkryayana (Tib. Skt.
works Series, 1) is used.
or -alam-
kara of Prajnakaragupta, ed. Rahula Sam-
krtyayana.
of Dharmakirti.
Peking Reprint Edition, No. 5710.
PVnT=PramaIfaviniscayaFka of Dharmot-
tara. Peking Reprint Edition, No. 5727.
PVV=PramaJ?avarttikavrtti of Manoratha-
nandin, ed. Rahula Samkrtyayana. 1937.
Randle=H. N. Randle, Indian logic in the
early schools.
RC=The Ramacarita of Sandhyakaranandin,
ed & tr. R. C. Majumdar & others. 1939.
RNA=RatnakirtinibandhavaH, ed. A. Tha-
kur. Tib. Skt. Works Series Vol. III.
= Dharmakirti 's Samban-
by E. Frauwallner, WZKM
Bd. 41.
Sastradipika=Sastradipika of Parthasara-
thimisra, ed. Laxman Shastri Dravida.
Chowkhamba Skt. Series, No. 188.
SBNT=Six Buddhist Nyaya Tracts, ed. M.
M. Haraprasad Shastri. Bibliotheca Indica,
New Series No. 1226.
SDS=Sarvadarsanasamgraha of SayaJ?a-
Madhava, ed. V. S. Abhyankar. Govern-
ment Oriental Series, Class A, No.4,
Poona.
Siddhi = 1. de la Vallee Poussin, La Siddhi
de Hiuan-Tsang.
SR=The ed. Kosambi
and Gokhale. HOS 42.
Stcherbatsky=T. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist
Logic, 2 vols. Bib. Bud. XXVI.
SV & SVK= Mimamsaslokavarttika with
Sucaritamisra's Kasika, ed. K. Sambasiva
Sastri. Trivandrum Skt. Series, No. XC.
3 parts.
SVM=Syadvadamanjari of ed.
A. B. Dhruva with Intro. & Notes etc.
Poona 1933.
Tibetan Edition: Tn=Na-
rthan ed.; Tp=Peking ed. ; Td=Derge
ed.
Taranatha=A. Schiefner, Taranatha's Ge-
schichte des Buddhismus.
of
TRD= (Shaddarsanasamuchchaya by Hari-
bhadra with) Com. Tarkara-
hasyadipika, ed. L. Suali. Bib. Ind.
CLXVII.
TS & TSP=Tattvasamgraha with the com.
(Panjika) of Kamalasila, ed. E. Krish-
namacharya. GOS No. XXXI.
TSop=Tarkasopana of VidyakarasantL in
G. Tucci, Minor Buddhist Texts, Part 1
-16 -
(SOR IX).
Virhsatika = Virhsatika Vijnaptimatratasid.
dhil}., ed. S. Levi.
Visalamalavati=Visalamalavati nama Pra
ma1).asamuccayapka by Jinendrabuddhi.
Peking Reprint Edition, No. 5766.
VP=The Vakyapadiya by Bhartrihari
(Brahmaka1).Q.a), ed. Suryanaraya1,1a Sukla.
Kashi Skt. Series, 124.
WZKM= Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde
des Morgenlandes.
WZKSO=Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde
Siid. und Ostasiens.
-17 -
CONTENTS OF THE TARKABHAl?A
Chapter 1. Indeterminate Knowledge
Prefatory verse 1. p.23
Valid cognition defined and discussed:
pramii'fJam samyagjiiiinam apurvago-
caram 2. p.23
Function of valid cognition and the mean-
ing of priipakatva 2.1. p.24
The logical difficulty arising from uni-
versal momentariness is solved 2.2.
p.25
Is auditory knowledge valid? The mean
ing of arthakriyiisthiti explained 2.3.
p.26
Is the validity of knowledge dependent
on other knowledge or not? 2.4. p.27
Apurvagocara explained 2.5. p.28
Sense-organ is not a means of valid
knowledge 2.6. p.28
Classification of valid cognition 3. p.29
Valid knowledge is of only two kinds
4. p.30
Refutation of the Carvaka's view of
pramii1}a 4.1. p.31
Refutation of verbal testimony (sahda)
4.2. p.32
Refutation of identification (upamiina)
4.3. p.35
Refutation of presumption (arthiipatti)
4.4. p.38
Rufutation of non-existence (ahhiiva)
4.5. p.38
Indeterminate knowledge
defined and discussed; kalpaniipo4ham
explained 5. p.40
Ahhriinta explained 5.1. p.43
Classification of indeterminate know-
ledge; sense-perception 6. p.44
Mental perception 6.1. p.45
Self-consciousness 6.2. p.47
Mystic intuition of a seer 6.3. p.53
Questions regarding meditation and
emancipation answered 6.3.1. p.54
Object of indeterminate knowledge 7.
p.56
That the particular is the object of
indeterminate knowledge must be con-
strued by ayogavyavaccheda and not
by anayogavyavaccheda 7.1. p.56
Object of valid knowledge is twofold:
griihya and adhyavaseya 7.1.1. p.58
Two kinds of universals:
and as the object of
siidhana- and
respectively 7.1.2. p.58
Object of determinate knowledge is also
twofold 7.1.3. p.59
Refutation of the six categories of the
Vaiselllika 7.2. p.59
Identity of the cause and effect of cogni-
tion 8. p.60
Knowledge is necessarily endowed with
the image of its object (siikiirajniina-
viida) 8.1. p. 61
Chapter II. Inference for oneself
Classification of determinate knowledge
or inference 9. p. 63
Function or object of inference: different
opinions 9.1. p.64
The three characteristics of a logical
mark; 10. p.65
Anvaya 10.1. p.67
Vyatireka 10.2. p.69
Different opinions as to why both anvaya
and vyatireka are necessary 10.3. p.70
Logical mark is of only three kinds 11.
p.72
Logical mark as effect 11.1. p.72
Formal statement of an inference or a
-19 -
syllogism is two-membered; refutation
of the five-membered syllogism of the
Naiyayika 11.2. p.72
How to establish a causal relation 11.3.
p;74
Logical mark of essential identity 12.
p.76
Logical mark of non-cognition 13. p.77
Non-cognition establishes not absence
itself but practical activities concern-
ing absence 13.1. p. 78
Non-cognition is of the nature either of
identity or of causality 13.2. p.79
Significance of the qualifier upalabdhi-
lak!}ar:aprapta 13.3. p.80
Non-cognition refers only to present and
past experience 13.4. p. 81
Classification of negative inference into
16 formulae 13.5. p.81
Chapter III. Inference for others
Inference for others defined 14. p.86
Two kinds of syllogism: method of
agreement and that of difference 15.
p.86
Syllogism by the method of agreement
and with a logical mark of identity
16. p.86
Proof of universal momentariness 16.1.
p.87
Recognition (pratyabhijna) is merely
constructive imagination 16.2. p.88
Four kinds of the syllogism based on
identity: nirvise!}ar:a-prayoga 16.3. p.89
Savise!}ar:a-prayoga 16.3.1. p.90
Bhinnavise!}ar:a-prayoga 16.3.2. p.91
Prayuktabhinnavise!}ar:a-prayoga 16.3.3.
p.92
Syllogism by the method of difference
and with a logical mark of identity
17. p.92
Syllogism by the method of agreement
and with a logical mark of causality
18. p.93
Syllogism by the method of difference
and with a logical mark of causalily
18.1. p.94
- 20
Syllogism of negation by the method of
agreement 19. p.94
Syllogism of negation by the method of
difference 19.1. p. 94
Pervasion (vyapti) explained in relation
to the two syllogistic methods 20. p.95
The Naiyayika's proof of the existence
of God as an illustration of untrue
vyapti 20.1. p.95
Its refutation 20.2. p.98
Trilocana's objection rejected 20.2.1. p.100
V yatireka (negative pervasion) cannot
be established by mere non-perception
20.2.2. p. 104
Vacaspatimisra's objection rejected 20.
2.3. p.105
The problem of solipsism discussed
20.2.4. p. 106
Other fallacies of the proof of God are
pointed out 20.2.5. p.108
The relation of anvaya and vyatireka
21. p.1U
Antarvyapti and bahirvyapti ,. how to
determine a vyapti 22. p.111
Untrue vyapti effects the fallacy of
anaikiintikatva 23. p. 113
Reasoning to an undesired conclusion
(prasanga) defined 24. p.114
Prasanga, prasangaviparyaya and sa-
dhyaviparyayabiidhakapramar:a ill ust-
rated 24.1. p.114
Function of prasanga 24.3. p.117
Confutation (du!}ar:a) defind vaiy-
arthya, asamarthya, atiprasanga etc.
are not different from the fallacies
of asiddha-, viruddha- and anaikantika-
hetu 25. p. 118
Confutation of asrayasiddhahetu illus-
trated by the refutation of atman
25.1. p.119
Confutation of svarupasiddhi,. untrue
vyapti is not different from anai!?anti-
katva 25.2. p.121
The theory of apoha; vidhivada and
nivrttyapohavada are both criticised
and the theory of apohavisi!}!avidhi
is established 26. p. 122
Refutation of a universal 27. p.126
Refutation of God as the permanent
agent 28. p.130
The permanent cannot produce an effect
gradually 28.1. p.131
Refutation of recognition appended
28.2 p.132
Karman or the mind is the sole cause
of the world 28.3. p.134
The existence of two kinds of omni-
scient persons proved : 1) Person who
knows the absolute truth (sarvajna)
29. p.134
2) All-knowing person (sarvasarvajna)
29.1. p.136
Proof of the succession of lives 29.2. p.137
The doctrine of the i b h ~ i k 30 p.139
The doctrine of the Sautrantika: siikii-
rajniinaviida and the proof of the
external reality 31. p.139
Refutation of the soul 31.1. p.140
Refutation of ether, time, direction and
the mind 31.2. p.142
Refutation of earth, water, fire and air
31.3. p.143
The doctrine of the Yogacarin 32. p.145
Siikiiraviida and niriikiiraviida of the
Yogacarins 32.1. p.148
The doctrine of the Madhymika 33. p.148
- 21-

THE LANGUAGE OF LOGIC

Chapter 1. Indeterminate knowledge
1. Prefatory verse. (1.2) IHaving done reverence to the master, the
lord of the world
2
, I [here begin to] elucidate the language of logic in
order that [even] students of little intelligence may learn the thought of
Dharmakirti.
2. Valid cognition defined. (1.4) Since those who act with delibera-
tion in the world, desirous [for some object], follow the means of valid
knowledge (pramii1}a) which are able to make us attain all human aims,
the means of valid knowledge is to be first discussed
3

(1.6) The means of valid knowledge CPramii:l}a) is true knowledge

(samyagjnana) refernng to an object not known before
4
[It is called]
Prama1}a since by means of it an object is measured. However, it is not
different from tru.e knowledge itself,5 because it is free from the fault of
uncertainty (samdeha) and erroneousness (viparyasa). In the world, know-
ledge not disagreeing [with experience] Cavisamvadaka) is called true
knowledge.
6
And this non-disagreement is not found in uncertain know-
1. As stated by the editor in G 1, n. 1 the first few pages of this edition are based
on the very defective manuscripts. and the parenthesized words are not those of the
author of TBh. Until p. 4 of G. I disregard the variant readings found in it except at
important places.
2. According to RC III. v. 7. an image of the Bodhisattva Lokesa (probably the same
as AvalokitesvaraJ was placed at the center of the city of Varendri. where Mokli}akaragupta
resided in a monastery called Jagaddhala.
3. Cf. NB s. 1: samyagjniinapurvakii iti tad vyutPiidyate .. NBT
3. 23: arthakriyiirthibhis carthakriYiisamarthapriiptinimittam jniinam mrgyaf(l yac ca tair
mrgyate tad eva siistre viciiryate.
4. PVV 3. n. 2: pramii'l}am samyagjniinam aPurvagocaram iti
5. The Buddhist theory that the means and the result of cognition are one and the
same is dealt with in 8. See also PS I. v. 8 c-d: savyiipiiraPratitatviit pramii'l}am Phalam
eva sat. (Hattori. Part II. Section L n. 55); PV III. v. 308 a-b: sii ca tasyatmabhutaiva tena
narthiintaram phalam .. NB 1, s. 18: tad eva ca jniinam Pramii'l}aPhalam; PVBh
23. 5: Pramiit}atal} phalam nanyat Pramii'l}am na phaliit paramo etc.; TS v. 1344-1349.
6. NBT 3. 5: avisawWiidakam jniinam samyagjniinam .. PV H. v. 1: pramii'l}am avisam-
viidijniinam.
- 23-
ledge as e.g. the knowledge [which cannot determine its object] to be
either a man or a post, nor in erroneous knowledge as the knowledge
of water seen in a desert.
7
'Referring to an object yet known'
(apurvagocara)8 means that the object of it [=valid knowledge] has not
been experienced before, gocara (range) denoting an object such
as a jar. Knowledge which has been produced by it [=an object] and
which is capable of making us att.ain
9
the object is the means of valid
knowledge.
2.1. Function of valid cognition. (1.13) [The following objection
may be raised:] "Knowledge is the maker (kartr) [of an action], a per-
son [possessing the knowledge] the agent (prayojya), and a thing the
object (karman). But how can you. call knowledge a pramii1}a if sometimes
it does not [actually] make a man reach [an object] and thus is unable
to cause him to attain it"
[The author:] We reply. We do not mean that a person is forcibly
caused to act by knowledge as in the way of trampling on the neck,1
but that determination in the form' the essential quality of this thing is
such and not otherwise' is to be produced [by knowledge]; and if it is
produced by knowledge, this much [of function] is called the validity of
cognition, compatible [with experience]. As for a person possessing
knowledge, he may act11.ally take action towards the object becau.se of a par-
ticular need (prayojana) , or may not act OWIng to the lack of the need.
And the object may also be snatched away by a yogin or a devil [who
makes it unattainable]. But how is knowledge affected [throu.gh such
7. NBT 3, 18: iibhyiim pramiifJiibhyiim anyena jniinena pradarsito' kaScid atyanta-
yathii maricikiisu jalam. sa cdsattviit priiptum asakyalJ. kascid aniyato bhiiviibhii-
vayolJ yathii
8. APiirvagocaram or anadhigatiirthagantr is the qualificationigiven to the pramiifJa
by the Mimamsaka and the Buddhist. Stcherbatsky, II, 372, n. 6; PS I, k. 2d- 3 b: na ca
punalJ punar abhijniine' smrtiidivat = PVBh 242, 29 (Rattori, II, 1, n. 20; 22); PV
II, v. 3: grhitagrahafJiin siimvrtam,' v. 5 a: ajniitiirthaPrakiiso vii,' PVBh 21, 12 f. b. :
tatrdPiirviirthavijniinam niseitam biidhavarjitam, pramiifJam lokasamma
tam. Dharmottara explains the theory in NBT 3, 10 ft.: ata pramii1Jam. ..
tato ' apramii1Jam. Ratnakirti defines priimiifJya (RNA 90, 7): priimii1Jyam ca
tatpriipa'tJe Cf. n. 4 above.
9. For the expression priiPafJayogya see PVBh 22, 8-7 f. b.: priipakatviit pramii'tJam
iti eet, na, PriiPafJayogyatviit pramiifJasya,' TSop 275, 10-12: priipafJam api priipakatvam tad
yogyatii ca.
10. T mgrin pa nas bkug pa (Td PalJi) tshul du (in the way of pulling a person by
the neck.
- 24-
hindrances against actual attainment of the object]? 11
2.2. Logical diftitulty arising from universal momentariness is
solved. (2.4) [The opponent:] H The validity of cognition is [according
to you] testified by its agreeing with experience (avisainviidakatva), and
the agreement with experience is proved by the attainment of the object
seen. We cannot, however, attain the same thing which we have seen,
because of its momentariness [i. e. the thing seen is
different from the thing reached]. Furthermore, what is seen is the colour-
form (rupa) [of an object], but what is reached is the tangibility (spra-
[of the object]. Thus, one thing is seen and another is reached.
Accordingly what you reach is not the thing that you have seen. How
then does this cognition become valid?"
[The author: This argument is] untenable. For even if we reach
what is in reality different [from the thing we have seen], we still get
the logical imagination (adhyavasiiya) of identity I I reach the very same
object which I have seen'; and this is meant by the expression I attainment
of what has been apprehended' (pratitapriipana). On the other hand,
the knowledge of water derived from a mirage etc. is definitely invalid
because it cannot make us attain this [adhyavasiiyaJ.12
[The opponent :] II Is it not that apart from the attainment of efficient
operation
13
(arthakriyii) we cannot ascertain that this [knowledge] is
capable of causing to reach and that [knowledge] is not? And the
difference between a valid and an invalid knowledge cannot be. determined
by [perceiving] the mere origination of knowledge. Therefore, how can
it [i. e. knowledge determining the essential quality of an object] be valid
knowledge? "
[The author:] There is not this fault [in our theory]. It is true that
such a distinction cannot be determined by the. origination of knowledge in
general; yet we can point out how one is distinguished [from the other]
11. For a similar argument cf. NBT 3, 8: pravartakatvam api
sakam eva, na hi ha!hat pravartayitum saknoti vijnanam. See also E. Frauwallner,
Dharmottaras WZKM 42, 251.
12. NBT 4, 8-11: nanu desaniyatam akiiraniyatam ca praPayitum sakyam, yatkalam tu
paricchinnam tatkalam na sakyam PraPayitum. nocyate yasminn eva kale Paricchidyate tasminn
eva kale Prapayitavyam iti. anyo hi darsanakalo 'nyas ca kim tu yatkiilam paric-
chinnam tad eva PraPa'f}iyam. abhedadhyavasayac ca samtanagatam ekatvam iti.
13. PV II, v. 1 b-c: arthakriyasthitir avisamvadanam.
- 25-
when we get the knowledge specific
14
[to an object]. For instance, one
who gets a dull cognition may be unable to determine the validity of
knowledge at the moment of its origination, but he determines [the validity
.
of his knowledge of fire or water] through perceiving efficient operation
such as burning, cooking, immersion in water, 14.. bathing, drinking, 14
emergence, etc. when he sees them afar, or through perceiving rising
smoke etc. One who gets a sharp cognition, on the other hand, determines
it not through the attainment of efficient operation, but only by the sharper
perception (patutarapratyak$a).
2.3. The meaning of arthakriyasthiti explained (2.20) [The oppo-
nent may raise another question: J t t If the validity of cognition is defined
to be agreement [with actu.al experience], then how can an au.ditory know-
ledge (srotrajnana), which by its nature does not cause [the hearer
actually to] reach the object he understands, be valid? "15
[The author:] This is untenable. For we mean that the validity of
cognition is the apprehension of the essential quality (svarupa) of an
object; and this is possible without the actual attainment of efficient
operation referring to an external object. This is expressed [by Dharma-
kirti in PV 1.1 reading:]
It Non-disagreeing knowledge is valid cognition; non-disagreement
[here] means the existence of efficient operation."
[and the su.bsequent verse].16 In the case of the sound [of a word],
hearing is the existence of efficient operation, since the purpose of sound
is fulfilled if it is simply heard, just as the existence of efficient operation
consists in the simple act of seeing in the cases of [the perceptions of]
the sun, moon, cloud and sky. [This is meant by a Bu.ddhist logician]
when he says:
It The apprehension of the essential quality of an object is here
14. Tp, n, and a Skt. Mss (d. G 2, n. 2) have, instead of sniinaPiinajnii-
=ses khrus dan btun (Read btun) pa dan (Read khyad Par. .. , and omit
sniinaPiina out of the enumeration of the examples in the next line.
15. The problem is treated as a of PV II, v. 1 c-d (see n. 16 below) by
almost all commentators on PV. See e.g. PVBh 4, 17-18: ... tu jniine na diiha-
piikiidyarthakriyii, Paratas cdrthakriyii' bhiiviit. ...
16. PV II, v. 1-2: Pramii1Jam avisamviidi jniinam avisamviidanam siibde
'py abhipriiyanivedaniit. yo'rtho buddhau prakiisate, priimii1Jyam tatra
sabdasya ndrthatattvanibandhanam.
- 26-
admitted as the existence of (efficient] operation."17
2.4. Is the validity of knowledge dependent on other kno1Vledge or
not.? (3.7) However, when cognizing fire, water, etc. for the first time,
a reasonable person wishing for effective operation proceeds to them, start-
Ing from the mere uncertain knowledge about the efficiency (of the object].
18 Even if he is not dearly conscious that he has the doubt, (the
situation is not different,] since the uncertainty which is attached [to his
undertaking] can be by no means removed owing to the absence of a posi-
tive (sadhaka) or negative proof (badhaka)"'18
Therefore [the problem] has been settled: one acts for an object by
Virtue of his obtaining only sharper perception, which, as soon as it is
obtained, apprehends [by intuition] the customary efficiency [of the ob-
ject]. But one who gets merely the dun cognition [of an object] begins
to act after he has inferred the same [efficiency]. Thus, the validity of
indeterminate knOWledge (or direct perception] is established by itself
(svatalJ pramii1Jyam) [in the case of sharper one], but by another cogni-
tion (paratalJ) in some cases (in which the cognIzer is unable to confirm
the efficiency of an object at the first moment of the cognition]. As for
the knowledge of a yogin (yogijnana) and self-consciousness (svasalnve-
dana), the validity is established by themselves. As for inference which
is by nature certain, its validity is confirmed by itself.
19
17. Probably this is a verse by PrajiHikaragupta. PVBh 5, 21 (v. 9) : jneyasvariiPasmn-
siddhir eva tatra kriyii matii, citre' pi phalam parisamiiptimat.
18. T gal te de la lta bU!Ji the tshom med par !Jjug (par omitted in d) du
chug kyan, !Jon kyan sgrub par byed Pa dan gnod par byed tshad ma med phyir ro,
gan gsuns pa, the tshom d. n.) ba gait gis bzlog (zlog d, n) par byed, ces so.
My tr. follows M. I am reluctant to regard samsayo bhavan kena viiryate as a citation as
T and G do, nor have I so far identified it.
19. Contextually the discussion in 2.4 directly follows that in 2.2 (Our text in
2.2-2.4 may have some confusion]. Both the sections deal with the problem of whether
the validity of cognition is intrinsically proved or not (svatal] pramat}yam or ParatalJ Pra-).
Buddhist attitude towards the problem is most clearly stated by Kamalasila: He enume-
rates under TS v. 2811 four possible theories regarding the problem, viz. 1) both validity
and non-validity are established intrinsically; 2) they are both proved through external
cognition; 3) validity is proved intrinsically and non-validity by external cognition; 4)
validity is proved by external cognition and non-validity intrinsically (TSP 745, 3-5).
After a detailed examination he concludes: The Buddhist does not follow anyone of these
four theories, but holds that the validity of a cognition is proved sometimes intrinsically
and another time by another cognition, there being no definite principle (TSP 811, 17-18:
na hi bauddhair catur,!iim ekatamo' Pi ' ' The Bud-
- 27-
2.5. Apiirvagocara explained. (3.16) The following is implied in the
[discussion made above]: Knowledge which occurs of an object for the
first time is alone a valid all other knowledge which occurs
later regarding the same object being excluded. For the latter is not
valid because it grasps what has been once grasPed as e. g. in the case
of the determinate knowledge (savikalpakain jfliinam) in the form 'This
is a jar' which having seen a jar by means of indeterminate know-
ledge (nirvikalpakain jfliinam), get later with regard to the very same
object, and which is accordingly of the nature of remembrance; or again,
if we, having once obtained inferential knowledge 'Here there is fire' through
the perception of smoke, get again, a moment later, the inferential know-
ledge' Here there is fire' regarding the same place, [this latter knowledge
is not valid because it is not probative].20
2.6. Sense-organs are not the means of valid knowledge. (4.5)
When it is said that the means of valid knowledge is true
things S"l.lch as sense-organs which are by nature insentient are by implica-
tion (siimarthyiit) denied to be the means of valid knowledge, because
they are incapable of ascertaining [the object]. Determining oPeration
(paricchedakatva) is the function of a knower and this is
innate only in knowledge. How then can it be the nature of such things
as sense-organs which are by nature deprived of consciousness ?21
dhist logician divides sense-perception into two kinds: 1) perception of which the object
has been repeatedly cognized by us, and of which the particular nature, Le. the efficiency,
is discerned as soon as we get it. The validity of perception is in this case proved by
itself. 2) But when we are not accustomed to an object, we get perception of which the
validity is uncertain; then we need another cognition, perception representing the effective
action of the object or inference, in order to determine the validity of the first perception;
then its validity is proved by external cognition. The problem is easily solved in the case
of yogi-jiiiina, svasamvedana or inference, since these kinds of knowledge
do not depend on an external object and are by nature intrinsically determinate. This
problem is also treated by all the commentators on PV II, 1. For a brief but useful explana-
tion see PVV 3, 3 f. b. -4, 8 to which the description in TBh is very similar. See also TS
v. 2966, 2974-2976, with TSP.
20. n. 8 above.
21. PV II, v. 3: ... dhi pramii1}atii, pravfttes tatpradhiinatviid dheyopiideyavastuni.
kara interprets this verse in 2.5 and 2.6. TS v. 2029; TSop 281, 6-19 refutes the Vai-
who asserts the sense-organ to be the knower as follows: The con-
siders the sense-organ as knower thinking that if knowledge-which is not a resisting
substance- were the knower, it would grasp even a concealed object. But this is untenable,
you could say that knowledge would grasp even a concealed thing since nothing would
hinder its movement, only if we asserted that knowledge travels to an object to grasp it.
- 28-
3. Classification of the valid knowledge. (4.9) This [valid cogni-
tion] is twofold: indeterminate (pratyaka) and detenninate cognl'uon
(anumiina).22 Pratyak$a is [a tatpuru$a compound which can be analys-
ed into] ak$ain pratigata-
23
i. e I connected with or depending on the
sense-organ', ak$a here standing for indriya (sense-organs) called eyes,
ears, nose, tongue and skin. Knowledge brought about by them is named
indeterminate cognition [or direct perception].
[The opponent:] II If indeterminate knowledge is that depending on
sense-organs, the three kinds of knowledge, mental perception (miinasa-
pratyak$a) , [self-consciousness (svasamvedana) and the knowledge of a
seer (yogipratyak$a)] , which are to be soon dealt with, would not be
indeterminate, since they are not produced from sense-organs."24
[The author:] We reply to this. When we say I connected with the
sense-organ', it is simply the etymological definition (vyutpattinimitta) of
the word pratyaka. The definition of the usage of the word pratyak$a
But we say that knowledge grasps an image with which it is endowed. Moreover, an
object at an inaccessible place has no resemblance with knowledge. How then can it be
grasped by knowledge? Again, if the sense-organ were the knower. an object separated
by glass etc. could not be grasped, since your doctrine tells that ten kinds of material
dhiitus (to which the sense-organ belongs) are resisting substances (ef. AK I, v. 29). You
may contend: "Why is it said in the scripture that colour-form is grasped by the eyes?"
We reply to this: This teaching is a metaphorical one.
22. PS I, k. 2 a-b (=PVBh 169. 3) : anumii1}am ca pramiit}e (Hattori. II. 1.
n. 11); NB s. 2-3: dvividham samyagjiiiinam. anumiinam ca.
23. NBT 6. 2-4: iti, pratigatam iisritam atyiidayaJ; kriintiidyarthe
dvitiyayeti samiisaJ;. abhidheyavallinge sati
sarvalingaJ; siddhaJ;. This explanation is almost verbally quoted in TSop
276. 2-6. presupposes this grammatical interpretation given by Dharmottara.
though he does not cite it. is a compound word which may be analysed into
(PaJ;l. suo 3. 4. 223) pratigata-, pratigata- meaning iisrita-, i.e. 'connected with or
depending on the senses'. (That is to say, it is a belonging to the group gati-
samiisa taught in su 2. 2. 18). However. it is formed according to the rule (in Bh. ad 2.
2. 18 vt. 4): atyiidayaJ; kriintiidyarthe dvitiyayii (prefixes like ati- etc. in the sense of (ati-)
kriinta- etc. can enter into composition with (their complement) in the accusative case).
CIf it is a would agree in gender with that of the last member.
as taught in su 2. 4. 26, and would be always of the neuter gender. But it is not so. for
the agreement of the gender of a with its last member is denied (by 2. 4. 26 vt.)
in compounds whose first members are priipta- iipanna-, or alam- and 'gati samiisa. Thus.
the gender of the word (as described at the beginning of Bh. ad 2. 2. 29) agrees
with the subject to be related. and it is established as an adjective taking all the three
genders.
24. NBT 6. 6-7.
- 29-
[in its particular sigtlificatioo] (pravrtttnimitta) is to be understood as
direct apprehension' (sak$atktiritva) according to its conventional sense
(ruifhivasat), jtist as [we understand not only I mud-born' but also a
species of lofus when we hear the word] jJaizkaja. Thus it is established
that self-consciousness and the others are also denoted by the term praty-
ak$a, because they directly apptehend knowledge as the content of self-
consciou.sness and the others. 25
(4.18) By wuina [of anumana] is meant that an object is measured
by this means. The [prefix] anu- is in the sense of I later' (pascat).
Thus, determinate knowledge or inference (anumana) means I subsequent
measure' . That is to say, I after' having grasped a logical mark (liizga
or probans) and having remembered the connection between the mark
and that which possesses the mark (liizgin, probandum), we get, regarding
the concerned locus (dharmin) such as a mountain, knowledge which
refers to an object not directly perceived. This knowledge is meant by
the term I inference' .26 Such [usage of the word in its particular significa-
tionJ is to be understood according to the conventional sense [of the word].
4. Valid knowledge is of only two kinds. (5.3) By the word I two-
fold' are refuted the different opinions which [classify valid knowledge
into] one, three, four, five, and six kinds. That is to say, the Carvaka
recognizes only one valid cognition, 1. e. perception; the Sarilkhya percep-
tion, inference and verbal testimony (sabda); the Naiyayika perception,
inference, identification (upamana), and verbal testimony; the Prabhakara
perception, inference, verbal testimony, identification and presumption or
postulation (arthiipatti); the [Bhatta-] Mimarilsaka perception, inference,
verbal testimony, identification, presumption and non-existence (abhava).27
We have enumerated indeterminate and determinate knowledge when
it has been already understood that there are two valid cognitions by the
25. NBT 6, 4-6; TSop 276, 6-8.
26. NBT 6, 10-13.
27. This description of various theories on the classification of pramiit}a is quoted
with slight variations in TSop 277, 4-10. TSop 277, 9-10 abhiivo hi sabdas ca
pramiit}am iti vaiyiikarat}ii1) seems to be confused, and it can be bettered by emending into
abhiivo'pi mimiiinsakiinam. sabdas ca pramiit}am iti (d. the follow-
ing passage in TBh). In this connection a verse in Miinameyodaya 8 is interesting: ciir-
viikiis tiivad ekain dvitayam api punar dvau bhasarvajiias ca sainkhyas
tritayam udayaniidyiis vadanti, priihuJ;: paiicakam api ca vayain te' pi
vediintavijiiaJ;: paurat}ikiis tv abhidadhire sambhavaitihyayogiit.
- 30-
word t twofold' . The reason for this is to reject [the theory of] twofold
cognition with different members. For the Vaiyakara1J.a says that twofold
valid knowledge consists of perception and verbal testimony. 28
4.1. Refutation of the Cirvaka's view of pramana. (5.12) First of
all, we assert that the Carvaka has necessarily to admit the validity of
inference. For he (1) advances the definition of perception [which is the
same as inference proving the identity of and pramii1}a] in
order to teach others [the characteristic common to valid perceptions and
that common to false perceptions]. (2) Other people's thought is not
perceptible but is to be inferred through its effect such as the operation
of their body and words. From this, it follows that when he [says heJ
understands another person's thought, he is forced to admit the inference
based on the logical mark of an effect. Again, (3) when he denies the
existence of another world, he actually has resort to a proof called nega-
tion (anupalambha) [which is inferential knowledgeJ. Therefore, how
can the Carvaka be sane when he argues by means of inferential know-
ledge, while saying that inference is not valid knowledge.
29
rFrom the fact that you, the Carvakas, establish the common
nature of valid knowledge and that of invalid knowledge, that you
understand the thought of another person, and that you negate
something, it follows that [inference which is] a pramii1}a other
than perception exists.J30
28. For the Vaiyakara1].a's refutation of inference as valid knowledge see Viikyapad-
iya, I, v. 32-34. They are cited for criticism's sake in TS v. 1460-1462. Cf. Mookerjee 366-
367. G adds here an oft quoted verse of Dharmakirti : pramii1}etarasiimiinyasthiter anyadhiyo
gatel], pramii1}iintarasadbhiival] ca kasyacit. This verse, originally found in PVn
Peking ed. Ce 251, b 6 ff., is quoted in Ratnakirti's Pramii1}iintarbhiivaprakarar:a (RNA 90,
2-3). It is also cited in SDS II, 19, 38-39; PKM 180, 5; 324, 4; NVV 1, 386, 2 etc. In 4
follows the argument of Ratnakirti; so it is quite possible that as in G he
actually quoted this verse from Ratnakirti. But G misplaces the verse, since it is meant
for proving the existence of inference against the Carvaka who admits only perception as
valid cognition and accordingly should be brought under 4. 1.
29. Our author closely follows the argument of Ratnakirti. RNA 89, 25-29: na ca ciir-
viiko'py anumiinam anavasthiipya sthiitum prabhavati, vyapiiratrayakara1}iit. tacchiistre hi pra-
pramii1}etaravidhiinam vidhiitavyam, tac ca
dharmit}i prama1}ye pratyetavye svabhavo hetul]. parabuddhipratipattau ca
kiiyiidivyiiparal] kiiryahetu!}. ca drsyiinupalambho 'ngikartavya iti katham
anumiiniipaliipal]. ... See also SDS 18, 25-19, 40; TS v. 1456-1459 gives the Carvaka's criticism
of inference which is refuted in the following verses by Santirakillita. But this refutation
is made in a way different from that in our text.
30. n. 28 above.
- 31-
4.2. Refutation of verbal testimony. (6.1) 31Knowledge derived from
verbal testimony could be admitted as valid only if it agreed with the
external object; and this agreement (avisainviidakatva) is not possible
without a relationship (sainbandha). There is not, however, any relation
between the word and the external object. The reason is as follows: If
there w'ere a relationship between the word and the thing-meant, it would
be either identity (tiidiitmYa) or causality (tadutpatti). Of these, an identical
relationship does not anyhow exist between the word and the thing-meant,
since the two are manifested as completely different [from each other].
For unity (ekatva) is called identity. And if unity were to be admitted
even between two differently manifested things, a cow and a horse would
be one thing. Nor is a causal relationship [possible between the word
and the thing-meant], since neither concomitance in agreement (anvaya)
nor in difference (vyatireka) is observed [between them]. You cannot,
therefore, assert that there is a causal connection between the two. For
we see ajar, etc. being produced out of a lump of clay, a stick, water,
a potter, and a wheel without [depending on] the operation of words,
and a word for its part is produced only through the palate, etc. operated
by the mere will of a man, even when there is no external object.32
(6.12) If there were, apart from identity and causality, another real
relationship33 marked by the verbal expression and its meaning between
the word and the thing-meant, then it would follow that when a word is
spoken, even one
34
who does not know the verbal conven1:J.on can under-
31. Verbal testimony is advocated mainly by the Mimamsakas and the Naiyayikas.
The first half of the author's criticism ( 4.2) is directed to the Mimamsakas who regard
the Vedic injunction as a means of valid knowledge, and the last half ( 4.2. 1) to the
Naiyayikas who define verbal testimony as the words of a reliable person. Our author
follows Ratnakirti's discussion in RNA 92 ff.
32. RNA 92, 11-19: codaniiyiis tiivad biihye'rthe pratibandhiibhiiviin na priimiir;yam, pra-
yasya yatra pratibandho nasti na tasya tatra priimiir;yam, yathii dahane'pratibaddha-
sya riisabhasya, apratibaddhiis ca bahirarthe vaidikiil; sabdii iti vyiipakiinupalabdhil;. na tiivad
ayam asiddho hetul;, sabdiiniim vastutal; pratibandhiibhiiviit. pratibaddhasvabhiivatii hi prati-
bandhal;, na ca sii nirnibandhanii, sarvatra pratibaddhasvabhiivatiiprasangiit. niband-
hanam casyiis tiidiitmyatadutpattibhYiim anyan nopalabhyate. atatsvabhiivasyatadutpattes ca
tatrapratibaddhasvabhiivatviit. na hi sabdiiniim bahirarthasvabhiivatdsti bhinnapratibhiisiivaro-
napi sabdii bahirarthiid upajiiyante, artham antarefJapi
dhavrttel; sabdasyotpiidadarSaniit.
33. M, T viistaval;,. G
34. M, T G pramiitul;.
- 32-
stand the definite meaning by virtue of the natural capacity (yogyatii)S5
[of a word], just as he apprehends a jar, etc.
S6
when it is lighted up by
a lalnp. But such is not the case, since, for example, a man who has
newly arrived from the NaIikera (Nicobar) islands does not understand
any meaning from the word agni when he hears it.
37
(6.17) [The opponent may contend:] liThe word is bom
S8
with such
a nature that it is able to denote such and such an object according to
such and such an agreement." But this is untenable, because there is no
evidence for this argument, for any agreement (sainketa) can be applied
to anything, and accordingly we do not know if someone really means
what he says or another thing.
39
(7.2) Or, admitting that there is a connection other [than identity
and causality], we should ask by what connection this [connection] is
connected with the two [i. e. the word and the thing-meant]. If you
propose that it is by another connection which is the fourth [entity], we
should ask by what connection the fourth is connected with the [other
three] entities. If you produce the fifth, the same question would be
asked again with regard to the fifth. Thus, there being an infinite regress
(anavasthii), the last is never established, which makes all the preceding
ones illegitimate. 40
(7.6) Or if
41
you say that the connection of the word and thing-
35. RNA 92, 20-23: nanu yogyatayaiva kimcit pratihaddha<;vahhiivam upalahhyate, yathii
riipe. khalu vyiipiiryamiit}am riipam evopalamhhayati, tathaivaite vai-
sahdiis tiidiitmyatadutpattiviyuktdpi yogyatiimiitret}t1tindriyam artham ....
36. M, T gha{iidi-; G gha!apa!iidi-.
37. RNA 93, 24-27: tarhi samhandho ... z'ti
eet, nanu tasya viistavatve 'smnketavido' py arthapratipattir hhaved ity uktam . ...
38. M jiiyate; G
39. RNA 93, 21-24: atha tadarthapratyiiyanayogya evt1yam jiita
ity ucyate, tad api na prastutopayogi, na hy evam asya priimiit}yam yadii hi
api samhhiivyata eva, tadii na sakyam upakalpayitum kim
ayam ahhimatasyaivt1rthasya dyotako na veti.
40. The following argument seems to originate from Dharmakirti's Samhandha-
v. 4: dvayor ekiihhisamhandhiit samhandho yadi samhandho 'navasthii
ca na samhandhamatis tathii CFrauwallner translates: Wenn die beiden (verbundenen
DingeJ durch die Verbindung mit einem einzigen (Ding) verbunden sind, welche Ver-
bindung besteht dann bei den beiden? Ferner (ergibt sich) eine endlose Reihe. Auf diese
Weise kann es keine Erkenntnis einer Verbindung geben.) Frauwallner, Dharmakirti's
Sambandhaparikli'a, WZKM Bd. 41, 264, 270 and 280.
41. M=T Cci ste) atha; G artha-.
- 33-
meant is possible without being connected [by another connection], this is
not correct. How can a thing which is not connected [with another] be a
connecting link itself, as in the case of a piece of cloth with regard to a
jar. (The opponent may contend:] II It should be said that a connection
is by nature such that it connects others without requiring another connec-
tion." 42 [The author:] This is untenable. No objection (uttara) may be
raised when the nature [of a thing] is established by a proof as when a
nature such as burning is [established by a proof] as belonging only to
fire and not to other things such as ether. On the contrary, we, in spite
of our scrutiny, do not find any justification for the establishment of a
connection. You should not contend that the word, having by nature an
expressive capacity (sabdasakti), never deviates from the thing-meant
determined by it. For if the word I jar' denotes by nature the category
(padiirtha) which, having a conch-shaped neck, is able to hold water,
then how can it denote a horse and other things when dePending on
another agreement and the particular will of a speaker. It will indeed
be impossible for a seed of rice, which is produced by its own causes
with the nature of yielding its shoot, to give birth to an ass, even if it
is understood according to another agreement. 43
4.2.1 (7.19) It is also not acceptable that the words spoken by
trustworthy Persons
44
are a means of valid knowledge, since trustworthiness
is impossible to be ascertained. The state of being emancipated from all
faults (k$i1}ado$atva) is called trustworthiness (iiptatva). Emancipation
from all faults refers to a cetain state belonging to another Person's Inind.
And this is hardly visible [1. e. determinable], since we see [sometimes]
that physical and lingual actions [supposed] to be the logical mark
45
[through which we infer the trustworthiness of the conemed Person]occur
46
in Persons who are not [really trustworthy]. When it is usual that a man
42. M sambaddhniiti,. G=T sambadhniititi.
43. RNA 93, 16-20: atha svahetubhir evayam idrsas svabhiivo datto yena te sam-
eva kam api artham avabodhayanti, na tarhi samketapariivrttau padiirthii-
ntaravrttayo yadi hy ayam
katham sathketiinyatvenarthiintaram pratipiidayati. na hi bijena svahetor
ankurajananasvabhiivenotpannena sakyo janayitum, tathii sabdo' py yadarthaprati-
piidananiyatas tam eva prakasayet.
44. NS 1. 1. 7:
45. M kiiyaviigvyiipiiriidikiiryalingasya,. G kiiyaviigvyiipiirasya kiiryalingasya tu.
46. M=T vrttidarsaniit,. G samdarSaniit.
- 34-
having passions pretends to be free from passions, how can you ascertain
trustworthiness? 47
4.2.2 (8.4) Since the validity of the words of the Veda is negated
through our refutation of a connection [between the word and the thing-
meant], we do not deal with it separately. [The opponent may ask:] II If
so, how about all verbal usage in the world which is not to be doubted? "
[The author:] It is not hurt at all, because [the words convey their
meaning] by virtue of the desire of a speaker [who expresses himself]
according to such and such an agreement. It is said:
The words are to refer to the mere intention of a SPeaker [and
not to the external object meant by it].4l!
4.3. R.efutation of. identification. (8.9) The Naiyayjka explains
49
identification (upamiina) as follows: II Suppose that there is a man, opera-
tor of identification, who knows a cow but not a gavaya, and that he is
directed by his master to go to a forest to bring a gavaya. Not acquain-
ted with the object denoted by the word gavaya, he asks an inhabitant of
a forest or
50
another man who knows it: My friend, what is a gavaya
like? And the latter answers: A gavaya is like a cow. Now the servant,
when he is in a forest, gets the knowledge of the resemblance (siiriepya-
jniina) of a gavaya [to a cow] which, being assisted by the remembrance
of the object suggested by the analogical expression (atidesaviikyiirtha-
smaranasahakiirin),51 produces the comprehension (pratipatti) that this is
the very object designated by the word gavaya; here the knowledge of
resemblance, being the agent (kartr), is a means of knowledge, and the
47. RNA 94, 11-13: iiptapra1'fitasya punar vacanasya ... na priimii1'fyam upagantum
sakyate, paracittavrttiniim asakyaniscayatvendptatviiparijniiniit.
48. Not identified. But cf. PV II, v. 2 : yo'rtho buddhau prakiisate,
priimii1'fyam tatra sabdasya ndrthatattvanibandhanam.
49. NBh, NV and NVT ad NS 1. 1. 6. There is difference of opinion on what is the
means of knowledge in the case of upamiina between NBh and NV-NVT (ct. ]ha's note 2
in NS 28). as well as Ratnakirti. reproduces here the view of Vacaspatimisra
that in identification siirupyajniina (the knowledge of the similarity, say, of a gavaya with
a cow) is the pramii1'fa, which being aided by the atideSasmara1'fa produces the pramiti in
the form 'This object is what is named gavaya' (ct. NVT 169, 5ff.: pi1'ftJasya hi gavaya-
sabdaviicyatiim PUY1.lfo'tiddaviikyasmara1'fasahakiiri1'fal] pratyakfiid gavayagatiid gosiidrsyiit
prajiinan tena prajniipyata iti pramii1'favyiipiiral] prajniipa1'fam uktam iti.)
50. Insert vii between anyam and tajjnam (ct. n. 52 below).
51. M atideSa,' G iiptiitidesa,. T bstan pa =iideSa.
- 35-
comprehension [produced by it] is its effect (phala)."52
[The author:] This is untenable. For the validity of any kind of
knowledge must be pervaded (vyapta) by the state of having its object.
But in this case, in spite of a careful investigation, we do not find
53
the
object. For it is said [by you] that the connection of the designation [with
the thing designated] (samakhyasambandha) is the object (vi$aya) of this
[idennfication].54 But su.ch a connection is not existent in reality. For if
it is [by nature] visible, its [presence] is negated by the actu.al non-per-
ception of it, and if, on the contrary, it is invisible, we do not see any
justification for establishing its existence.
(9.3) Fu.rthermore, is this connection existent separately from the two
terms which are connected or not? If it is separate, it should be explain-
ed by what connection the two terms are connected [with the connection
itself]. If you here imagine another connection, then an infinite regress
would follow. Or, if it is not separate [from the two connected terms],
then you should admit the existence of the two connected things alone, but
not anything which is called a designating connection (samakhya). 55 If you
again say that the connection [here] means (a separate entity which]
produces the idea of the connected, it is not reasonable. For the idea
that these two are connected originates from the two connected things
by virtue of their own causes, and is not able to win over a relationship
52. RNA 91, 20-25: ayam asya pratipattii giim jiiniiti na gavayam,
iidistas ca sviiminii gacchdra1Jyam gavayam iinayo.smiid iti, gavayasabdaviicyam artham ajiiniino
vanecaram anyam vii tajjnam kidrso gavaya iti. tena yathii gaus
tathii gavaya iti. tasya srutiitideaviikyasya kasyiimcid ara1Jyiim uPagatasyatidesaviikyiirtha-
smara'1}asahakari yad gavayasiiriipyajniinam tat prathamata evasau gavayasabdavacyo 'rtha iti
pratipattim prastuviinam upamiinam pramii'1}am iti.
53. M .. G
54. NBh 20, 3: samiikhyiisambandhapratipattir upamaniirtha ity iiha .. NVT 169. 15:
samiikhyasambandhapratipattir phalam. RNA 95, 25: tathii hi samakhyasamband-
has tasya var1Jyate, sa ca paramiirthato nasti. The meaning of the Buddhist criticism
here is as follows: siiriipyajniina is, as Vacaspati himself says, none other than
atidesasmara1Ja is the same as aptopadesa or sabda, and the last characteristic particular
to upamana, samiikhyasambandha, is not existent in reality, because as already refuted in
4.2, sambandha in general is not admitted. For a similar criticism by Dignaga see
Randle, 317.
55. RNA 95, 26-27: sa hi sambandhibhyam Minno 'Minno vii. yadi bhinnas
tada tayor iti na ca sambandhiintariid it vaktavyam, tad api kat ham iti cintiiyam
anavasthaprasangal} (cf. n. 40 above too). RNA 96, 1-2: athdbhinnal}, tada sambandhinav eva
kevalav iti na samiikhyiisambandho nama, yal} kascid upamiinasya syiit.
- 36-
which is another entity. 56
4.3.1. (9.11) In the same way, the validity of [identification] des-
cribed by the Mimamsaka is also to be repudiated. For an object qualified
by resemblance (siidrsyavisi$talJ, pi1}r.jalJ,) or resemblance qualified by
object-ness (pi1}r.javisi$tain siidrsyam) is proposed by them as the object
of identification. However, resemblance separate from the things similar
cannot be established, just because there is no proof for knowing it. That
is to say, if resemblance which is separate from the similar things is
visible, then [the existence of] it is eclipsed by the non-perception of a
perceptible object (drsyiinupalambhagrasta). And if it is an invisible
entity, how then
57
can it be established even by inference, since we do
not find any logical mark which is necessarily connected with it? On the
other hand, the idea of resemblance can be produced by an object resembling
[anotherl which is so produced by its own causes as to give rise to
the idea. You are unable to establish [an entity called resemblance]
through the idea of l resemblanceJ.
The opponent may contend that resemblance is established by means
of identification, [but not vice versa]. But this is untenable, because the
opponent school speculates that the relation of qualifier (vise$a1}a) and
qualificand (vise$ya) found only between two similar bodily objects which
have been established by a proof other [than identification] holds good
as the object of identifidation. How then can resemblance alone be
established by identification? 58
56. RNA 95, 31-96, 1: ayam samhaddhav etav iti tu svahetu-
balat samhaddhavastudvayad api samhhavyamiinii na samhandham prabhavati. tasman
na (Read samakhyasambandho nama instead of samakhya niima
in M 9, 6-7).
57. M=T tada,. G tad api.
58. RNA 95, 1-17: tatha hi va sadrsyam upamanasya
var1}yate, na sadrsavastuvyatiriktam sadrsyam vyavasthapayitum sakyate prama1}ena-
pratitatvat. nanu siidrsyam vastu durvaram eva, yad aha, sadrsyasya ea vastutvam na sakyam
apabadhitum, bhuyo 'vayavasamanyayogo jatyantarasya tat. (ct. SV Upamana, v. 18) iti. atro-
eyate, yadi sadrsatiriktam sadrsyam vastu drsyam syat, tada drsyanupalambhagrastam eva. ..
athddrsyam tat sadrsyam upeyate, tathapi tatra prasiddhalingiihhavad asiddham eva. . .sadrsya-
pratyayas tu svahetos tathotpannena sadrsavastundpi kriyama1}o gha!ata eveti na sadrsyam
utthapayitum prabhavati. upamanapramii1}abaliid eva sadrsyasiddhir iti eet, na, prama1}antarasid-
dhayor eva sadrsyapi1}4ayor katham sadrsyamatrasyo-
pamanat tatas ca sadrsyasydsiddher na va sadrsyam
upamanasya
- 37-
4.4. Refutation of presumption. (10.5) Presumption or postulation
(arthiipatti) is not accepted as a separate means of valid knowledge.
Presumption is defined
59
: Presumption is the supposition of a thing with-
out which another thing apprehended by a proof, perception or else, would
become unintelligible.
The following should be considered here: If the thing perceived by
a means of valid knowledge is connected with the unseen, supposed thing
through either the relation characterised by identity or that characterised
by causality, then this is knowledge produced either from a logical mark
of identity or from a logical mark of causality; it follows that the [so-
called] presumption is none other than inference. Or, if there is no such
connection, then presumption cannot be a means of valid knowledge,
just because there is no necessary connection as in the case of under-
standing a piece of cloth from ajar. 60
4.5. Refutation of non-existence. (10.13) By no means do we cognize
the essential quality of the [so-called] non-existence (abhiiva). How then
can it be a pramii1Ja? [Defining non-existence] the Mimamsaka says:
"The non-production of [the five] means of valid knowledge beginning
with perception is [itself] a means of valid knowledge called non-exist-
ence."61
What do you here mean by I non-production'? Is it 1) the mere nega-
tion of the proposition I knowledge is produced' (Prasajyavrtti)? Or 2)
does it mean something positIve, being construed as the negatIon of a
term (paryudiisavrtii)?62 If something positive is meant, is it 2. a) an
59. 12, 4-5: arthiipattir api sruto vartho 'nyathii nopapadyata
ity arthakalpanii; NBh ad NS 2.2.1.: yatrabhidhiyamiine'rthe prasajyate so
'rthiipatti1},. SV Arthiipatti, v. 1: yatrartho nanyathii bhavet, adn!am
kalpayed anyam sarthiipattir udiihrtii. RNA 91, 27-29:
prasiddho yo' sa yena vinii na yujyate tasyarthasya kalpanam arthiipattir iti. ...
60. RNA 96, 16-25: atra viciiryate, yasyarthasya darsaniid parikalpyate tayor
yadi pratibandho'sti tadarthiipattir anumiinam eva ... anyathii tena vinii nopapadyata ity
ahrikiid anya na bruyiit, gha!apa!avat. .. tatra svabhiivapratibandhe svabhiivahetujaiva sarthii-
pattil) , tadutpattipratibandhe kiiryalingajaiva.
61. RNA 92, 1-9: abhiiviikhyam pra-
mii1Jam. prameyam nastiha gha!iiditi jniinam gha!iidyabhiiviilambanatyl- phalam.
yad iiha anutpattilJ pramii1Jiibhiiva ucyate, satmano ' pari1fiimo vii
vijniinam vanyavastuni (SV Abhiiva, v. 11). pramii1fapancakam yatra vasturupe na jiiyate,
vastusattiivabodhiirtham tatriibhiivapramii1Jatii (SV Abhiiva. v. 1) iti....
62. J. F. Staal gives an excellent logistic interpretation of the two kinds of negation,
paryudiisa- and as classified by the Mlmarhsakas and grammarians (ct.
- 38-
insentient thing (jarjarupa) or 2. b) a fonn of knowledge? If it is a fonn
of knowledge, 2. b. 1) is it knowledge in general (iiu'inamlitra) or 2. b. 2)
the knowledge of a positive thing related to one and the same knowledge
[which grasps non-existenceJ (ekajftiinasainsargivastuno jru'inam)?
Among these, 1) the negation of a propoSItion (prasajyarupo' bhiivalJ)
is not appropriate. How can the mere negation devoid of [furtherJ func-
tion possess the ability of discrimination (paricchedakatva) or of producing
Negation and the law of contradiction in Indian thought: a comparative study, BSOAS
xxv, L 1962). A verse in the Mimiimsiinyiiyaprakiisa expresses their main doctrine:
sa vijfieyo yatrottarapadena nan, sa kriyayii saha yatra nan.
Staal's tr. (ibid. 58): 'Exclusion (paryudiisa) is to be understood where the negative (is
connected) with the next word; prohibition is to be understood where the
negative (is connected) with the verb(al ending)'. An almost identical verse (having pra-
tu for sa is quoted in grammar (ibid. 59). In the
field of Buddhist philosophy, it is Bhavaviveka (-570 A. D.) who first made the distinc-
tion between the two kinds of negation in order to clarify the absolutist standpoint of the
Madhyamika philosophy. Cf. My Bhavaviveka's (1. Kapitel) WZKSO Bd.
VII, S. 48. Avalokitavrata, a commentator on the Prajniipradipa, quotes an interesting
verse explaining this distinction (ibid. 48, n. 11): dgag pa don gyis bstan pa dan, tshig
gcig sgrub par byed pa dan, de ldan ran tshig mi ston pa, ma yin gzan pa gzan yin no. Dr.
E. SteinkelIner of Vienna was kind enough to inform me of the existence of Arcata's
elucidation of the two kinds of negation in HBT; and on examining it, I found in HBT
171, 4 ff. a Sanskrit passage which is in sense parallel to the Tibetan verse cited above.
This reads: yatra priidhiinyam vidhibhiik svapadena nocyate
ekaviikyatii ca tatra paryudiisavrttitii ... punar etadviparito
tatra hi priidhiinyam vidhir arthiid gamyate svapadena nanii pra-
sambadhyate. 'In [a compound word or propositionJ where the mode of paryudiisa
(the negation of a term) is applied the main motive is affirmation, negation is understood
by implication alone, the object to be affirmed is not expressed by its own word, and the
negation means the same sense as the affirmative proposition derived from it, [e.g. 'He is
a non-briihma1Ja' is the same in sense as 'He is a ... (the
negation of a proposition) is to be considered as opposite to this, i.e. in the case of [pra-
the main motive is negation, affirmation is understood by implication,
(the negation) conveys a different sense from the affirmative proposition related to it, [e.g.
'They do not look at the sun' conveys a different meaning from 'They look at the sun')
and the object to be negated, being expressed by its own word, is connected with the
negative'. In his exposition Arcata refers also to the fact that in paryudiisa the negative
is related only to subanta or nominal inflected forms, whereas in prasajya it is related to
tinanta or verbal inflected forms. For a detailed exposition see my article
eva (Analysis of a propsition by Buddhist philosophers with
special reference to the particle eva restricting the meaning of a sentence) in Dr. Ensho
Kanakura Commemoration Volume. This distinction is applied by Arcata to the Buddhist
theory of non-cognition (anupalabdhi) , which should be understood as the cognition of
other things (anyopalabdhi), the negation being construed as paryudiisa. Mok!lakara discusses
the same in 13.
39-
knowledge (jnlinajanakatva)? Thus, no one will have resort to it.
63
PaJ).9ita
Cakracu9-amaJ).i says in this connection :64
Non-existence is not apprehension of any object, nor a cause of
knowledge; How can it be known (as a means of knowledge]?
2. a) (What is meant by non-existence] cannot be an insentient thing,
because an insentient thing has no discriminating function. We have not
anywhere seen nor heard that insentient things such as a cart discriminate
a jar.
2.b.1) Nor can it be knowledge in general, for in this case it would
follow that Mt. Sumeru, Sankha, the future emperor, and a demon, though
inaccessible in sPace, time and essence, are [known to be] absent by
means of the proof of non-existence as knowledge in general (when in
reality these things cannot be judged to be either existent or non-existent].
2.b.2) If again non-existence here means the knowledge of a positive
thing such as a piece of ground forming a Part of the same knowledge
(which grasps the non-existence of a jar], then it is in essence a Particular
kind of perception though given another name j non-
existence' . Then there should be no difference of opinion (between you
and US].65
Thus it has been established that the means of valid knowledge is
twofold and only twofold, viz. indeterminate and determinate knowledge.
5. Indeterminate knowledge defined and discussed. (11.15) Among
these, indeterminate knowledge is devoid of fictional constructs or deter-
63. M=T (de sgrub par byed pa ma yin no): na tat pratipadyate; G tat pratipadyate.
64. The words of CakracugamaJ?i are cited also in the passage of Ratnakirti (see 1. 7
in n. 65 below), though he does not mention him by name. So far I have not identified
the words, nor do I know who CakracugamaJ?i is.
65. RNA 97, 20-98, 1 : atha vabhlivaprlimlitJyasvarupam eva nirupyatlim. pra-
mlitJlibhlivlitmabhimato bhavatlim, kit!" prasajyavrttyli pramli1Jlinutpattimlitram, atha vli par-
yudlisavrttyli bhlivlintaram. vastvantaram api jaqarupam jnlinarupam vli. jnlinarupam api
jnlinamlitrakam ekajnlinasamsargivastujnlinam veti tatra na tlivan nivrttirupo
'bhlivo yujyate, sa khalu nikhilasaktivikalatayli na kitncit. yae ca na kimeit tat katham abhlivam
pariechindylit, vli jnlinam janayet. pratitam vli tat katham iti sarvam andhakliranar-
tanam, yad "na hy kasyacit pratipattihetur vli tasydpi katham pra-
tipattir" iti. napi jaqarupo ' samgacchate,
paricchedlibhlivlit, paricchedasya jnlinadharmatvlit. napi jnlinamlitrasvabhlivo' bhlivo
desaklilasvabhlivaviprakufasyapi tato' bhlivaprasanglit, jnlinamlitratvlit tasya.
athaikajnlinasamsargivastujnlinasvabhlivo' numanyate taddstam abhlivapramli1Japratylisayli, pra-
tasya casmlibhir drsylinupalambhlikhyaslidhanatvena svi-
krtatvlit.
- 40-
mlnlng factors (kalpanli) and unerring (abhranta).66 The determining
factor consists of comprehending (an object] in association with a word-
sound (sabda) or internal notion (or inarticulate representation, antarjalpa),
while linking together the preceding and subsequent moments (of the
momentary object]. This may be illustrated by a clever comprehension
in the form t This is a jar the comprehension of a baby, dumb person
or animal in the form of internal notion or reflection (paramarsa). In this
connection the following is said (by Dharmakirti :J67
Determination is the cognition of a representation which is capable
of being associated with words.
(12.3) (It may be asked:] H How do you ascertain that a baby, a
dumb person etc. have determinate knowledge (kalpaniiInana) in the form
of inarticulate representation?" (We infer it] from the effects of deter-
mining factors such as taking what is desired and avoiding what is not
desired. 68 And such effects are perceived in a baby and a dumb person,
who indeed claim what they want and abandon what they do not.
69
By pointing out that the knowledge of a baby, dumb person etc.
contains fictional constructs it is taught that even simple perception (iilo-
canajnana) said by Kumarilabhatta
70
(to be indeterminate knowledge) is
determinate.
(12.8) [The opponent:] H Why is knowledge associated with constructs
or by nature erring not indeterminate knowledge?" 71 [The author:] It is
not, because it is well known
72
to all scholars that indeterminate know-
66. PS I, k. 3c: kalpaniiporjham (Hattori. II. 1, n. 25); NB I, s. 4: tatra
kalpaniiporjham abhriintam,' PV III, v. 123 a-b: kalpaniiporjham pra-
sidhyati.
67. PS 1, k. 3d: niimajiityiidiyojanii (Hattori. II. 1, n. 26); =NB 1, s. 5: abhiliipasam-
kalpanii. NBT under this sutra interprets the word yogya as
denoting not only explicit connection with a name but also a baby's notion which is not
connected with a clear name.
68. M=T; G
69. The present argument is followed by Vidyakarasanti in TSop 278, 6 ff.
70. SV Pratyakfa, v. 112: asti hy iiloeaniijiiiinam prathamam nirvikalpakam, biilamu-
kiidivijiiiinasadrsam mugdhavastujam. Cf. Randle, 120, n. 2: There is a primary intuitive
apprehension, an unqualified perception, arising from the mere real, -like the apprehension
of infants and the dumb. See also Dasgupta, I, 378. The verse is cited also in TSop 280,
1-2.
71., M=T pratyakfam na syiid iti een na; G na pramiir:am iti eet.
72. M=T prasiddham; G sammatam.
- 41-
ledge is knowledge directly intuiting the real nature
73
of an object. For
knowledge grasping an object is the effect of the object, and the object
which is grasped is the cause of the knowledge, as is said [by Dharmakir-
ti] :74
How can a [momentary] thing which is at a different time [from
that of the indeterminate cognition grasping it] be an object of
the indeterminate cognition? We reply: Philosophers recognize
that the essence of a sense-object consists in its being a cause
capable of leaving its image in the knowledge.
[On the contrary], determinate knowledge is produced from the past
impression alone even when there is no [corresponding] object. Being
neither positively nor negatively concomitant with the external object
(anvayavyatirektibhtiviit), how can it be an effect of an object? For if x
can exist without y, then x is not the effect of y. Otherwise the unwar-
rantable consequences (atiprasanga) would follow. If determinate know-
ledge were produced out of an object, then an object such as a jar could
be seen just because of that knowledge; it would mean that even a blind
Person could see a colour-form. But such is not the case. Therefore it
is said:
Determinate knowledge has no function of intuiting an object, since
the object is not manifested in verbal knowledge as in indeter-
minate Perception.
75
The present argument serves to repudiate the following opinion stated
by another scholar
76
[i. e. BhartrhariJ :77
"There is in this world no cognition which is not followed by a
word; All knowledge apPears as if Penetrated by words."
73. G artham,. M artharupam,. but T don gyi ran gi no bo=arthasvarupam, which is
best.
74. =PV III, v. 248 =PVn Derge ed. 158, b 1: bhinnakiilam katham griihyam iti eet
griihyatiim hetutvam eva yuktijiiii Cf. Stcherbatsky, II, 360;
Mookerjee, 338. G and T of our present text omit the part bhinnakiilam katham griihyam
iti.
75. siibdyiim buddhiiv arthasya iva pratibhiisiibhiiviit nasti kalpaniiyii artha-
Not identified.
76. M 13, n. 2 and G yad uktam siimkhyena, but T yad uk/am pare"!a.
77. =VP I, v. 123: na so'sti pratyayo loke sabdiinugamiid rte, anuviddham iva
jiiiinam sarvam sabdena bhiisate. The verse is often quoted by Buddhist logicians for
criticism's sake (d. TSP 68, 8; 70, 13; TSop 279, etc), bhiisate being sometimes replaced
by jiiyate or vidyate.
- 42-
For example, while [the word Ijar '] is pronounced with regard to a jar
placed before us, other knowledge concerning a piece of ground etc. close
to the jar is experienced as well, though they are not referred to by the
pronounced word.
78
In such a case we do not find the association with a
word.7
9
This is [testified by the rl1le that] two concepts (vikapa) cannot
occur at the same time.
5. 1. Abhrinta explained. (13.13) Erring knowledge (bhriintam
jfliinam) is also unable to intuit [the reality of] its object. For I erring'
means to be opposite to the real thing capable of effective operation. The
nature of a real thing capable of effective operation is detennined in
space, time and fonn. Then, how can it be intuited by erring knowledge
whose content is falsely presented? As Acarya (Dhannakirti] says:
Indetenninate perception is knowledge which is not affected by
illusion produced through the darkness of the eyes, rapid motion,
travelling on a boat, a violent blow or other causes. 80
By this, the following are referred to: One suffering from jaundice,
seeing a white shell, gets the knowledge presenting itself as yellow; One
gets the knowledgeB
1
presenting itself as a circle while seeing a fire-brand
being SWung82 in a circular motion; one who is sitting on a boat in mo-
tion gets the erroneous knowledgeB
1
of running trees
83
; when one is severely
hit in vulnerable parts of the body, we get the knowledgeB
1
presenting
itself as a flaming
84
post; all [the erroneous knowledge referred to] is not
[valid indeterminate] perception.
[The following objection may be raised:] II If such [erroneous] cogni-
tion is not valid indetenninate knowledge, how do you explain the fact
that we [sometimes] reach a real object even through erroneous knowledge
78. TSop 278, 15-16: avyiiprtendriyasya darsanavad buddhau sabdenapratibhiisaniid
artharupasya. (. .. Since the form of an object is not manifested in consciousness in associa-
tion with the word as when we see unconsciously objects for which our sense-organ is not
operating with attention.)
79. G=T sabdiinugamo,. M sabdiinugato .. M 13, n. 3 tadanugamo.
80. =NB I, s. 6: (tayii rahitam)
ma"?'l jniinam NBT explains each of the instances mentioned here and
reproduces it.
81. G omits jniinam.
82. G=T (bskor ba) bhramad-aliitiidau .. M bhramiid.
83. M T sin la sogs pa g'yo bar ses pa=
G
84. M jvalat-,. G prajvalat-.
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of it?" (The author:] Some scholars (such as Dharmottara,
etc.] replying to this question, say that we do not reach the (corresponding]
object through erroneous cognition, but only through another (valid cogni-
tion].85
6. Classification of indeterminate knowledge: sense-perception.(14.5)
This is fourfold, 86viz., sense-perception (indriyajniina), mental perception
(miinasa), self-consciousness (svasainvedana) and the cognition of a yogin
(yogijniina) .
Sense-perception is (cognition] which, being produced
87
depending on
the five senses beginning with the eyes, has as its object the five external
things such as colour and so on. Among them, visual perception has as
its object a colour-form; auditory perception has as its object a sound;
olfactory perception has as its object smell; gustatory perception has as
its object taste; tactual perception has as its object a tangible thing. The
designation I sense-perception' is made after the specific cause (asiidhii-
ratJa-kiiratJa) [of this perception] as in the cases of I the sound of a kettle-
drum (bherisabda) ' and I the shoot of barley (yaviinkura).' 87a
This kind of indeterminate cognition is regarded as a means of valid
knowledge only as to the object of which it produces (a moment later]
the determinate knowledge corresponding to the sensation, for the validity
85. Our author makes a mere mention of a difficult problem regarding the qualifier
ahhriintam in Dharmak'irti's definition of without going further into a detailed
discussion. The qualifier is added by Dharmaklrti to the definition of Dignaga
kalpaniip0tiham. It is known from TS k. 1324 and TSP that there were some Buddhist
logicians who regarded the qualifier redundant and misleading. They argued that errone-
ous perception sometimes makes us reach the object, as the knowledge of a yellow shell
does, and that this is the reason why Dignaga did not qualify perception by abhriintam.
The argument is presupposed when Dharmottara says (NBT 7,5 ff.): tato (=
saniidJ hi pravfttena aViipyata iti samviidakatviit samyagjniinam kalpaniiporihatviic
ca iti syiid iisankii, tannivrttyartham abhriintagrahat}am... yadi mityiijniina'Y!'-
katham tato iti cet, na tato niiniidesagiimi hi tena
ekadeSaniyatas ca tato yaddeso dn!as taddeso ndviipyate, yaddesas
cdviipyate sa na dn!a iti. na tasmiit kascid artho 'viipyate, jniiniintariid eva tu artho
'viipyate, ity evam abhriintagrahat}am vipratipattiniriisiirtham. Vinitadeva tried to understand
abhriinta as meaning avisamviidakam: and Dharmottara and (TS v. 1325-1327)
repudiate this view. For a useful and interesting exposition of the problem see Mookerjee,
276-281. See also Stcherbatsky, II, 17, n. 3.
86. =NB I, s. 7: tac caturvidham.
87. M utpadyamiina; G utpanna-
87a. NBT 10, 4: indriyasya jniinam indriyajniinam, indriyiisritam yat tat
PS I, k. 4a-b: asiidhiirat}ahetutviid tad vyapadisyate (Hattori. II. 1, n. 32).
- 44-
in the sense of the empirical truth (sii:invyavaharikapramii1Ja) is here re-
ferred to.
88
6.1. Mental perception. (14.14) Manasa8
9
or mental perception is the
product of a sense-perception which fonns its immediately preceding homo-
geneous cause, and which cooperates with the immediately succeeding fac-
simile [i. e. the second moment] of its proper object.
90
The words I its proper (sva) , refers to a sense-perception, I its proper
object' referring to an external object such as a jar. [The compound
word] svavi$aylinantara is construed as svavi$aylinantaralJ, [vi$ayalJ,], i, e,
the immediately succeeding facsimile of its proper object, and refers to the
second moment of a jar etc. which is different from the original object
of the sense-perception. I Cooperating with it' (tena sahakliri1;Zli) means
[the sense-perception] concurs with it ri. e. the second moment of the
object]. This sense-perception is the material cause (uplidana) [of the
mental perception] and called samanantarapratyaya (the cause which
immediately precedes, and is similar to, its effect, i. e. the next moment
of the cause). What is produced from this is called mental perception.
(15.1) By this [definition of mental perception] are refuted the objec-
tions raised by others, viz. 1) that [mental perception is not valid know-
ledge, since] it cognizes what has already been cognized [by sense-percep-
tionJ91; 2) that [if, on the other hand, it is supposed to cognize the exter-
nal object without the mediacy of sense-perception] the blind, the deaf
etc. could not exist; 3) that the knowledge of a yogin would also be a
mental perception; and 4) that it is not commonly recognized (avyava-
88. NBT 16, 7-8: tasmiid adhyavasiiyam kttrvad eva pramiit}am hhavati... ;
NBTT 31, 10-12: kim cendriyavijniinasya katham priimiit}yam. yadi svavyiipiiram karoti, sva-
vyiipiiras ttt vikalpajanakatvam niima,. TS v. 1306 with TSP: avikalpam api jnii-
nam vikalpotpattisaktimat, taddviiret}a hhavaty Stcherbatsky II,
318; Mokerjee 314-315: The very validity of sense-perception depends on the generative
efficiency of itself and it can be regarded as an efficient cause of knowledge only if it
excercises a function, and this functioning is nothing but the generation of conceptual
knowledge itself.
89. miinasam omitted in G, T.
90. =NB I. s. 9: samanantarapratya-
yena janitam tan manovijiiiinam. PS I. k.6a-b (=PVBh 303, 23): miinasam cdrthariigiidisva-
samvittir akalpikii. For a detailed exposition of mental perception and problems regarding
it the reader is referred to Stcherbatsky II. 311-335; Mookerjee, 311-315; Hattori II, 1, n.
45-47.
91. Read grhitagriihitvam andha- instead of -tvahhandha- in M.
- 45-
hiiritva) .92
For, since [mental perception] cognizes the second moment [which is
different from the first moment of the object cognized by the sense-percep-
tion, the first objection] that mental perception grasps what has been once
grasped is rejected.
A mental perception is produced by virtue of sense-perception, while
the blind etc. do not have the respective sense-perception which is cogni-
zant of the object such as colour etc. How then can they have a mental
perception produced by it [i. e. sense-perception]? Therefore, our theory
is not liable to the fault that the blind and others would not exist.
By putting [into the definition] the determinant' [produced from] the
immediately preceding homogeneous cause (samanantarapratyaya), the pos-
sibility of the false conclusion that the knowledge of a yogin
93
would be
identical with mental perception is removed. It is well known that the
word samanantarapratyaya in the sense of its conventional usage (ruhYii)
means [the immediately preceding knowledge as] the material cause [of
the succeeding], when both of them occur in the same personality (sam-
Ulna). Thus, when [the mental perception belonging to] the mind of an
ordinary person is supposed to be identical with the knowledge of a yogin,
the content of which belongs to a personality different from that of the
cognizer [the yogin himself], the designation samanantarapratyaya could
not be used here.
Neither is it tenable that [mental perception] is not commonly recogni-
zed, for mental perception, pertaining to extremely subtle duration of time,
cannot be observed by ordinary people. Moreover, we do not in fact
recognize it as part of the convention (vyavahiira). Mental perception
94
is indeed testified by the sacred text of Buddhism (iigama), but there is
no [logical] justification for it. The Blessed One said:
92. The first two of the four kinds of criticisms are acsribed to Kumarilabhaga by
the author of NBTT (26, 12-27, 2): tat paraiIJ kumiiriliidibhir ajiinadbhir
tan manojiiiinam pravartate tadii grhitagriihitayii 'pramii1Jam, athdny-
pravartate, vyavahite bhavat kim tanmanovijiiiinam
syiin vii. satindriyavijiiiinam eva, vanindriyasyapi
manovz"jiiiinam syiid ity andhabadhiriidyabhiivacodyam krtam. See also TSop 281,
19-2& : yad api kumiiriliidibhir uktam. .. Our author follows fairly faithfully the discussion
of Dharmottara, who enumerates and answers the first three objections explicitly and the
fourth implicitly.
93. Insert yogijiiiinasya between M 15, 7, and miinasa.
94. Read miinasa- instead of M 15. 12 giinasa-.
- 46-
Colour-form is cognized, Oh monks, by twofold cognition, the
visual perception and the mental perception induced by it.
95
[The opponent:] II What is the use of explaining what is not applica-
ble to common discourse ?" [The author:] If mental perception fits in
with such a definition as made above, there is no [logical] fault found.
Thus the testimony of the sacred text is shown to be impeccable. This
is the purpose [of admitting mental perception] as a species of indeter-
minate knowledge].
6. 2. Self-consciousness. (15.18) All cognitions (citta) and feelings
(caitta) are self-cognizant ;96 this is called self-consciousness (svasamve-
dana).97 Cognition [or consciousness in general] is knowledge grasping
the object in its general aspect. Feeling or mental activity stands for what
occurs in the mind; it cognizes specific aspects of the object and is
characterised by pleasure, pain or indifference.
98
Self-consciousness is that form [of cognition] by which the self of all
cognitions and feelings is cognized; it is called [a kind of] indeterminate
knowledge free from fictional constructs and unerring, because its nature
consists in direct intuition of the nature of itself.
(16.4) Against this, some opponents raise the objection: II [The theory
of] self-consciousness of cognitions and feelings is not tenable, because the
action [of a thing] towards its own self is a contradiction. For instance,
a dancing boy, no matter how well-trained he may be, cannot climb up his
own shoulder; the blade of a sword, however sharp it may be, does not
cut itself; a body of fire, thou.gh vehemently burning, cannot burn itself.
Likewise, how can the cognition or feeling feel itself? The relation of the
feeler and the felt (vedyavedakabhiiva) is none other than the relation of
the agent and the object (karmakartrbhiiva). And the object and the
95. M grh1}ate,. G grhyate,. kadiicit is omitted in G, T. Cf. NBTT 26, 10-11 : dViibhyiim
rupam drsyate tadiikntena manovijniineneti tadiigamasiddham
manovijniinam. ...
96. = NB I, s. 10: sarvacittacaittiiniim iitmasamvedanam. See n. 90 above.
97. T omits svasmnvedanam.
98. Read instead of in M. This passage of is verbally
cited in TRD 40, 2-3. Cf. NBT 11, 5: cittam arthamiitragriihi caittii
Prasannapadii 65, 2-3: arthamiitradarsanam cittasya
caitasiiniim,. tatrarthadntir vijniinam tu ity abhyupagamiit. For details
see AK i, 30, n. 3; Siddhi, I. 296; Prasannapadii, 65, n. 3; Stcherbatsky II, 29; Mookerjee
319-320, etc.
- 47-
agent in it are well established by common sense to be always distinct
from each other as e. g. a tree and a carpenter."
[The auther :] We reply to this: The relation of the feeler and the
felt in consciousness is not considered as object-agent relation, but as the
relation of the detenninant and the detenninable (vyavasthiipya-vyavasthii-
paka-bhiiva).99 As a lamp illuminates itself, so is also knowledge consi-
dered to know itself, since it is, quite differently from insentient things
(jarjapadiirtha), produced by its own cause with the nature of self-lumi-
nosity. In this connection says :100
Knowledge is by nature opposed to insentient matter; this im-
materiality is nothing but the self-consciousness of knowledge.
lol
The self-consciousness of knowledge is not to be analysed into
action and its agent, since knowledge, being a single unity with-
out comPartments, cannot be divided into the three parts [viz.
the knower, the known and the knowing].l02
The Alarilkarakara [PrajiiakaraguptaJ also says:
The agent, the object [and the means] are mere fictional con-
structs and not [existent in] reality; it is explained that the self
touches itself by means of itself.103
(17.4) On the other hand, it is not possible for cognition and feel-
ings to be illuminated by another cognition. For firstly it cannot be said.
that cognition and feelings are illumined by another cognition which occurs
99. NBT 15, 18-21: na cdtra siidhyasiidhanabhiivo yenaika-
smin vastuni syiit, api tu vyavasthiipyavyavasthiipakabhiivena. tata ekasya
kimcid rupam pramiit}am kimcit pramiit}aphalam na virudhyate. This passage is concerned
with the problem of the identity of the pramiit}a and the pramiit}aphala, which is soon
dealt with by our author as well. Udayana in his Parisuddhi reproduces the Sautrantika
theory that there are cases of cognition in which the logical antecedent and its con-
sequence are included in the same concrete entity, examples being: svaprakiisajfiiina
or svasamvedana in which the subject and the object are the same entity, and the judg-
ment that an asoka is a tree, in which the tree is not different from the asoka (ct. Stcher-
batsky, II, 375-376).
100. G yathoktam nyiiyaviidinii instead of tathii coktam in M. G places this verse at
the very end of 6.2.
101. =TS v. 2000: vijfiiinam jaqarupebhyo vyiivrttam upajiiyate, iyam evdtmasamvittir
asya ydja4arupatii.
102. =TS v. 2001: kriyiikiirakabhiivena na svasawwittir asya tu, ekasydnamsarupasya
This verse is given only in T.
103. =PVBh III, 369, 19 (v. 757): paramiirtho na vidyate,
iitmiinam iitmanaivdtmii nihantiti nirucyate.
- 48-
at the same time as they do, because (between them] there is no relation
of the benefitting and the benefitted (upakaryopakarakabhava) just as in
the case of the right and the left horns of a cow. Nor (can they be
illumined] by another cognition existing at a different time, because the
former or that which is to be illumined, has disappeared (when the latter
takes place] because of the momentariness (of all things].104
Furthermore, if knowledge were not self-cognizant, then we would
not be able to state
105
(the judgment] that the object is known, because
of the accepted principle
106
that cognition the qualifier of which is not
cognized does not occur in (an object, which is] the qualificand. For (in
cognition] the object is the qualificand; the state of being known is the
qualifier. And' known' means' qualified by knowledge'. If knowledge
itself is not apprehended through its self-lwninosity, how then can the
object qualified by the knowledge be apprehended? It is logically impos-
sible that we cognize a stick-holder without cognizing the stick.
(17.13) Trilocana
107
raised the following objection:
" Just as colour-form as the object of the visual sense is cognized even
when the visual organ itself is not cognized, just so will it be possible
for the object to be known even if the knowledge is not Perceived itself."
104. G places here the Alarilkarakara's verse yadi tat ... which appears in
M 18, 15-16. This argument of Mokl?akara is cited almost verbatim in TSop 282, 15-20.
The Mimarilsaka theory that knowledge is cognized by another cognition is refuted in
almost all the logical works of Buddhists, see e.g. : PS 1, k. 12 :
tatrapi hi tathii na syiit sa (Hattori. II. 1, n. 77-80);
PV III, v. 513-521, which is followed by TS k. 2023-2028 and TSP on them. But the argu-
ment of our author here is in a different way
105. G has vyaPadese after iti (M 17,6).
106. vartate. Not identified, but the verse or its variant
is often quoted in various texts with regard to discussions of various subjects. E.g. SV
Apoha., v. 88c-d: na cajniite on which BhaHaputrajayamisra
comments: na capratiyamiine ' bhiivariipe' pohe yuktii,
buddhir utpadyate... This verse of SV is concerned with the refutation of the
Buddhist theory of apoha, in which the negation of the opposite of the meaning of a word
is considered to be the qualifer, the qualificand being the object of the word; SVK II, 122,
2-3: hi jniitatii, sii katham ajniite jniiyate; PKM 210, 6-7; 473, 13-14,
etc. : NVV I, 503, 27; PVV 211, n. 3 etc. Mokllakara cites
this verse considering it to mean the same as the famous verse of Dharmakirti :
palambhasya narthadn!il) prasidhyati (ct. M 18, 13).
107. Trilocana, the teacher of Vacaspatimisra is one of the important opponents of
jnanasrimitra, Ratnakirti and our author. For detailed information of him see jNA Intro.
20; A. Thakur, The Nyayamanjari of Gurn Trilocana, jBRS XLI, 4, 507 ff.; Mookerjee, 15.
- 49-
[The author:]. This is also not well-founded because [the example] is
not applicable to the present subject. For the qualifier of colour is not. the
eyes, but visual knowledge (cak$urvijniina). When visual knowledge is
not cognized itself, how can colour be cognized? Thus our criticism is not
nullified. lOB
(18.1) l09Kumarilabhatta, in order to teach the imperceptibility (par-
oksalva) of knowledge, says as follows: II The existence of the senses is
established since otherwise [i. e. without their existence] the manifestation
Cprakiisa) of colour and other [objects] remains inexplicable; in the same
way, the existence of knowledge is established [as the cause of the cogni-
zedness in the object (jniilalii) through inference]. The Mimiimsabha$ya
relevant to this problem runs: No one [directlyJ cognizes his own know-
ledge when an object is not cognized; the existence of knowledge is infer-
red when an object is cognized. [Therefore, knowledge is not directly
perceived.]l1O And the CSloka-] varttika says on this point:
The existence of knowledge [is inferred] by virtue of the cogni-
108. TS v. 2007-2008 with TSP; Mookerjee (321) writes on them: "The proposition of
the realistic philosophers, i.e., the Naiyayikas and the Mimarhsakas, that cognition makes
known the object by keeping itself in the background like the sense-organ, has, therefore,
no sense in it and contains a contradiction in terms. The analogy of the sense-organ is
absolutely out of place, because, it ignores a fundamental difference between cognition and
the sense-organ. The sense-organ is the efficient cause, the causa essendi, of cognition,
whereas cognition only reveals the object already in existence. It has no generative
efficiency, it is what is termed a causa cognoscendi in regard to the object". According to
SV Sunya. v. 65-67, the Mimarhsaka position in this problem is as follows: Fire which is
the illuminator of a jar etc. is not illuminated itself. When fire is cognized, it is only a
sense-organ which is the cognizer. The sense-organ is cognized by an idea, and this idea
is cognized by another idea. SVK in the introductory commentary to these verses says
(II, 120, 20 ff.) : ajniito katham jniipayatiti nayam ajniitasyapi
nanu ankurasyeva bijam jniinasya kiirakam eveti yuktam
ajniitasyapi janakatvam. ...
109. M 18,1-19,7 missing in G.
110. 11, 5-6: na hy ajniite 'rthe kascid buddhim upalabhate, jniite tu
anumiiniid avagacchati. tatra yaugapadyam anupapannam. SV Sunya., v. 184-186a-b: vyiiPrtam
carthasamvittau jniinam natmiinam rcchati, tena prakiisakatve'pi bodhiiyanyat pratiyate.
idrsam vii prakiisatvam tasyarthiinubhaviitmakam, na catmiinubhavo'sty asyety iitmano na pra-
kiisakam. sati prakiisakatve ca vyavasthii drsyate yathii, rupiidau tathatrapi
prakiisakatvam biihye'rthe saktyabhiiviit tu natmani. These are cited in TS v.
2013-2016. See also $iistradipikii 157, 13-15: jniinakriyii hi sakarmikii kannabhute'rthe
phalam janayati Piikiidivat ... tad eva ca phalam kiiryabhiitam kiira1Jabhutam vijniinam upa-
kalpayatiti sidhyaty api jniinam.
- 50-
zedness (jniitatii) [of the object]."l11
(18.5) [The author:] Cognizedness here means the manifestation
(priikatya) of an object.
112
But this theory [of the Mimamsakas] is not
correct. For, 1. a) if this manifestation, being [an independent entity]
distinct from the knowledge, becomes visible in the form of the object, it
would be insentient (ja(/a) and [your theory then would fall to the
ground] since an insentient thing cannot become visible. 1. b) Or, if it
exists as a thing different from the object, it would again be insentient,
[and your theory would be untenableJ since such a thing would not become
visible by itself. 1. c) Thirdly, if it is made visible by another manifesta-
tion, an infinite regress would follow, [since the second manifestation would
also require the third, and so forth to infinity]. 2) If, on the contrary,
manifestation is the essential quality of knowledge, it would also
113
be
imperceptible [just like knowledge]. [In either case cognizedness is un-
intelligible]. Therefore it is necessary to state that knowledge is by nature
self-cognizing.
Moreover, self-consciousness is established by our own experience.
How then can it be denied ?114 In connection with this [Dharmakirti] says:
If cognition were itself not perceived, perception of an object is
never possible.1I
5
The author of the [Pramii1Javiirttika-] Alainkiira [Prajfiakaragupta] also
111. tasya jiiiinam tu jiiiitatiivasiit. Despite of our author's mention by name, this is
not found in SV Sunya. But see SVK ad SV Sunya. v. 32 (II, 107, 18-20) : ye tu
purassiirim huddhisatnvidam asiddhal] sahopalamhhaniyamal], sadaiva hi
eva samvid upalahhyate. yathdhul]: purvam samgrhyate pasciij jiiiinam
taj jiiiitatiivasiit. Cf. Sabara in n. 110 above. The knowledge of an object and of the cognition
do not occur simultaneously. The object is always known before, and the cognition is
inferred afterwards from the cognizedness, which, being a separate entity produced by the
activity of the cognition, inheres in the object. See also Stcherbatsky II, 355, n. 1.
112. NK, 302,7: hhaUamimiimsakiis tu jiiiita iti pratitisiddho jfiiinajanyo
priika!yiiparaniimii . .. ty iihul). This is taken from the Mulamathu-
raniithi tattvacintiima'!ivyiikhyii, but well corresponds to our author's argument.
113. Read priika!yasyaPi instead of M 18, 10 priikatyasyapi.
114. TSop 282, 13-15: na tiivac cittacaittiiniim prakiiso nasty eva, prakiisasya sarvaprii'!i-
niim anubhavasiddhatviit.
115. This half-verse originally occurs in PVn, Td, 166 a7: dmigs pa mnon sum ma yin
na, de (Read. don) mthon rah tu l]gruh mi l]gyur. Being one of the most famous verses of
Dharmakirti, it is quoted in many texts, Buddhist, Brahmanical as well as ]aina. See
e.g., TSP 401, 4: narthadn!il) prasidhyati,. ]NA. 478. 7; TS v. 2074:
aprasiddhopalambhasya narthavittil] prasidhyati is an apparent modification.
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says:1l6
If knowledge IS imperceptible, how can it be possible for (an
object] to be known? Who can define the nature of what is
imperceptible?
(18.17) (The opponent:] II If all knowledge is aware of itself by self-
consciousness, determinate knowledge such as 'This is a jar', etc. would
become indeterminate. Again, how cannot (erroneous] knowledge such
as (the cognition of] a yellow shell, etc. be correct knowledge?"
[The author:] We reply. Even determinate knowledge is indeter-
minate as such. The judgment 'This is a jar' is determinative of the
external object alone, but not of itself. [Regarding this point, Dharma-
kirti] said:
The knowledge which apprehends the thing meant by a word is
determinative of the thing alone; but the nature (of the know-
ledge itself] is not identical with the object of the word. In its
nature all [knowledge] is [not conceptual, but] intuitive.
1l7
Likewise, erroneous knowledge is in itself non-erroneous, since it is
manifested in the form of self-illumination (svaprakiisarupe1}a). It is said
to be erring simply because it has a wrong object, as is said as fol-
lows:
Every knowledge is correct in itself, but it may be erring in re-
lation to [the external object which is] another,118
Thus it is to be maintained that whatever is manifested is manifested
because it is so produced out of its own causes; otherwise manifestation
116. =PVBh 345, 4 f. b. (v. 619) : yadi taj jniinam ity eva tat par-
svariipam kas tasya M changes jniinam in Pada a into jniitam.
117. =PV III, v. 288: sabdiirthagriihi yad yatra taj jniinam tatra kalpanii, svariipam ca
na sabdiirthas ato' khilam. artham and in M should be accordingly
corrected into -arthas and akhilam. Cf. PVBh 331, 19-20: kalpanapi svasamvittav narthe
vikalpaniit, svariipasyAvikalpatviit The first half of this verse is
identical with PS I, k. 7a-b (Hattori, II. 1, n. 51). M. reads jniinam tat for taj jniinam.
118. svariipe sarvam abhriintam parariipe Not identified, but see PVBh 331,
13-14 : svariipam tad eva arthas tu na tathii. svariipe tan nirvikalpakam,
arthe tat savikalpakam iti smarat}am. arthasmarat}am svariipe kuta etat, svariipe
tad abhriintam arthe bhriintam iti. G resumes its course here (d. n. 109) with the follow-
ing passage, at the end of which the verse of Santiraksita that appeared in M 16, 15-16 is
placed: yady ami prakiisante tadii svahetor eva utpanniilJ
santa iti svikartavyam. In M prakiisiisiddher and prakiisasvabhiiviid are found instead of the
underlined words respective1y and prakiisanta is inserted between santa and iti. G seems
better in these respects.
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would remain inexplicable. us
6.3. Mystic intuition of a seer. (19.10) The mystic intuition of a
secr (yogijniina) is the knowledge that is produced on the termination of
intensive meditation on a true object.
119
This is also [a SPeCies of indeter-
minate knowledge]. Yoga (meditation) here is samiidhi (concentration)120
and it is characterised by intent attention of the mind on one object
(cittaikiigratii). This is the same as wisdom (prajnii) discerning the
truth of all things. Yogin (a seer) is so called because he is possessed
of yoga. The knowledge of a yogin is indeterminate knowledge. What
kind of knowledge is it? 120a It is explained as what is produced after
the termination of intensive meditation (bhiivaniiprakarsaparyantaja) on
a true object (bhutiirtha). ' True object' is an object compatible with valid
knowledge. Meditation practice (bhiivanii) means to imagine (samiiropa)
[an object] rePeatedly in the mind. The knowledge which is produced on
the tennination of the intensive meditation on the truth is devoid of
determining factors (kalpaniiporj,ha) and non-erroneous. The true object
is the fourfold noble truth (caturiiryasatya) named pain, the causes [of
pain], the extinction [of pain] and the way to the extinction (dul:Jkha-
samudaya-nirodha-miirga). We should understand the five groups (panca-
skandha) in the manner that they are by nature momentary (k$a'IJika) ,
void (sunya) ,121 soulless (niratmaka), painful, and so forth. And this truth
119. =NB I, s. 11: yogijiiiinam eeti, PS I, k. 6c-
d: yoginiim gurunirdeSiivyatibhinniirthamiitradrk (Hattori. n. 1, n. 48); PV III, v. 282:
priiguktam yoginiim jiiiinam tad bhiivaniimayam, vidhutakalpaniijiilam evdva-
bhiisate. NBT 12, 1-3 divides the meditation process into three stages: in
which a yogin's vision begins to be clear; in which the yogin con-
templates the object as though it were veiled by a thin cloud; yogina}; in which
the object is perceived just as clearly as though it were a small grain on the palm of his
hand. follows this theory: Y ogijiiiina realized in the third stage is produced
immediately' after the second, which in its turn follows the first.
See Stcherbatsky, II, 31, n. 2: "According to Vinitadeva, p. 47, the
comprises 4 degrees, smrty-upasthiina, murdhan and the
is the same as laukikiigradharma. About these so called nirvedhabhiigiya
stages and the smrty-upasthiinas cpo AK VI, 14 ft. and VI 20 ft. After that comes the deci-
sive moment, the meditating man suddenly acquires the faculty of transcendental intuition
changes completely, it is another pudgala, a saint, an arya, a bod-
hisattva...."
120. M, G yoga}; samiidhi};. T has rnal };byor ni tin ne };dsin dan ses rab bo (= yoga!}.
samadhi!}. prajiHi ca).
120a. G omits kidrsam tad iti eet.
121. M 19, n. 1 asuci, but G, T sunya.
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should be known to be compatible with inferential knowledge such as
(Whatever is existent is momentary' and others (which are to be fully
discussed in Chapter III].
6.3.1. Questions regarding meditation and emancipation answered.
122
(20.1) (The opponent] raises the following questions: 1) Meditation is
[concerned with] fictional constructs (vikalpa) ; fictional constructs refer
to unreal objects. How then can a real thing vividly manifest itself [in
the meditation]? 2) How can [yogijnana which is by nature] conceptual
attain indeterminateness? 3) How can the mind which is momentary be
fixed upon one object? 4) (When the mind is momentary] by whom and
how is the sUPeriority (vise$a) (of the seer in comparison with common
people] attained? 5) How can a man who has a body be emancipated
(mukta) through detachment from passions (raga) and so forth? [Thus,
your theory of yogic intuition] is not in all these resPeCts."
(20.5) (The author:] Our reply is this: 1) Althou.gh fictional constructs
are (primarily] concerned with an imaginary object (avastuvi$aya), it
indirectly envisages (adhyavasyati)123 [the form of] an actual object. This
is the reason why actual things are manifested. vividly in this (yogic
intuition] because of meditation.
2) We do not say that a fictional construct (or determinate knowledge]
is identical with indeterminate knowledge, but that indeterminate know-
ledge is produced from determinate knowledge (through adhyavasiiya].
Furthermore, it is well established by direct eXPerience (anubhavasiddha)
that the non-conceptual vision manifests itself to one who constantly
meditates [on the object], as in the case of love, sorrow
124
, etc. Indeed
there is no irrelevance whatsoever in such an eXPerience (dr$ta).
122. G omits the whole section corresponding to M 20. 1-21,7 ( 6.3.1).
123. The author deals with the Buddhist theory of adhyavasiiya in 7.1.1.
124. T omits kiimasokiidivat. Cf. PV III, v. 283: kiimasokabhayonmiidacaurasvapniidyupa-
abhutiin api pasyanti purato'vasthiitiin iva. The simile of a lover to whom the figure
of his beloved is clearly manifested is a favourite corroborative example of yogijniina.
JiHinasrlmitra ONA 323, 3-5) formulates the following syllogism to prove the possibility of
yogijniina: yad yad bhiivyate tat tad sPhu{iibhain sainbhavati, yathii
kiimukasya bhiivyante ca nairiitmyiidayo vastu-
(Whatever is meditated on possibly manifests itself clearly at the end of inten-
sive meditation, as the figure of a beloved girl appears to her lover; real teachings such
as the non-existence of the soul proved from universal momentariness are meditated upon
by one who seeks for the supreme good of human being.) The theory is applied also to
the proof of a Buddha's omniscience, which is a kind of yogijniina (d. 29).
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3) Momentary as the mind may be, it is called t fixed on one object'
when it is intent on grasping [the object] during all the period consisting
of a series of homogeneous [mental] moments
4) As for the sUPeriority [of the seer, we must say that] it can be
produced just because of the momentariness [of the mind] and not because
of Permanency [i. e. non-momentariness], since it is not feasible that a
Permanent thing is increased with additional qualities (atisaya). Regard-
ing this [Dhannakirti] says:
A thing whose essential nature never perishes is called t penna-
nent' by the wise.
125
Who can destroy the [permanent] capacity
or non-capacity abiding by nature as such in a thing, which, due
to its eternalness, is incurable [i. e. unchangeable] ?126
5) You have said: t t A man who has a body is liable to happiness
and unhappiness due to favour and disfavour shown to him. It is there-
fore not possible that he is emancipated by virtue of renouncing passions,
etc. while he still has a body." But this is untenable. For it is not the
body, but nescience (avidyii) which is the cause of passions, etc., this
nescience being wrong conception, the nature of which consists of the
four kinds of delusions (viparyiisa), viz., imagining what is impennanent
as permanent, what is not the self as the self, what is painful as plea-
sant, and what is impure as pure. From this [nescience] originates
thirst for pleasurable objects. To him who regards the self (iiiman)
as eternal, the causes of longings for pleasure will be his own belongings
(iiimiya).127 Attachment to these (belongings] is passion, and with the
latter are connected hatred (dve$a) and other [defilements]. Thus, it is
nescience, but not the body that is the root of passion etc. How is one
who has got rid of nescience bound to passion etc. even if he has a body?
Therefore, even while living with a body those who have no Passion can
accomplish emancipation-which is characterised by the abandonment of
all the attachment-when he is freed from nescience. Thus it has been
125. =PV II, v. 205 a-b: nityam tam iihur vidviimso svabhiivo na nasyati. M reads
yatsvabhiivo instead of svabhiivo.
126. =PV III, v. 22: tasya saktir asaktir vii yii svabhiivena samsthitii, nityatviid acikitsya-
sya kas tiim M has acikitsasya for acikitsyasya.
127. T bdag rtag par mthon ba kho bde ba mnon par pa la sogs rgyu
yan bdag gi bar ro (=iitmiinam nityam pasyati,
syiit). Tr. 'follows M, but omits sukha of sukhahetur.
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fully established.
7. Object of indeterminate knowledge. (21.8) Its object is the ex-
tremely particular characteristic.
128
It is to be known that the fourfold
indetenninate knowledge has as its object the Particular
The Particular here means the unique characteristic of a reality which is
determined in sPace, time and form (desakiiliikiiraniyata). The following
is meant by this statement: [To take the example of] a jar, its Particular
characteristics may be described as follows: it is caPable of containing water
etc.; is manifested before us as Particularly determined in space, time and
form; is free from ideas (dharma), impermanence and others; and, as
object of our purposive action (pravrtti) , is distinct from things both of
the same and of a different class (sajiitiyavijiitiyavyiivrtta).129
7.1. Ayogavyavaccheda and anyayogavyavaccheda. (21.13)130 [The
opponent:] II If only the Particular can be the object of indeterminate
knowledge, and not the universal (siimiinya), how then can you grasp by
indeterminate knowledge the pervasion (vyiipti) between the two univer-
sals of smoke and fire ?"131
[The author:] There is no fault of this kind, because what we mean
is that the particular is really one of the objects of that [indeterminate
128. = NB 1, s. 12; tasya PS 1, k. 2a-c: anumanam ca
prama1Je prameyam. .. (Hattori. II. 1, n. 11, 13) ; PSV on it:
yam (hi) anumanam iti (=PVBh 169,
9-10) (Hattori. II. 1, n. 14).
129. NBT, 12, 14 ff.: tasya svam
asadharaf}am tattvam vastuno hy asadhara1Jam ca tattvam asti sama-
nyam ca. yad asadharaf}am pratyakagrahyam. ...
130. G omits 7.1 (M 21, 13-22, 7).
131. This criticism is reproduced as of Trilocana in JNA 161, 17-23: trilocanas tv aha,
katham tabhyam . ..
Trilocana's argument is in brief as follows: Perception and non-cognition, having by
nature only the particular as their object, cannot comprehend the relation between two
universals. The Buddhist contention that the relation of the absence of fire with the
absence of smoke is understood does not hold good. Because such a relation is not an
object of perception which cognizes only the particular; nor is it understood by inference,
because inference presupposes perception. Moreover, there is no relation between two
concepts which are merely discrimination from the opposite (Read Buddhists
may contend that a concept occurring just after perception envisages by logical imagina-
tion the determinate form of the object. though actually every moment of the object is
different from another. But this is untenable, since, according to Buddhists, a reality
never becomes an object of conceptual knowledge, always remaining imperceptible to it.
The criticism is cited verbatim also in RNA 99, 13-23.
- 56-
knowledge] (svalak$a1Jam tasya vi$aya eva), the non-connection [of the
former with the latter] being negated (ayogavyavaccheda), and not that
the particular alone is its object (svalak$ar;am eva iasya vi$ayalJ,), all other
[than the particular] being excluded (anyayogavyavaccheda) 132. What
132. The theory of two or three kinds of vyavaccheda was first propounded by Dharma-
klrti. and maintained throughout the subsequent development of Buddhist logic. It was
applied to various problems of logic as often as the theory of prasajya- and paryudiisa-
In fact, the theory of vyavaccheda is concerned with the restriction of the
meaning of an affirmative propsition, or more precisely, the affirmative relation of two
terms, while the theory of two kinds of is for the purpose of restricting the
meaning of a negative proposition. (About the latter see n. 62 above.) The original verses
stating the theory of vyavaccheda occur in PV IV, v. 190-192 and PVn II (Peking ed. 266,
b3-5) , and are cited verbatim in TRD 35, 11-17: ayogam yogam aparair atyantiiyogam eva
ca, vyavacchinatti dharmasya nipiito vyatirecakal]. kriyayii ca sahodital] ,
'prayoge'pi tasyartho'yam pratiyate. vyavacchedaphalam viikyam yatas caitro dhanur-.
piirtho dhanurdharo nilam sarojam iti vii yathii. The particle eva, which implies
the significance of separation, restricts the relation of two terms (or of a proposition) in
three ways: (1) When it is stated with the qualifier, the non-connection of the qualifier
(with the qualificand) is negated; (2) when it is stated with the qualificand, the connec-
tion of all qualities other (than the stated qualifer) with the qualificand is negated; (3)
when it is stated with the verb, the absolute non-connection of two terms is negated, i.e.
the possibility of the connection of the two terms in some cases is admitted. The ex-
amples are: (1) caitro dhanurdhara eva (Caitra is an archer), meaning that Caitra is surely
one of the many archers-this is called ayogavyavaccheda, since the force of the particle
negates simply the disconnection of Caitra and archery; (2) piirtha eva dhanurdharal]
(Partha alone is the archer), meaning that only Partha is worthy of being called an
archer, all the others being unworthy of the appellation -this is anyayogavyavaccheda; (3)
nilam sarojam sambhavaty eva (There are some lotus blooms which are blue), showing the
possibility of the existence of blue lotus -this is atyantiiyogavyavaccheda. Any of these
meanings is understood in any proposition through the intention of the speaker even if the
particle is not actually applied, for the expression of a sentence is the effect of separation
(intended by the speaker).
Dharmottara in PVnT (Peking ed. 216, bB ff.) gives another example which is adopted
by jnanasrimitra (JNA 206, 6 ff.) as well as Ratnaklrti (RNA 55, 6-9): srughnam
This may be restricted by any of the three vyavacchedas according as we put
eva with srughnam and respectively: This way alone leads to
Srughna; this way surely, Le. without break, leads to Srughna; it is possible that this
way also leads to Srughna. Dharmaklrti's discussion on vyavaccheda cited above is made
regarding the relation of p and h while jnanasri and Ratnaklrti give the
example of a way to Srughna with regard to the theory of apoha. Ratnaklrti interprets
also the theory of vyiipti by means of vyavaccheda (RNA 70, 7-10; Mookerjee, 10-12).
}nanasrlmitra makes use of the same for solving a difficulty in establishing a causal rela-
tion in his Kiiryakiira1Jabhiivasiddhi (JNA 321, 12-13) : cchede dravya-
yogyatiiyiim ayogasya siddho'tyantam ca karma1Ji. On this verse he comments:
When by the word' fire' we mean as a whole the entire things (fire, fueL moisture etc.)
(siimagri) implied by it, that much alone is (the cause of smoke) (sa eva kiira'!am) and
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then follows is that the universal can be its object as wel1.
133
7.1.1 Grahya and adhyavaseya. (21.18) The object of valid cognition
is indeed twofold: the directly apprehended (griihya) and the indirectly
detennined (adhyavaseya). Of these, the directly apprehended object of
indeterminate knowledge is the single moment of the individual charac-
teristic that is seen.
134
The indirectly determined [or envisaged] object
is the universal which is manifested when the determining factor (vikalpa)
occurs following indeterminate cognition. 135
7.1.2 and samanyam. (22.2) This
universal is again twofold: the concept of an individual
lit. vertical universal) and the concept of a class lit.
horizontal universal). Of these, the universal of an individual is construct-
ed through the accumulation of a series of moments of an individual
in this case the relation involved is anyayogavyaccheda. When only the substance of fire
is meant and also when cause-ness means fitness or latent force (yogyatii) , then (fire) is
fit to be (one of) the causes (of smoke) (dahanal} kiira1Jam eva). This is ayogavyavaccheda.
When furthermore an actual action is meant, (it means that fire) actually can be (a cause)
(dahanal} kiira1Jam bhavaty eva). In this case the relation of atyantiiyogavyavaccheda is
admitted. (For details see my Trikapancakacinta- Development of the Buddhist theory
on the determination of causality, MIK Nos. 4-5, 1 ff. and the additional note in 15).
From these explanations it is clear that 1) in anyayogavyavaccheda the qualificand and the
qualifier completely pervade each other or are coextensive, 2) that in ayogavyavaccheda the
qualifier pervades the qualificand, or the qualifier is of wider extension than the qualifi-
cand, and 3) that in atyantiiyogavyavaccheda only some part of the qualificand is pervaded
by some part of the qualifier. The theory appears in various texts of other Indian schools
as well, though they are probably indebted to Buddhist logicians for it. See e.g. Sap/a-
bhangitarangi1Ji. ed. Thakuraprasadasarma, 25, 8-12; 26, 3-5; 26, 15-20 etc. NK s. v. eva.
133. RatnaklrtL following JNA 166, 11-21, replies to the criticism by Trilocana referred
to in n. 131 above as follows: trilocanacodye' pi briimalJ. yadi
ity ayogavyavacchedenocyate tadii siddhasiidhanam. anyayogavyavacchedas tv asiddhalJ, pra-
griihyiivaseyabhedena yad dhi
yatra jiiiine pratibhiisate tad griihyam, yatra yatalJ pravartate tad adhyavaseyam. tatra pra-
griihyam, adhyavaseyam tu siimiinyam
triitmakam. anumiinasya tu viparyayalJ (RNA 102, 8-13). argues after this pas-
sage of Ratnaklrti here and in 7. 1. 3. below.
134. T de la mnon sum gyi gzun bya ni snan bzin palJi skad cig gcig go (=tatra praty-
pratibhiisamiinalJ eko griihyalJ). eko griihyalJ in M should be eko griihyalJ.
Cf. also NBT 12, 18: hi eko griihyalJ.
135. NBT 12, 16 ff.: dvividho hi pramii1Jasya, griihyas ca yad iikiiram utpadyate,
priipa1Jiyas ca yam adhyavasyati. anyo hi griihyo 'nyas cddhyavaseyalJ. hi
eko griihyalJ. adhyavaseyas tu niscayena samtiina eva. samtiina eva ca
priipa1JiyalJ, priipayitum asakyatviit. See also Intro. of the Pramii1Jii-
lJijrttikii, ed. Malvanlya.
object, say ajar, which is distinguished from the others of the same
class; 136 and this universal is the object of the perception ascertaining
(an object] (sadhanapratyak$a). The universal of a class comprises (as
the members] all the individuals [belonging to one class] which are dis-
tinguished from .[those of] other classes; this universal is the object of
the perception grasping pervasion (vyiiptigrahakaPratyak$a) .137
7.1.3 Object of determinate knowledge is also twofold. (22.6) [The
opposite process is taken by] detenninate knowledge, to which the uni-
versal (samanya) is the directly apprehended object (grahya) and the
indirectly apprehended object (adhyavasaya) is the particular (svalak$a1}a).
7.2. Refutation of the six categories. (22.7) 13BBy the instruction
that the object of indetenninate knowledge is the particular, it is implied
that the six categories Cpadartha) 139 maintained by other schools [viz.
the Naiyayika and the are not its objects. (The six kinds of
categories, viz.] substance as the composite whole of an individual object
(avayavidravya), quality (gu1}a), motion (karman), universal (samanya),
ultimate specifier (vise$a) and inherence (samavaya), are not manifested
(pratibhiisa) in indetenninate cognition. What is not manifested cannot
be its object, because otherwise unwarrantable consequences would follow
(atiprasangat). For, while perceiving a jar, etc. we do not cognize a
single substance as the (whole' apart from parts such as the front, the
136. T rigs mthun pa (dan rigs mi mthun pa la sogs pa gcig kho na) la skad cig ma du
ma tshogs spyi ni. ... The parenthesized portion must be omitted.
137. JNA 166, 16 ff.: tatra ' pi
vyiiptigraha1Japrakara1Je punar ekavyaktidarsane 'pi sarva-
See also RNA 102, 13-17. In another place Ra
tnakjrti gives the name urdhva and tiryak (RNA 136, 2-3): yathordhvam
pratite 'py avidyiivasiid tathii tiryaksvasamvedanapra-
' dhigate'py avidyiivasiid eva . .. Our author inherits the
designations from Ratnakjrti. However, the same designations appear in Mat;likyanandin's
(Chap. IV, s. 3: siimiinyam dvedhii, tiryagiirdhvatiibhediit) as well as
PKM 466, 20 ff. If Mat;likyanandin is, as generally accepted, dated in 9 th cent. it follows
that Ratnakjrti is indebted to him for the classification. Prabhacandra is dated by Mahen-
dur Kumar in 980-1065, which almost concides with the date of Ratnakjrti.
138. G resumes its discourse here with a slightly different statement: etena yad
uktam pare1Ja paricchidyante te ca iti tan
nirastam.
139, As for the problem of a suitable English tr. of the word padiirtha, see K. H. Potter,
The Padiirthatattvanirupa1Jam, Intro. and the counter-argument by J. Brough in BSOAS.
XXII, 1, 161
- 59-
back etc. The supreme lord of logic (Nyayaparamesvara, i. e. Dharma-
kirti?) says in this connection:
Only parts placed closely [together] are seen as they are, but
another entity which is their possessor and which itself consists
of no Parts [i. e. a composite whole] is not apprehended.
140
It should be understood that a similar criticism may be directed towards
[the other categories], quality, motion, etc.
141
8. Identity of the cause and the effect of cognition. (22.17) 142[The
opponent:] lilt is well known that pramiitJa [the istrument of knowledge]
140. =HBT 106, 25-26: bhiigii eva ca bhiisante tathii tathii, tadviin kascit
punar naiva pratibhiisate. M, however, reads hi instead of ca, and tadviin naiva
kascid sampratiyate in cod. Vt"bhiiga in M must be corrected into nirbhiiga,
since the latter reading is given in M 66, 15-16 ( 31.3) where the same verse appears
again. The first half of this verse is cited in NVV I, 468,8. Mok!jlakara ascribes this verse
to Nyayaparamesvara, which is the epithet used for Dhamakirti in TSop 304, 21-22; HBT
seems to quote this verse from some other work; and it is most likely that this is a verse
of Dharmakirti, though I have not so far identified it.
141. Detailed criticism of these categories is made again in M 64, 10 ff. ( 31. 1-31. 3).
142. It is now necessary to collect and rearrange theories scattered in the various
places of our text in order to understand the whole process of perception as interpreted
by the Sautrantika. Indeterminate sensation -which alone is really worthy of the name
has as its object a unique moment of an extra-mental objet ( 7). This pure
sensation is, as Mookerjee says (344,8 ff.), "a simple, homogeneous, unitary cognition, in
which the subject and the object, perception and perceptual matter, are not distinguished
but given in a lump" (d. 8). But pure sensation as such has no practical utility unless
and until it is made determinate, although indeterminateness is the only criterion to dis-
tinguish perception from logical imagination or inference. Thus it is proposed that pure
sensation has the power to produce determinate knowledge, and that if it does not so, it
cannot be called valid ( 6). This determinate knowledge produced from pure sensation
is twofold: the image or concept of an object and the consciousness or understanding of
the object ( 8). This dichotomy is not real, but fictional constructs, which are made
determinate through the negation of others. The image of blue is determined as such
because it is distinguished from the non-blue; consciousness is also likewise determined
( 8). The distinction of the means and the effect of cognition is made only in this realm
of determinate knowledge, though in reality there is no distinction at all. But the
opponent here questions how the means and the effect can be separately established in one
and the same cognition ( 8; 6.2). The Buddhist reply to this is that the distinction of
the determinant and the determinable can be made in one and the same cognition, since the
relation between the determinant and the determinable is different from the relation of
the actor and the object of an action ( 6.2). This reply is given by Dharmottara in his
com. on NB L s. 2 which is parallel to 8 of our text. while our author has already
given it in the section dealing with svasamvedana ( 6,2). The theory of the generative
efficiency of indeterminate knowledge makes it possible that perception has also a univer-
sal as its object, although this is said only in the realm of practical utility ( 7.1-7.2).
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is knowing (jfuina) which brings about as its effect (phalabhida) the act
(kriyii) in the fonn of knowledge (pramitirupa). What is in your theory
to be regarded as [the resultant content of] knowledge (pramiti) in rela-
tion to which the knowing as the cause (janayaj jiliinam) is called the
instrument of knowledge?" 143
(The author:] The right answer to this question is as follows: From
an object such as blue is produced twofold [determinate] knowledge: one
is the image or concept of blue (niliikiira) , the other consists of the con-
sciousness of blue (nilabodhasvabhiiva). The lmowledge consisting of the
image of blue is [determined as] distinct (vyiivrttYii) from the image of
non-blue, and is regarded as the instrument of lmowledge. The know-
ledge consisting in the consciousness of blue is also [determined as] dis-
tinct from the consciousness of non-blue, and is the lmowledge as resul-
tant (pramiti). This is the same as the effect [of cognition].144 Con-
cerning this, [Dharmakirti) says:
This resemblance (siirupya) [of the mental image] to its [extra-
mental] object is the instrument of knowledge; the understand-
ing (adhigati) of the object is the effect of cognition.
145
However, the distinction as such has been set up by conceptual analy-
sis (vikalpapratyaya). In reality (pararniirthatas) there is no distinction,
as is said [by Dharmakirti] :
The indeterminate knowing is none other than the effect of
cognition. 146
8.1. Knowledge is necessarily endowed with an image (sikirajnina).
(23.7) 147"Knowledge must be considered as endowed with the image of
143. NBT 15. 11-12: nanu ea jniiniid avyatiriktam siidrsyam. tathii ea sati tad eva
jniinam pramii1}am tad eva pramii1}aphalam. na eaikam vastu siidhyam siidhanam eopapadyate....
PV III. v. 319: kriyiikiira1}ayor aikyavirodha iti eet Casat. dharmahhediihhyupagamiid vastv-
ahhinnam itifyate.)
144. For an excellent exposition of this theory see Mookerjee 337-354. NBT 16. 3 ff. :
tasmiid asiirupyavyiivrttiya siirupyam jnanasya anilahodhavyavrttiyii ea
nilahodharupatvam vyavasthiipyam. vyavasthiipakas ea vikalpapratyayal) pratyakfahalotpanno
draftavyal) . ...
145. =NB I. s. 20: arthasiirupyam asya prama1}am. The passage arthiidhigatil) pramii1}a-
phalam which our Author ascribes to Dharmakirti is not found in NB. but NB I. s. 18-19
expresses the same meaning: ... prama1}aphalam arthapratitirupatviit.
146. = NB I, s. 18: tad eva ca pralyakfam jniinam prama1}aphalam,. PS I. k. 8c-d:
savyiiparapratitatviit pramii1}am phalam eva sat (Hattori. II. 1, n. 55). PV III. v. 308a-b:
sa (=arthiidhigatil)J ea tasya (=jniinasyaJ atmahhulaiva lena narthiintaram phalam.
147. Missing in G. T.
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its object (siikiira). .. 141 If knowledge is not adinitted as having an image,
it is not possible to establish objects separately from one another, since
such knowledge without the imprint [left by each objectJ would remain
the same on cognizing all objects.
148
8.2. (23.9) Again, some scholars hold th,at the preceding knowledge
is the cognitive instroment (pramiir.za) while the subsequent knowledge is
148. DP 82, 24-26: yadi jiiiinam arthasarupain na syiit kiin tu niriikiirain bodhaikarupain
tadanubhavaikarupatayii tad sarvatra parieehedyatayii karmasthiinapriipte nilapitiidiiv
iti nilasyaivedam samvedanain, idain pitasyaivety pratikarmavibhiigo hiyate,.
TSop 284,2 f. b.-285,4: atatsarupe1Ja jiiiinenarthavedanayogiit, tathii hi (yadii) vijiiiinam
bodhamiitrasvabhiivam utpadyate, tadii nilasyedam vedanain pitasyeti pratikarmavyavasthii na
syiit. yadrsam hi tan nile pite ' pi tiidrsain vett". arthasiirupye tu sati yasyaiviikiiram anukaroti
jiiiinain tatsamvedanam bhavati nanyasya.
The siikiiraviida is maintained by the Samkhya, Vedanta as well as the Sautrantikabau-
ddha. The theory, in Mookerjee's words (77), "holds that knowledge of external reality
is made possible by virtue of the objective reality leaving an impress of its likeness on
the mirror of consciousness." Refer to the verse bhinnakiilain katham griihyam iti eet ...
in n. 74 above. The niriikiiraviida is maintained by the Mimamsaka,
Jaina, and the and "the theory maintains that our consciousness is
clear like a clean slate and does not depart an inch from its intrinsic purity even when
it apprehends the external reality. Consciousness is an amorphous substance and remains
so in all its activities. It is like light and reveals the object with its form and qualities
without undergoing any morphological articulation in its constitution." Cf. TSP 564, 8-9:
.. . yasyedam darsanam, iikiiraviin biihyo 'rtho niriikiirii buddhir iti. TS v.
1999, as well as TSP, enumerates for criticism's sake three kinds of epistemological atti-
tudes regarding the relation of knowledge and its object: Niriikiiraviida (anirbhiisajiiiinaviida)
according to which an object is cognized by knowledge not endowed with the image of
the object: siikiiraviida (sanirbhiisajiiiinaviida)- the object is cognized by the knowledge
having its image; anyanirbhiisajiiiinaviida- the object is cognized by knowledge which is
endowed with an image different from that of the object.
All the four schools of Buddhism can be classified from the perspective of iikiiraviida.
The is regarded as niriikiiraviidin while the Sautrantika and the Vijfianavadin
are siikiiraviidin. When the knowledge of a Buddha or emancipated person is concerned,
the Vijnanavadin as well as the Madhyamika are again divided into both parties. Our
author comes to deal with this division of the Vijnanavadin in 32.1 (M 69, 11 ff.) and I
will give a detailed note on that occasion. For the general classification of the Buddhist
schools into either of the two parties see TRD 46-47, where the is represented
as saying: niriikiiro bodho'rthasahabhiivy ekasiimagryadhinas tatrarthe pramii1Jam,. the Sau-
trantika ani Vijnanavadin: siikiiro pramii1Jam,. and the Madhyamika:
muktis tu . .. keeit tu svastham
jiiiinam SDS 46, 368-371: artho jiiiiniinvito bahu manyate, sautriintikena
na bahir iikiirasahitii buddhir yogiiciirasya sammatii, kevaliim
smnvidmn svasthiim manyante Similar verses are found also in TRD 47.
Here, a group of the Madhyamikas who maintain pure consciousness independent of
iikiiras seems to represent niriikiiraviida.
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the effect of the cognition (prama1Japhala). But this is untenable. For
the preceding knowledge cannot be a pramii1Ja
149
because the subsequent
knowledge which is supposed to be the prama1Japhala is then not yet
produced. When the [so-calledJ resultant knowledge is produced, the
preceding knowledge, being momentary, has already disappeared. How
can it be a pramii1Ja, even if it has an object such as a jar? Nor can the
one of [two cognitions existing at the same time be called the effect [of
the otherJ, since between them is not found the relation of the benefitting
and the benefitted (upakaryopakarakatva) as in the case of the right and
left horns of a cow.
8.3. 15oTherefore, there is in the level of the highest truth (paramar-
thatas) no difference between the instrumental cognition and the resultant
cognition; the difference which, being brought about by conceptual dis-
tinction [from their oppositeJ (vyavrttikrta), is established in determinate
knowledge as simply imaginary (kalpanika). 150
Here ends the chapter on indeterminate knowledge of the Tarka-

Chapter II. Inference for oneself (svirthinumina).
9. Classification of determinate knowledge. (24.2) Determinate know-
ledge or inference is twofold: that for oneself and that for others. 151
[InferenceJ which is made for one's own sake is inference for oneself
(sviirtham anumanam); this consists in [inferentialJ knowledge [of a per-
son who infersJ. Having seen [a logical markJ smoke, etc. in its locus
(dharmin), say a mountain, a person who infers gets the knowledge of
fire [existing on the mountain]. By means of this knowledge he himself
comes to comprehend the object which is not directly perceived
but nothing more is aimed at. This is why it is called inference for one's
own sake.
[InferenceJ which is made for others is inference for others. This
inference for others (pararthanumana) consists of words. Since the state-
ment expressing a logical mark satisfying the three characteristics (tri-
149. Insert na pramii1Jam after tiivajjniinam. It is attested by G, T.
150, G, T omit 8.3.
151. NB II, s. 1-2: anumiimam dvidhii, sviirtham pariirtham ca. PS II, k. 1a-b: anumiinam
dvidhii, sviirtham trirupiillingato'rthadrk (Cited in PVV Appendix 524, 1) (Kitagawa, 74, n. 7).
- 63-
rupalinga) leads others to, i. e. causes others to know [what is not directly
perceivedJ, the statement is also meant by the word anumana through the
metaphorical use (upaciira) of the word
152
, just as the expression 'Clarified
butter is life' (iiyur ghrtam).
9.1. Function of inference. (24.8) Of these, the knowledge which is,
in reference to the object of inference (anumeya), produced by the logical
mark having the triple characteristic is the inference for oneself. 153[The
following is meant:J From the logical mark (h) which has the triple
characteristic, knowledge is obtained by the inferring person in regard to
the object of inference [i. e. the fact that locus P is qualified by SJ154 which
is not directly perceived. This knowledge is the inference for oneself.
However, some- are of the opinion that [inference isJ to determine
the necessary concomitance (aviniibhiiva) of the probandum (s) [with the
probans (h)J as connected (also) with the particular locus (p. dharmivi-
se$a).155
Others are of the opinion that [inference isJ to detennine indirectly
the existence of [the probandum (s) such asJ fire.
156
152. NBT 17,6: pariirthiinumiinam sabdiitmakam, sviirthiinumiinam tu jniiniitmakam;
NB III, s. 1-2: trirupalingiikhyiinam pariirthiinumiinam, kiira1Je kiiryopaciiriit; TSop 296, 6-7 :
anumiinakiira1Je trirupalinge kiiryasyanumiinasyopaciiriit samiiropiit yathii naq.valodakam
piidaroga iti.
153. NB II, s. 3: tatra trirupiil lingiid yad anumeye jniinam tad anumiinam. Cf. n. 151.
154. Anumeya here means the conclusion to be proved, the collection of
(p) and siidhyadharma (s), or to be more precise, p qualified by s. Cf. DP 90, 22: anumeyo
Hereafter I use the sign p for the
locus or substratum of inference, illustrated here by a mountain; s for siidhyadharma, the
quali ty to be inferred or probandum, illustrated here by fire; h for hetu= linga = siidhana-
dharma = the logical mark or the probans, illustrated here by smoke. It is
necessary because the Skt. terms for them are multivalent and must be determined in one
sense according to the context. The word anumeya is used in three senses: 1) It means
p when used in relation to the definition of the probans; 2) the collection of p and s, or p
qualified by s when used in relation to the understanding of the subject-matter of inference;
3) and s when a vyiipti (pervasion between the probans and the probandum) is to be deter-
mined. Cf. NBT 20, 16-17: niscetavye dharmy anyatra tu siidhyapratt'-
pattikiile vyiiptiniscayakiile tv dharmo'numeya iti. The persent passage
in our text is concerned with the understanding of the object or the subject-matter of in-
ference, so anumeya is here used in the second sense of the word.
155. M but G, T read which is supported by the context.
See n. 156.
156. Dignaga introduces and refutes two theories regarding the problem of what is
the subject-matter of an inference in PS II, k. 8-11. The Skt. text is preserved in NVT
152, 11 ff. which is cited here together with Vacaspati's introducing remark: atra digniigena
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10. Three characteristics of the logical mark: paksadharmati. (24.
13) Now the triple characteristic possessed by the logical mark is to
be explained.
157
1) Its [h's] definite (nisei/am) presence in all [the members of the
class of] the locus (p) of inference [as well as in other classes].158
Anumeya
159
here means the locus of inference (dharmin) such asa
dhiimiid agniriipadharmiintariinumiinam agnidesayol} sambandhiinumiinam ea
samarthitam, tathii edha, keeid dharmiintaram meyam lingasydvyahhi-
eiiratal} , sambandham kecid ieehanti siddhatviid dharmadharmit}o,:! (k. 8). lingam dharme
prasiddham eet kim anyat tena miyate, atha dharmit}i, tasyaiva kim artham nanumeyatii (k. 9).
sambandhe 'pi dvayam nasti, sriiyeta tadvati, aviieyo, 'nugrhitatviin, na easau lingasam-
gata':! (k. 10). lingasyavyabhieiiras tu dharmet}anyatra drsyate, tatra prasiddham tadyuktam
dharmit}am (k. 11). These verses are translated and interpreted by several
modern scholars, among whom are: Randle, Fragment F Mookerjee, 349-355; Kita
gawa, 103-110. It is clear that the two views reproduced by our author correspond to the
two views criticised by Dignaga. Uddyotakara as well as Vacaspatimisra in their turn
criticise Dignaga's view that anumeya is p qualified by s. But our author does not go
farther into a detailed controversy.
157. Dignaga states the three characteristics of the logical mark in PS II, k. 5c-d:
anumeye 'tha tattulye sadbhiivo niistitii'sati (Fragment H; Kitagawa, 96). Dharmakirti's
definition of the logical mark in PV I, v. 1 is tadamsena vyiipto hetu,:!. This
is borrowed from Dignaga's stanza: griihyadharmas tadamsena vyiipto hetul}, which was
probably contained in his lost work Hetumukha (ct. Frauwallner, Dignaga, sein Werk und
seine Entwicklung, WZKSO III, 164; Gnoli, 1, n. 10). In this verse of DharmakirtL
dharmatva represent the first characteristic, and vyiipti between hand s (=tadamsa) both
the second and the third. But follows Dharmakirti's statement in NB.
158. NB II, s. 5: lingasyanumeye sattvam eva (niseitam). In NB the word niseitam is
state1 at the end of II, s. 7, and Dharmottara says that it must be read with II, s. 5 and
6 as well. p here stands for all the members of the class of p. When p is a proper name
or a definite individual, it may be regarded as a unit class.
159. Anumeya in this context means p. Cf. NB II, s. 8: anumeyo 'tra
dharmi. (Anumeya here stands for the dharmin whose determinant or property it is wanted
to know.) When he explained the first characteristic of the liilga, anumeye'stitii, in PSV
ad PS II, k. 5c-d (n. 157 above), Dignaga defined anumeya as dharmy anumeyalJ
(Fragment 4: Kitagawa, 96). This definition was rather confusing, since anumeya here
must be in its first sense, i.e. p, while Dignaga's definition is more suggestive of the
second, p qualified by s. Commentators on PS were conscious of this difficulty. Jinendra-
buddhi (Visii/iimalavati, Peking, 106, a5-7), for instance, introduces a criticism of some
people, who, classifying the usage of the word anumeya into the above three, say that
the existence of s is not yet known when a logical mark is perceived, and that p therefore
cannot be qualified by s at that time. JinendrabuddhL therefore, interprets Dignaga's
definition as meaning dharmi, as Dharmaki"rti does. However, it is
not that Dignaga was unconscious of this problem, for he answers it, not in Chap. II, but
in Chap. III. PSV, just before PS III. k. 10 (Kitagawa, 151) introduces an opponent who
contends that siidhana should not be called (the property of p) as Dignaga
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mountain etc. A logical mark must really (eva) subsist in it. This is
one of the three characteristics (of a logical mark] and is named paka-
dharmatii (h's being a property of s]. The word sattvam (presence) is
employed to guard against the fallacy of an illegitimate h (asiddha).
For instance, in the inference' Sound is imPermanent because of visibi-
lity ',160 visibility (h) which means to be an object of the visual organ,
does not truly exist in p or sound.
By the particle eva the fallacy of h's non-existence in part (i. e. some
members] of p is rejected. For instance, the Digambara Jaina formulates
the syllogism 'Trees have consciousness because they sleep'. By sleep-
ing here is meant the state of shrivelled leaves; but this is not found in
all trees.
The word niscitam (definitely) is employed in order to reject the
fallacy of h's dubious reality (saindigdhiisiddha). For instance, (the fol-
lowing inference is to be rejected :] 'Here there is fire because of the
existence of a mass of (smoke-like] elements which, however, is suspected
to be vapour' .161
The significance of the word eva being placed (not before] but after
does. This opponent is represented in PVBh 580, 12-14 as saying: nanu ca dharmidharma-
miitratayopasmhhriyamiitfo siidhanam, na asti cdtra pradese
vanagahaniidau dhiima iti dharmimiitre pradarsaniit. na ca dharmimiitram na hi
dharmi siidhyas, tasya siddhatviit, dharmy anumeya iti vacaniit. (Indeed,
siidhana is a property which, as a property in generaL is brought into contact with a locus
in generaL and not as the property of for it is shown in a locus in generaL as
when we say: in this place, say, a forest, there is smoke. And a locus in general cannot
be called since a locus, being already established, is not to be proved, and since
you say that the subject-matter of an inference is the locus qualified by a property-to-be-
proved.) Dignaga's reply to this runs: samudiiyiirthasiidhyatviid dharmamiitre'tha dharmitfi,
amukhye' py ekaddatviit siidhyatvam upacaryate (PS III, k. 10=PVBh 580, 16). That is to
say, according to Dignaga, the first sense of anumeya, Le. p and the third sense, s -though
they are not the primary meaning of the word- are metaphorically said to be the object of
proof. since they constitute parts of the collection 'p qualified by s', which is to be pro-
ved. In PVBh the opponent questions farther (580, 31): But in Dignaga's definition 'anu-
meya is p qualified by s' there is no metaphorical usage found. And Prajffakara replies:
na, iti tatrabhipriiyiit. Dignaga's intention in the definition of anumeya
in Chap II is that anumeya is p qualified by s which it is wanted to know. This is a kind
of metaphor because the dharma as the determinant of the dharmin is not yet proved.
This interpretation of Prajffakaragupta is parallel to that of Jinendrabuddhi mentioned
above. Both of them, of course, presuppose Dharmakirti's interpretation in NB It, s. 8.
160. NB III, s. 60: sabda iti siidhye ubhayiisiddham.
161. NB III, s. 64: yathii smhdihyamiino bhiitasmnghiito ' gnisiddhiiv

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the word sattvam
162
is to reject the fallacy of h subsisting only in p (asu'-
dhiiratJa). For instance, t Sound is impermanent because of its audibility'163
[is an inconclusive inference, because the h, audibility, is an exclusive
property of soundJ.
10.1. Anvaya. (25.7) [The second characteristic isJ defined as. fol-
lows:
2) Its definite presence only In things similar to p [sapak$a 1. e. the
members of the class of sJ .164
What is homogeneous to p is called the co-members of p (sapaksa),
that is to say, objects in the examples (dr$tiintadharmin) similar to p [in
respect of being a member of sJ165. Thus, the second character named
anvaya (positive pervasion) is that h must be present only inC the members
of the class ofJ s.
In this definition too, the word sattvam (presence) aims at precluding
162. Note that eva here represents ayogavyavaeeheda (n. 132), i.e. it is not meant
that h must subsist only in p, but that h must truly subsist in p as in other things.
This restriction is to exclude the fallacy of asiidhiirat}ahetu. If the definition is interpreted
in the sense of anyayogavyavaeeheda, p and h would completely pervade each other, i.e.
would be coextensive, and this necessitates aSiidhiirat}iinaikiintikatva. Cf. NBT 19, 9-10: yadi
hy anumeya eva sattvam iti kuryiie ehriivat}atvam eva syiit. Inference in such a case
is prohibited in the logic of Dignaga and Dharmakirti. though later Buddhist logicians like
Ratnakarasanti remove the prohibition (n. 301 below). But the interpretation by the
theory of vyavaeeheda is inapplicable to the second characteristic of the hetu. See n. 169
below.
163. NBT 19, 6-10. The author follows Dharmottara in all the three illustrations.
See also NB III, s. 69; 71-73.
164. = NB II, s. 6: eva sattvam (niseitam).
165. NB II, s. 9: siidhyadharmasiimiinyena must be
understood as a karmadhiiraya-compound standing for sa- being the substi-
tute for samiina according to Pal)ini sU. 6.3.84 (samiinasya eehandasy amurdhaprabhrtyudar-
For this rule is to be interpreted by yogavibhiiga, i.e. by dividing its wording into
two parts, samiinasya and the rest-the first part, "samiinasya CuttarapadeJ" (under the
recurrence of 6. 3. 78 and uttarapade 6. 3. 1.) meaning that (in classical Sanskrit sa
is substituted for the word samiina-(used as the prior member of a compound). Again,
is used in the metaphorical sense (upaeiira) of the word and means artha (thing). Thus,
or comes to signify a thing which is similar to p by the common
possession of s. should not be uuderstood as a bahuvrihi-compound meaning that
which possesses a This is, according to DP, just because Dharmakirti
himself defines and as follows in PVn : siidhyadharmasiimiinyena
tadabhiivo' and according to TSop, because if it is a bahubrihi-
compound, not the similarity of to but only the similarity of to
is expressed, which is however untenable, since then sapakfa remains unexplained (d. DP
97-98; TSop 288, 12-20).
- 67-
the fallacy of the incompatible hetu as, for instance, in the inference that
sound is permanent because of its being a product (krtakatva) as a jar.
166
For product-ness is pervaded (vyiipta) not by permanency but by non-per-
manency which is incompatible [vipak$a or anti-pak$a] with pennanency.167
The word eva (only) is to preclude the non-exclusive (siidhiira1}a-)
hetu as in the inference t Sound is permanent because it is an object of
cognition as a jar ' .168 The words t being an object of cognition' (pra-
meyatva) mean [i. e. is inclusive of] t being the content of a fictional
construct' (vikalpavi$ayikrtatva), but this is found in everything, in a
member of the class of s (sapaksa) such as ether as well as in a member
of the class of not-s (vipak$a) such as a jar. This is why the mark is
called t non-exclusive' .
That the Particle eva is placed before the word sattvam means that
h pervading not all the members but some of the members of the class
of s can be valid [as well]. For instance, the hetu t produced immediately
after human effort' (prayatniinantariyakatva) can be valid in the in-
ference, t Sound is impermanent, because it is produced immediately after
human effort'. [Sound is] similar to a jar [insofar as both are produced
by effort and impermanent], but not totally to lightning [which is imper-
manent but not produced by effort; but this fact that h is found only in
some of the members of s does not prevent h from being valid] .169
166. NB III, s. 86.
167. The term viruddha or virodha denotes the contrary as well as the contradictory.
Likewise, means the of 'permanency' is 'non-permanency' but
at the same time it means a member or the members of the class of the non-permanent.
168. NB Ill, s. 69.
169. The two terms hand s in a pervasion may be related either by anyayoga-vya-
vaccheda- in this case hand s pervade each other (samavyiipti)- or by ayogavyavaccheda-
in this case s pervades h (asamavyiipti). The definition of the second characteristic of the
litiga, eva sattvam, shows in its expression that the relationship involved is anya-
yogavyavaccheda. And if the theory of vyavaccheda is to be strictly observed, the definition
excludes asamavyapti. However, this is exactly opposite to the statement of Dharmottara
as well as our author that eva placed before sattvam effects the recognition as valid of
prayatnanantariyakatva, an example of asamavyapti. Dharmottara tries to overcome the
difficulty saying: If eva is placed after sattvam, then we would get sattvam eva
yasya sa which would effect the exclusion of prayatnanantariyakatva from the realm
of valid hetu. But this argument is not persuasive, since the changed sentence can also
be construed by ayogavyavaccheda, so as to recognize asamavyiipti. A right answer must
be to say that sattvam should be construed in two ways, eva sattvam and
sattvam eva, since the relationship involved in the second characteristic should not
be determined as either of ayoga- and anyayoga-vyavaccheda.
- 68-
The employment of the word t definite' is to preclude a dubious
anvaya as in the following inference: t This man is not omniscient be-
cause he speaks as any other person does' .170 For. we never know if
7
in
any person as a member of the class of s, speaker-ness is pervaded by
non-omniscience or not.
10.2. Vyatireka. (26.1) [The third characteristic of the logical mark
is :]
3) Its definite, absolute absence in the i. e. any
member of the class incompatible with sJ.171
What is not the co-member of p [i. e. the member of the class in-
compatible with s] is the The absolute absence of h in that
is definite. This is the third characteristic of the logical mark named
vyatireka (negative pervasion).
10.2.1. (26.2) In this definition too, the incomPatible (viruddha-) hetu
is precluded by the word t absence' (asattvam),173... an incompatible hetu
being illustrated by the inference t Sound is permanent because of product-
ness as a jar'. The hetu here is incomPatible because it is found [not
in the but in the ..173
10.2.2. (26.4) The word t absolute' (eva) aims at precluding the non-
exclusive hetu 174 .. which occurs in part of the vipaksa as in the inference
t Sound is produced immediately after human effort because of non-per-
manency as a jar'. In this case s (siidhya=siidhyadharma) is t being
pr<Xluced immediately after human effort'. The hetu, non-permanency,
however, is found in some of [i. e. what is not produced by
human effort] such as lightning etc., and not found in others of the
such as ether etc. Therefore, this mark should necessarily be
rejected. 174
10.2.3. (26.8) 175 If the particle eva were placed before the word
asattvam, the passage would mean that a hetu which is absent only in
the [totality of the] is valid, with the absurd corollary that
t being produced immediately after human effort' is not a valid hetu be-
cause it is not found even in some of the This is the reason
170. NB III, s. 71 (and 96.)
171. NB II, s. 7 : edsattvam eva niSeitam.
172. NB II. s. 10 (first half) : na
173. NB III, s. 85-86. G. T omit this exemplification.
174. Missing in G. T. The illustration is taken verbatim from NBT 19. 21-20, 1.
- 69-
why [the particle eva] is not placed [before asattvam]. .. 175
10.2.4. (26.11) The employment of the word I definite' is to preclude
the fallacious hetu whose non-occurrence in the vipaksa is doutful (saindig-
dhavipak$avyavrttika). [This fallacy] may be illustrated in the follow-
ing: I This man is not free from desire, because he speaks, as a man
on the highway;176 for all the cases in. which I being not free from desire'
is absent are the cases in which I speaker-ness' is also absent, like a
piece of rock' .177 [This inference is wrong, because] though both the
qualities are excluded from a piece of stone, yet we do not know. whether
speaker-ness is absent from a piece of stone due to the absence of the state
of being free from desire, or it is so simply by nature. Thus, this is a
case of inconclusiveness. (anazkantika) due to a dubious negative pervasion.
10.2.5. (26.17) By the particle eva (absolute) placed after the word
asattvam (absence) is precluded [a logical mark] which occurs in part of
the vipak$a (vipak$aikadesavrtti). For instance, I Sound is produced im-
mediately after human effort because of non-permanency '178 [is an invalid
inference because the hetu] I non-permanency' does not occur [in some
of] the vipak$a ,say ether, but occurs in [others of the vipak$a] such as
lightning. Thus, it is a fallacious hetu which occurs in part of the
vipak$a.
179
10.3. Different opinions as to why both anvaya and vyatireka are
necessary. (27.1) [The opponent:] II When h's presence only in the
sapaksa is stated, h's absence in the vipaksa is understood by implication
. .
(samarthyat). Then, why are both [the characteristics] taken up ?"180
175. Missing in G, T. This is another verbatim citation from NBT 20, 1-1.
176. T sin rta zon PalJi skyes bu butM, G
177. NB III, s. 71 (and 96.)
178. NB III, s. 69 with NBT.
179. The exemplifications in 10.2.1 and 10.2.2 and the whole passage of 10.2.3 are mis-
sing in G, T. (ef. n. 173-174 above). The exemplifications in 10.2.2 and 10.2.3 are the verbal
quotations from NBT ad NB II, s. 7 while those in 10.2.1 and 10.2.4 are not found in the
same place of NBT, although they are mentioned in NB III. The
( 10.2.5) and the sadhara1Ja (l0.2.2) are one and the same fallacy; the former name is
adopted by in 10.2.5 and the latter by Dharmottara. The illustration is the
same in both. It means either 10.2.2 or 10.2.5 is redundant. 10.2.5 is more succinct than
the passage in NBT, while 10.2.2 is the exact citation of the latter. It is therefore likely
that 10.2.2 and 10.2.3 are later interpolations. himself seems not to have
given illustrations to all fallacious hetus, as we see in 10.2.1.4, and 5.
180. NBT 20, 5-6 : nanu ca eva sattvam ity ukte 'sattvam evUi gamyata
eva, tat kimartham punar ubhayor upadanam krtam....
-70 -
[The author:] The logicians of olden times CPurvavrddhiiJ:) [i. e.
Dignaga and others] said that [both. the second and third characteristics
are stated] in order to determine [the nature of] vipak$a. They were in
fact of the opinion that the vipak$a is of three kinds, viz., the simple
absence of s (siidhyiibhiivamiitra), what is just different from s (siidhyiid
anyaJ:) and what is against s (siidhyena saha viruddhaJ:) .181
181. PS III. k. 19-20c (Peking ed. 7, a8-bI) : de las gzan dan de Ijgal ba, gnis Paljan
mi mthun Phyogs ma yin, gtan tshigs med dan Ijgal ba las, rnam par gcod par thai bar
Ijgyur. de Phyir mthun phyogs med pa iit'd, de ltar mtshan nid la gcig kyan, du malji don
ni rtogs par rigs. (Neiter what is different from nor what is against it is
For Cif the former were nothing could be a hetu, and Cif the latter
were it would follow that it separates [from the probandumJ only what is against
it. Therefore, must be defined asJ what is not the When it is defined
in this way, we know various objects [correctlyJ even [through the third characteristic of
the logical markJ alone.) This is explained in PSV on the same karikas as follows. Product-
ness exists not only in what is impermanent, but also in what is different from it. say,
the painful. Thus, if is defined as what is different (anya) from "lhe a
valid logical mark like product-ness would be invalid, since it would be found in the
To avoid this difficulty, one may define as what is against (viruddha)
the .. in this case, however, it may exclude what is incompatible with s, but not
what is contrary to s. For example, when fire (h) proves the existence of heat(s) in a
place (p), if the is considered to be what is against heat. Le. cold, h's non-exis-
tence in the third condition of the logical mark, would not exclude the existence
of fire in what is neither hot nor cold; this would make the inference inconclusive.
Therefore, Dignaga proposes that must be defined as what is not (abhiiva) the
lowe the information to Kitagawa, 179-183. Kitagawa calls the reader's at-
tention to the fact that contradiction is here referred to by the word abhiiva. According
to the same author (Kitagawa, 179, n. 321) however, Jinendrabuddhi's Tikii on PSV gives
an interpretation different from this original theory on held by Dignaga in PSV
as well as Nyiiyamukha. He changed the order of words in the passage which he com-
mented and complemented words which were not existent in the passage so that Dignaga's
verses may mean what is in effect identical with Dharmakirti's theory of found
in NB II. s. 10. Here, Dharmakirti first defines as (n. 172 above),
which means that which lacks s (ef. DP 98, 18). And then he classifies into three
kinds, viz. tato'anyalj, tadviruddhalj, and tadabhiivalj. tadabhiiva is in the form of prasajya-
and constitutes the basic idea of repesenting the absence of di-
rectly, while other two are those which are affirmed through the negation (Paryudasta) and
represent the absence of only indirectly. In other words, tadabhiiva or the con-
tradictory of s connotes those different from s and those contrary to it. Thus, all the
three kinds are the species of This interpretation is fairly different from Dignaga's
theory. when he describes that is of three kinds, refers to
Dharmakirti. Dharmottara and Jinendrabuddhi (or Dignaga as represented by Jinendra-
buddhi). The designation purvavrddha, however, most likely refers to Dignaga. It may
be also possible that he refers to all of these logicians, neglecting the difference of opinion
between them.
-71-
Some people are of the fo1l6wing opinion: It is for determining the
appropriate kind of the formal statement of inference (prayoga); that is
to say, either the formal statement with a positive pervasion (anvayapra-
yoga) or that with a negative pervasion (vyatirekaprayoga), so far as it
is a pervasion having logical necessity, should be alone made, but not
both together.182
Other people are of the opinion that it is for indicating that there are
two possible forms of inference: one with a positive example (stidharmya-
prayoga) and the other with a negative example (vaidharmya-p).
11. Logical mark is of only three kinds. (27.8) The logical mark
endowed with [the above-named] three characteristics is of three and only
three kinds.
1s3
Those [logical marks] which have the three characteristics are meant
by the words trirupiini lingiini. They are of three kinds. 1) The mark
as the effect [of s] (kiirya) has the threefold characteristic; 2) the mark
identical in essence [with s] (svabhiiva) has the threefold characteristic;
3) the mark as the non-cognition [of s] (anupalabdhi) has the threefold
characteristic.184 Stidhana (probans), jntipaka (what makes known), hetu
(logical ground), vyiipya (the pervaded) are all the sYnonyms of linga
(logical mark).
11.1. Logical mark as effect. (27.11) [Among these three kinds] a
logical mark as effect is illustrated: (vytipti) Wherever there is smoke
there is fire, as in a kitchen; (pak$adharmatii) here there is smoke; [there-
fore, here there is fire].
11.2. The syllogism consists of two members. (27.12) The statement
of an inference (siidhanaviikya) of the Buddhists consists of two members,
respectively called vytipti [the pervasion between hand s] and pak$adhar-
matii [h' s presence in P] .185
182. NBT 20, 6-7 : anvayo vyatireko vii niyamaviin eva prayoktavyo ndnyatMti darsayi-
tum dvayor api uPiidiinam krtam.... From this we see that one necessary pervasion alone
is enough for an inference and that even the two combined together, if not strictly
applied, do not lead to a conclusion. NBT gives an illustration of the latter case.
183. =NB II, s. 11 : tririiPiitJi ca tritJy eva lingiini.
184. NB II, s. 12: svabhiivakiiryam cUi; NBT 21, 18-19:
siidhyasydnupalabdhis tririipii, vidheyasya siidhyasya svabhiivas kiiryam ca.
185. The inference for others or the statement of an inference consists in the state-
ment of a logical mark endowed with the three characteristics. The or Pratijnii
(thesis) does not express any of them and is not regarded as a necessary member of the
-72 -
Other schools, however, assert that the statement of an inference
consists of five members, viz., pratijizii (thesis), hetu (logical ground),
(corroborative example), upanaya (application) and nigamana
( co:nclusion), an example brought forward being as follows: Here there is
fire; because of smoke; wherever there is smoke there is fire as in a
kitchen; the present case is like this; therefore there is fire here.
186
But this is not reasonable. We cannot understand a probandum
through the mere statement of a thesis having nothing to do with logical
necessity or connection (sambandha). As for the non-existence of the
connection (sambandha), we have already discussed it on the occasion
when we refuted the connection between the word and the thing-meant
[ 4.2J ;Ul7 so we do not repeat it here. It is of no use to state a ground
putting it into the ablative case, when the thesis is refuted as above.
Apart from a ground, an explanatory example and an application serve
nothing. . How can a conclusion, which is no more than the repetition of
the thesis, be possible in a case where there is no thesis. Thus, all [the
syllogism. This Buddhist theory is first maintained by Dignaga in PS III, k. I: gyi
don gyi rjes dPag ni, ran gis mthon don gsai byed yin. de ia dPag bya bstan Pa ni, gan
Phyir rtags kyi yui don yin. (The inference for others is to make express the thing which
is seen by oneself (or a logical mark with the three characteristics]; in this case the
statment of anumeya is only for indicating the range of the logical mark.) (Cf. Fragment
1 : pariirthiinumiinam tu Kitagawa. 126-128). PSV says on this
verse that the fault of incomplete statement (nyiinatii) occurs only when any of the three
characteristics is not stated, while the non-statement of anumeya. or pratijiiii, does not
affect the above-named condition of inference for others (Cf. Kitagawa, 128). In Nyiiyamukha
Dignaga says: I refute the theory of these logicians who consider the thesis. the applica-
tion and the conclusion as separate members of the syllogism (Cf. Tucci's tr. 45; Stcher-
batsky, I, 281). The assertion in PSV above is followed by Dharmakirti in PV IV, v. 23 :
a?'U?tiiv api siddher anyatamariiPasyaivanuktir nyiinatoditii
(Since (the probandum] is proved through compatibility even when the is not
stated, the fault of incomplete statement is pointed out only when any of the three charac-
teristics is not stated.] In NB III, s. 36 he says: dvayor api prayoge navasyam
See also TS v. 1430: Pratijiiiidivaco'Py pariirtham iti var1Jyate, asii-
dhanangabhiitatviit Pratijniinupayogini, etc. The Buddhist discussion on the two-membered
syllogism is briefly summarized also in TSop 299,3-27.
186. NS 1.1.32 : Pratijiiiihetiidiihara1JoPanayanigamaniiny
187. TS v. 1431 : asambandhiin na dhi sii yuktarthoPaPiidikii, asaktasiicaniin napi
piiramparye1}a yujyate. TSP 419,8 : sabdiiniim arthena saha sambandhiibhiiviin na tiivat
uPayujyate, napi hetuvacanavat PiiramPiirye1Ja, saktiisamsiicakatviid iti. Kamalasila here re-
fers to PV IV v. 16-17a-b: tat vaktur abhipriiyanivedane.... (cakrur in GOS
ed. must be corrected into vaktur-.)
-73 -
members] are shattered to pieces.
188
11.3. How to establish a causal relation. (28.2) This logical mark
as effect (kiiryahetu) is classified into three kinds because of the variety of
the term related to it (vi$aya): 1) When fire and the like are the object
to be proved, smoke and the like are to be determined [as the effect] by
means of the three kinds of cognition consisting of Perception and non-
Perception (trividhapratyak$iinupalambha).189 2) When [the function of]
the visual organ etc. is the object to be proved, knowledge [visual and
other] is to be determined [as the effect] through the fact that the effect
occurs occasionally [i. e. only when the organ functions] (kiidiicitkakiiryot-
piida). 3) When the colour etc. [of a citron etc.] is the object to be
proved, the taste etc. is to be determined [as the logical mark as effect]
through both being dependent [for their production] on one and the same
set of causes, as [we infer] the colour of a citron from its taste.
190
In
this last case, the preceding colour is the material cause in relation to the
colour to be produced, and the [preceding] taste [which is the material
cause of the subsequent taste, necessarily cooperates with the preceding
colour] as the auxiliary cause (sahakiirikiira1}a) [for the production of the
subsequent colour]. This is the logical [relation] involved in the production
188. M. sarvam iimiUam visir1Jam (All is fundamentally shattered); G sarvam iilu1Ja-
visir1Jam; T bead zin pa geod (as useless as to cut what has been cut). My tr.
follows G. There is partial parallelism between our text and TSP. In TS v. 1434, the
opponent questions: How is the establishment of etc. possible when the thesis
is not formulated? (If etc. is not established) there will be no triple characteris-
tic, which depends for its determination on Upon this objection Kamalas:ila
comments: asati hi pratijiiiinirdese ... trairuyam api nastiti sarvam
iilUnavikirr:am syiid iti. This is of course the opponent's objection against the Buddhist's
omission of Pratijiiii. expression, however, has something to do with this
passage. He seems to take advantage of the expression, making a reverse use of it for
attacking the opponent. It is not impossible that the original manuscript reads iilu1Javis-
irnam for iilUnavisti(ki ?)rr:am in the present edition of TSP. For a detailed exposition of
the two-membered syllogism see Mookerjee, 356-365.
189. The theory will be dealt with again in 22 (M 47). See n. 305 too.
190. M 28,7 inserts na rupiid rasiinumiinam after... rasiid rupiinumiinam, but G as well
as T omits it. We can infer taste from colour as well as colour from taste. G, T must
be followed in this case. But this should not be taken as a universally applicable rule,
for although we can infer cinders from smoke, we cannot infer smoke from cinders, be-
cause the relation involves the problem of time. The cinders perceived at present does
not necessarily lead to the knowledge of the present smoke, since it may have already
disappeared. However, so far as the taste and colour of a citron is concerned, we can
infer either one from the other.
-74 -
of the lump [of a citronJ at the subsequent moment from that at the pre-
ceding moment. 191 [We infer from the present taste of a citron its
material cause, which necessarily cooPerates with the material cause of
the colour, which in turn has necessarily produced the present colour. The
knowledge of the present colour is implied in the process of the inference
of the cause of the taste from its effect.]
[The opponent:] II What difference is there between the material cause
and the auxiliary cause when both are identical insofar as they equally
confonn to the concomitance with the effect positively as well as nega-
tively?"
[The author:] The following is the right answer: When x is pro-
duced due to the transfonnation of y in one and the same stream ofa
[momentary] entity, y is the material cause, prior in time, of x. The
conditions which cause a particular quality to arise in the stream [of an
entity] different [from those of the conditions] are the auxiliary cause.
192
In relation to a rice shoot to be produced, for instance, a seed of rice is
the material cause, and soil, water etc. are the auxiliary cause of the
[shoot].
191. The theory is propounded by Dharmakirti in PV I, v. 9: ekasiimagryadhinasya
rupiide rasato hetudharmiinumiinena dhumendhanavikiiravat. This is an oft quoted
verse (TSP 417, 24 quotes it, but GOS ed. reads the first half wrongly. Cf Kunst,
58 with n. 1.; NVV II, 197, 2-3, etc.) TS v. 1424-1425 explains the inference of the
proximity of the asterism from the rise of the Krttika as a case of inference by
kiiryahetu. TSP comments on them reducing the case to ekasiimagryadhinatva. But the
most useful exposition of the theory is Dharmakirti's own vrtti on PV L v. 9 (Gnoli.
7, 16-19; Mookerjee and Nagasaki 36). Inferring colour from taste when both are the co-
products of the self-same set of causes, we actually infer a cause endowed with the
causal efficiency (hetudharma) from the effect. The cause of taste which produces the
next moment of taste is at the same time the auxiliary condition cooperating with the
material cause of colour; this material cause, being actually excercising its causal ef-
ficiency, is surely to produce colour. Thus, while we infer the cause of taste from its
effect, i.e. the present taste, we come to determine the present colour, with whose cause
the cause of taste must have been cooperating. When we infer cinders from smoke,
the procedure is the same. Cinders are produced by their material cause, fuel; fire is
the auxiliary cause which cooperates with fuel for the production of cinders. We infer
fire from smoke, and it involves the knowledge of fuel; the fueL being actullY excercis-
ing its causal efficiency, leads to the knowledge of cinders.
192. HBT 94, 26-95, 9: syiid etat, sarveiim anvayavyatirekiiv anuvidhiyete tadii... kuto
'yam uPayujyate, anyatra tu sahakiiribhiiveneti? ..tasmiid ava-
sthii' bhede' pi yad ekiikiiraPariimarsaPratyayanibandhanatayii svasmntatiPatitakiiryaPrasutini-
mittam tad uPiidiinakiira1}am. yat samtiiniintare tat
sahakiirikiirafJam.
-75 -
Thus, the logical mark as effect has been established. to be a probans
(gamaka) because of the causal relation.
12. Logical mark of essential identity. (28.16) (The logical mark
representing] essential identity is (defined] as follows :193 The nature (of
s] itself is said (by Dharmakirti to be] the h of the quality to be proved
(s) when the latter depends for its existence on the existence of that (h)
alone ;194 the probans thus defined is to be understood as the essential
nature of the quality to be proved. For example, in the inference I This
can be called a tree, because it can be called a simsapii', I this' stands
for P, i. e. a thing being seen in front (of the inferring person]; I be-
cause it can be called a simsapii' refers to h. What is the meaning of
I because it can be called a simsapii '? It means the applicability of the
designation (simsapii which connotes] particular branches, leaves, colour
and form. The applicability of the designation I tree' is s.
(The opponent:] II If two things are identical, they cannot be (related
to each other by] the relation of probans and probandum, because (in this
case both of them] would be (one and the same] part of the thesis."
(The author:] The objection is tUltenable. It is true that both are
not different in reality. But there may be a person who, seeing a certain
thing, applies the name simsapii which he learnt once, but does not identify
it with the name I tree', since he imagines (through the name simsapii not
the essential qualities of the tree, but] something else (say, tallness]
owing to confusion. Such a person may be now persuaded by means of
this inference based on identity. 195 Therefore, even if they are one in
reality, they appear distinct when they occur in conceptual knowledge
196
which depends on distinction from others (vyiivrtfi) .197 This is the reason
why (this kind of inference] is not incompatible with the relation of pro-
bans and probandum.
193. svabhiivo yathii is omitted in G, T. The definition is repeated twice in T, the
whole passage running as follows: svabhiivaJ]. svasattiimiitrabhiivini siidhyadharme hetuJ]..
hetusattiimiitrabhiivini siidhyadharme yo hetur ucyate sa tasya siidhyasya dharmasya svabhiivo

194. NB II, s. 16 : svabhiivaJ]. svasattiimiitrabhiivini siidhyadharme
195. This example is explained more lucidly by Dharmottara in NBT on NB II, s. 17.
196. T rnam par rtog blo tha snad la grub Pa... ( =vyavahiirasiddhavikalPabuddhau
... ) for vikalpabuddhau in M.
197. This refers to the Buddhist theory of apoha (discrimination) which is discussed
in 26.
-76 -
13. Logical mark of non-cognition. (29.10) (The logical mark of] non-
cognition is illustrated: In this place there is no jar, because it is not
cognized though it is by nature perceptible.
19B
(Perceptible by nature
(upalabdhilak$a1Japriipta)' means (to be seen' (drsya). [Question:]
How can a non-existent thing be Perceptible? [Answer:1 When a place
and other things are being cognized by one and the same sense-perception,
if a jar were present, it would be necessarily perceived. 199 That is to
say, it is hypothetically supposed as perceptible on the ground that all the
other conditions for [its] perception are present.
200
But we do not mean
[a jar is] actually perceived.
(Because it is not cognized' is h. And this is ascertained by means
of the [actually present] objects comprised in one and the same cognition
[by which a jar, if it existed, would be also perceived] (ekajftiinasamsargi-
padiirtha) or the knowledge of the objects comprised in one and the same
cognition (ekajftiinasamsargipadiirthopalambha) ;201 thus, these two, stand-
ing in the relation of agent and object (karmakartrbhiiva), are each called
non-cognition in the mode of [the affirmation of what is excluded through]
the negation of a term CParyudiisavrtii). But [this non-cognition] should
not be understood in the mode of the negation of a proposition CPrasajya-
vrtii ), which means no more than the privation of perception.
202
For if
198. NB II, s. 13: tatrdnupalabdhir yatha, na kvacid ghata uPalabdhi-
iti. See also NBT on it.
199. HB (Reconstruction), 64,27-65,2 : yatra yasminn upalabhyamane niyamena yasyoPa-
labdhiiJ sa tatsamsntaiJ, ekajnanasamsargat tayoiJ sator naikaruPaniyatii pratiPatlir, asa-
mbhavat.
200. NB II, s. 14 ; uPalambhaPratyaYiintarasakalyam svabhiiva-
ca. See also NBT on it.
201. NBT 22, 15 ff.: tasmat sa eva ghataviviktaPradeSas tadalambanam ca jniinam
drsyanuPalambhaniscayahetutviid drsyanuPalambha ucyate... tato vastv apy anupalambha ucyate
tajjniinam ca. darsananivrtlimatram tu svayam aniscitatviit agamakam; HB (Reconstruction),
65, 7-9: ...uktam atra yatha paryudasavrtlyii' tadvivikto arthas tajjniinam vdbhiivo
'nuPalabdhis cocyata iti, na tasya sadhanasiddher abhavavyavahiiriisiddhiPra-
sangat. tasydsamsntaruPasya bhavasiddhir eVdparasydbhavasiddhir iti anyabhiivo'Pi tadabhava
iti vyaPadisyate.
202. For the general usage of Paryudiisa. and see n. 62 above.
Regarding the passage that concerns us now d. HBT 171, 1-4 : ...tadvad upalabdhir
evdnuPalabdhir mantavya. nanaiJ katham cet, aha, Pary-
udiisavrtlyeti. Pm'yudiisena varjanena yii 'rthe vrttis tayii, nana
.... The non-cognition of a pot must not be understood
as the simple absence of cognition, the negation being construed by
but as the cognition of things other than the pot, esp. the cognition of the locus, the
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so, it is itself not anything whatsoever; and how can it become a pro-
bans? Nor is it the knowledge of other things in general which are
different from the object to be denied, for in this case [the absurdity]
would follow that the perception of the colour of an orange means the
negation of its taste. Therefore, it is settled that either of the two things
distinguished in the way characterised above from what is to be negated,
i. e. its locus or the knowledge of the locus, is called non-cognition [though
it is in fact a positive cognition].
13.1. Non-cognition establishes not absence itself, but practical acti-
vities concerning absence. (30.1) This is the reason why absence (abhiiva)
itself is not proved [by a negative inference], for the absence [of a
jar] can be established by the mere perception cognizing the place without
a jar.
203
But [the logical mark of] non-cognition is aimed at establishing
practical activities concerning absence (abhiivavyavahiira) lin order to
convince] a stupefied person [of the absence of a certain thing]. For
example, it is well known in the Sarhkhya [thought] that the three pri-
mordial qualities beginning with rajas are [permanently] existent; a cer-
tain follower [of the school] actually makes ordinary activities concerning
absent things owing to their non-cognition; he, however, is so much in-
culcated in the doctrine of his own school proclaiming the existence of
every thing at every place that he confusedly does not now judge the
negation being construed by But this affirmation of the locus can
be divided into two modes: when it is understood in relation to the subject of the cogni-
tion it means the knowledge of the locus; when it is understood in
relation to the object it means the locus itself. According to HBT
174, 6 ff ; 176, 3 ff., the former is meant for refuting the view of Isvarasena who regards
anupalabdhi as the mere absence of cognition, while the latter is aimed at criticising
KumarilabhaHa, who thinks that a negative judgment is formed in the mind when the
locus is cognized and the object to be negated is remembered, and that this knowledge of
absence is purely due to a mental activity without being conditioned by a sense-organ.
Cf. SV Abhava., v. 11 & 27; Mookerjee, 415. Though not concering non-cognition, but
cognition, PV 1, 4, 9-11 teaches the same: tathii hi sattvam uPalabdhir eva vastuyogyatiila-
tadiisrayii vii jiiiinaPravrttilJ (d. Mookerjee & Nagasaki, 23) ; PVV 505, 26-27: yadi
hy upalabdhilJ karmadharmas tadoPalabhyamiinatdstitvam, atha kartrdharmo jiiiinam... ; HB
(Reconstruction), 64, 24-26: atra upalabdhelJ upalabdhamiinadhannatve tajjiiiinam upalabd-
hilJ ... uPalabhyamiinadharmatve bhavati ;
PVBh, 633, 4-6 ; HBT 171, 16ff. : HBT 174, 19-21 ; TSop 289, 18-21. However, the distinc-
tion takes place only in our constructive thought, and in reality what is perceived and its
cognition are one and the same thing.
203. NBT 28, 18 ff. : ala evdbhiivo na siidhyalJ svabhiiviinuPalabdhelJ siddhatviif.
-78 -
absence [of ajar] in one particular place or another even though the jar
is not actually perceived.
204
To this man three kinds of convincing acti-
vities (vyavahiira) are to be demonstrated by means of non-cognition: the
physical activity consists in moving about the place without hesitation ;
the verbal activity consists in [the statement] that there is no jar; the
mental activity is the internal thought (antarjalpa) of the same judg-
ment.
205
13.2. Non-cognition is of the nature either of identity or of cau-
sality. (30.9) When considered from its objective mode (karmadharma-
pak$e) [i. e. as the locus without a jar], non-cognition [h] should be
understood to stand in the relation of identity with S}06 However, when
204. According to Dharmakirti the non-existence of the object of negation is esta-
blished by perception alone, but the inferential function of negation consists in persuading
an ignorant person who will not recognize the absence of an object. PV I, v. 3, Svavrtti
(4, 18- 5, 1) : ...athanyopalabdhya'nuPalabdhisiddhir iti tathan-
yasattaya 'satta kim na sidhyatiti. yadii punar evawwidhiinupalabdhir evasatiim asattii,
tadii siddhe 'pi mohiid 'sajjniinasabdavyavahiiriin aPratipadyamiino
pradarsanena samaye pravartyate.... ; PV IV, v. 263 c-d: ity ajnajniipaniiyaikiinuPiikhyo-
diihrtir matii: PVV on it: tasmiid abhiivmh Pasyato 'py avyavaharato 'jnasya mucihasya
jniipaniiyabhiivavyavahiiriiyaikii svabhiiviinuPalambhodiihrtir matii. PVBh gives the example
of a foolish follower of the Sarhkhya (633, 16-17): yo vii siimkhyo sarvam
sarvatra vidyata ity iigrahaviin, tasydjnasya Pratttyartham ekii svabhiiviinuPalabdhil} ....
According to Dharmakirti, therefore, what is negated by the inference of negation is
the subjective function, i.e. knowledge, verbal expression, or doubt regarding an object
falsely imagined as existent. Cf. PV IV, v. 264: tatra
jniiniibhidhiinasamdeham yathii ' diihiid aPiivakal}. These arguments are made regarding
svabhiiviinupalabdhi, the principal form of negation. But when negation is classified into
three, i. e. svabhiiviinupalabdhi, kiirat}iinuPalabdhi and vyiiPakiinupalabdhi, the latter two
are said to prove either abhiiva itself or the abhiivavyavahiira, while the first is concerned
only with abhiivavyavahiira, and not with abhiiva itself. Cf. HBT, 174, 26-28: kiirat}a-
vyiipakiinupalabdhi abhiivam abhiivavyavahiiram ca siidhayatal}, svabhiiviinupalabdhis tu abhiiva-
vyavahiiram eva. This is because when we infer the absence of smoke (effect) and a
simsaPii (the pervaded) from the non-cognition of fire (its cause) and that of trees (the
pervader) respectively, we prove not only the negative activities concerning them but
also their absence itself, while in the case of the direct negation of a perceptible object,
its absence itself is proved by perception alone without needing inference.
205. PV I, v. 3a-b and Svavrtti: apravrttil} pramii t}iiniim aPravrttiPhaldsati (v. 3a-b).
anupalabdhil} upalabdhipurvakatviit iti .... ;
NBT 29, 22-23: vyiiPiiram darsayati. abhiivasya vyavahiiro nastity evamiikiiram jniinam,
sabdas caivamiikiiro, nil}sankam ca Pravrttil} kiiyiko' bhiivavyavahiiral} ;
HBT 174, 28-30: abhiivavyavahiiras ca tatra nasty atra gha{a
ity evamiikiiram jniinam, evamvidhavastvabhidhiiyakam cabhidhiinam nil}sankasya ca tatra pra-
dese Pravrttir iti.
206. M inserts siidrsye between saha and G, T omit it.
-79 -
seen from the subjective mode [i. e. as the knowledge
of the locus without a jar, the relation between non-cognition and s] is
that of causality. For it has been said above that the locus without a jar
or the knowledge of the locus is non-cognition. [The s] (a jar's fitness
to be judged as non-existent' (asadvyavaharayogyatva), is the essential
nature (svabhava)207 of it [i. e. the locus without a jar]. But the know-
ledge [of the locus without a jar] is an effect of the locus itself, [and
in the case where h is the knowledge, we infer from an effect to the cause].
(30.14) [The opponent:] H If there are in non-cognition two kinds of
relationship, identical and causal, how is [the probans of] non-cognition
differentiated from those of identity and causality?"
[The author:] The difference is made purely because of [the difference
between] negation and affinnation, but not in reality. This is declared
by Acarya [Dhannakirti] as follows:
Among [the three kinds of logical marks] the two [i. e. the
identical and causal marks] are for establishing the existence of
real entities, the other one [i. e. the mark of non-cognition] is the
probans for negation.
208
13.3. Significance of (30.7) The qu.alifier of
non-cognition (being by nature perceptible' means, [besides that all con-
ditions for perception must be present] that the mere non-occurrence of
cognition regarding objects which are inaccessible in space, time and
essence, does not establish practical activities referring to the negation
[of the object concerned]; such objects are illustrated by Mt. Sumeru
[which is spatially inaccessible], the future emperor Sankha [who is
inaccessible in time] and a ghost [which is inaccessible in essence]. 209
207. M inserts na karyam after
208. =NB II, 19: atra dvau vastusadhanau,
209. NB II, s. 14 (see n. 200 above); NBT on NB II, s. 15 ; NB II, s. 28: anyatha
abhavani-
scayabhavat: see NBT on it too. In PV I, v. 3 Dharmakirti classifies non-cognition into
two kinds, viz. the non-cognition of an imperceptible thing or the mere non-operation of
cognitive means and the non-cognition of a perceptible object. In the Svavrtti on it he
states that these two non-cognitions have the same effect of negating the practical activities
referring to an object wrongly supposed to be existent, although the former leads to the
result through the absence of the proof, while the latter through the presence of the
counter-proof; i.e. the former through doubt while the latter through the definite knowledge
of absence. One cannot be sure of the existence of an imperceptible object, say, a ghost,
so its existence is neither denied nor asserted. And owing to this doubt one negates the posi-
- 80-
13.4. Non-cognition refers only to present and past experience. (30.20)
This non-cognition can be a means of valid knowledge with regard to a
present experience as well as to a past experience the details of which
are still vivid in our memory. With regard to a future experience, how-
ever, non-cognition is itself doubtful and accordingly cannot be a means
of valid knowledge.
210-cWe have before said that this non-cognition proves activities refer-
ring to the absence of an object, but not absence itself, because the latter
is established by perception (without requiring inferenceJ.21O
Regarding [these two problems] the Nyayavadin [DharmakirtiJ says
as follows :211
Non-cognition, i. e. the fact that perception does not occur to an
observer with regard to a past object which he keeps in clear
memory-impression or a present object, establishes practical acti-
vities referring to the absence of the object.
13.5. Classification of negative inference. (31.7) [Sometimes, how-
ever, J we are to negate a thing which is situated at a remote place and
inaccessible and to which the non-cognition of an ex hypothesi perceptible
object is not directly applicable. Then, the non-perception of an effect
and other (indirect forms of negative inference] are applied. Thus we
get sixteen forms (of non-cognition as probansJ because of the variety
of applied formulae.
212
(1) Firstly the non-cognition of an entity itself (svabhiivanupalabdhi)
is illustrated: I Here there is no smoke, because it, being by nature per-
ceptible, is not perceived.' In this formula its own existence (svabhava)
of smoke, the thing to be denied, is not perceived.
213
(2) Non-cognition of an effect (kiiryiinupalabdhi): I The actually
tive assertion of its existence. But one can be sure of the absence of a perceptible object
when it is not cognized, and definitely negates its presence. Therefore, though both non-
cognitions lead to the same result, they differ in certainty (niscaya) Cd. Gnoli's ed. 4, 5 ff. ;
Mookerjee & Nagasaki, 26-27).
210. This passage is found only in M and seems to be out of place. The same content
is already stated in M 29, 21-30, 2.
211. =NB II, s. 29: amiit!hasmrtisamskiirasyatitasya vartamiinasya ca PratipattrPratya-
nivrttir abhiivavyavahiirasiidhani.
212. See Appendix I.
213. svabhiiviinupalabdhir yathii, nasty atra
II. s. 32 ; TSop 290, No.!.
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efficient (apratibaddhasiimarthya, lit., whose efficiency is not impeded)
causes producing smoke do not occur here, because there is no smoke.
The presence of the causes of smoke (i. e., fire combined with wet fuel] is
to be negated, and their effect is smoke which is not perceived here.
214
(3) Non-cognition of a cause (kiira'!liinupalabdhi) : (There is no
smoke here, because there is no fire.' The presence of smoke is to be
negated; its cause is fire which is here not perceived.
215
(4) Non-cognition of a pervader (vyiipaktinupalabdhi): (There is no
asoka tree here, because there are no trees here.' The presence of an
asoka tree is to be negated: the tree is its pervader which is here not
perceived. 216
(5) Perception of something incompatible with the presence (of what
is to be negated] (svabhiivaviruddhopalabdhi): ( Here there is no sensation
of cold, because there is fire here.' Fire is incompatible with the essence
of the sensation of cold which is to be negated; fire is here perceived.
217
(6) Perception of what is incomPatible with an effect (kiiryaviruddho-
palabdhi): (Here there are no actually efficient causes of the sensation
of cold, because there is fire here.' A cause, only when it has reached
214. kiiryiinupalabdhir yathii, nehdpratibaddhasiimarthyiini dhiimakiirat}iini santi, dhiimii-
bhiiviit. =NB II, s. 33 ; TSop 290, No.4. As said above, this formula appears for the first
time in NB. But Dharmaklrti already gave a hint for its possibility in PV when he said
that the production of an effect is inferred from the totality of its causes, and that in
this case the probans and the probandum stand in the relation of essential identiy and
not in that of causality; since the production of the effect in this case does not need any
other condition (PV 1, v. 7; hetunii samagret}a kiiryotpiido 'numiyate, arthiintariina-
sa svabhiivo If we can infer an effect from the tota.lity of its
causes on the ground of essential identity, we are permitted also to infer the absence of
the causes from the absence of their effect, under the following two conditions: 1) we infer
from the absence of an effect only the absence of its causes existing at the last moment of
their momentary stream, since they alone are ascertained to be unimpeded in their efficiency
and thus may be called the totality of causes. All the other preceding moments of the
causes may have been impeded in efficiency and may not bring about the effect. Thus we
cannot infer the former's absence from the latter's absence. We are not sure that there
was no fire yesterday, even if we do not see smoke today. 2) This formula is applied only
when the cause is not visible itself. If seen, it can be negated by the first form of anu-
palabdhi. Cf. NBT 31, 10-13.
215. kiirat}iinupalabdhir yatha, nasty atra dahaniibhiiviit. =NB II, s. 40; TSop
290, No.2.
216. vyiipakiinupalabdhir yathii, natra simsapii =NB II, s. 34; TSop 290,
No.3.
217. svabhiivaviruddhopalabdhir yathii, natra si!asparsah, II, 35; TSop 290
No.5.
- 82-
the last situation (antyadasiipriipta) [of its own flux, i. e. the moment
immediately preceding the production of the effect], produces its effect,
but not a cause unconditioned. This is the reason why the qualifier ['ac-
tually efficient' (apratibaddhasiimarthya)] is stated. [The existence of]
the causes of cold are to be denied; their effect is cold; what is incom-
Patible with it is [the presence of] fire, which is here perceived.
218
(7) Perception of something incomPatible with a cause (kiira1}avirud-
dhopalabdhi): 'He betrays no symptoms such as the bristling of the
hair of the body specially [caused by cold], because he is near fire of a
Particular kind [i. e. efficient enough to dispel cold]. Symptoms such as
the bristling of the hair of the body specially [caused by cold] are to be
negated; their cause is cold; what is incomPatible with this is efficient
fire which is here perceived.
219
(8) Perception of what is incomPatible with a pervader (vyiipakavirud-
dhopalabdhi): 'Here there is no sensation of freezing, because there is fire
here.' The sensation of freezing is to be negated; its Pervader is cold;
what is incompatible with this is efficient fire which is here perceived. 220
(9) Perception of the effect of something incompatible with the essence
[of what is to be negated] (svabhiivaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi): 'Here there
is no sensation of cold, because there is smoke here.' The sensation of
cold is to be negated; what is incomPatible with the essence of it is fire;
smoke is the latter's effect and is here perceived.
221
(10) Perception of the effect of something incomPatible with the effect
[of what is negated] (kiiryaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi): 'Here there are no
actually efficient causes of cold, because here there is smoke. 'The causes of
cold are to be negated; their effect is cold; with this fire is incompati -
ble; fire's effect is smoke, which is here perceived. 222
(11) Perception of an effect of something incomPatible with the causes
218. kiiryaviruddhopa/abdhir yathii, nehdpratibaddhasiimarthyiini sitakiira'f}iini santi,
=NB II, s. 38; TSop 290, No.8.
219. kiira'f}aviruddhoPa/abdhir yathii, nasya santi, sannihitadahana-
II, s. 41 ; TSop 290, No.6.
220. vyiipakaviruddhopa/abdhir yathii, ndtra dahaniit=NB II. S. 39; TSop
290, No.7.
221. svabhiivaviruddhakiiryopa/abdhir yathii, natra II. s. 36;
TSop 291, No. 13.
222. kiiryaviruddhakiiryopa/abdhir yathii, nehdpratibaddhasiimarthyiini sitakiira'f}ii'f}i santi
dhiimiit=TSop 292, No. 16 ; this form is lacking in NB.
- 83-
[of what is to be negated] (karaflaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi): t In this
place there is no one who betrays the sensation [of cold] connected with
symptoms such as the bristling of the hair of the body specially [caused
by cold], because here there is smoke.' Particular symptoms such as bristl-
ing [specially caused by cold]223 are to be negated; their cause is cold;
what is incompatible with this is fire; fire's effect is smoke, which is here
Perceived.224
(12) Perception of the effect of something incompatible with a per-
vader [of what is to be negated] (vyiipakaviruddhakaryopalabdhi): tHere
there is no sensation of freezing because here there is smoke.' The sensa-
tion of freezing is to be negated; its pervader is cold; with this fire is
incompatible; fire's effect is smoke, which is here perceived
225
(13) Perception of what is pervaded by something incompatible with
the existence [of what is to be negated] (svabhiivaviruddhavYiiptopalabdhi) :
t Here there is no fire because of the sensation of freezing.' Fire is to be
negated; cold is incompatible with the existence of fire; The sensation of
freezing which is here perceived is pervaded by cold.
226
223. G, T instead of M, 32, 19
224. kiira1Javiruddhakiiryopalabdhir yathii, na ayam
pradeso, dhiimiit=NB II, s. 42; TSop 291, No. 14.
225. vyiipakaviruddhakiiryopalabdhir yathii, ndtra dhiimiit=TSop 292, No.
15 ; this is lacking in NB.
226. svabhiivaviruddhavyiiptopalabdhir yathii, natra vahni1} II, s. 37 ;
TSop 291, No.9. Dharmakirti's illustration of this formula in NB, na dhruvabhiivi bhiita-
syapi bhiivasya viniiso, offers a complication as it is related to the
vexed problem of momentariness. avoids it here, and takes another illustration
which is quite easy to understand. The Buddhist theory of universal momentariness,
which is hinted here by Dharmakirti, is dealt with in 16 by our author. Stcherbatsky,
in II, 92 as well as in I, 378, fails to understands the implication of the above mentioned
inference of Dharmakirti, partly because of the vagueness of Dhrmottara's commentary,
and thinks "This is the argument of the realists against the Buddhist theory of instanta-
neous existence or constant evanescence". He quotes in I, 92, n. 1 Rgyal tshab who
correctly interprets this argument as a prasanga, but Stcherbatsky seems not to have
properly understood Rgyal tshab. Durvekamisra in DP 133, 5-6 interprets this inference
as viruddhavyiiptopalabdhiprasanga, pointing out that the word api in the siitra means that
this must be taken as a prasangasiidhana (reductio ad absurdum, see 24). In fact the
inference is Dharmakirti's own argument in the form of reductio ad absurdum made
against the Naiyayikas, who recognize on the one hand the necessary connection between
krtakatva and anityatii, and on the other explain anityatii as destruction by means of a
special cause other than the own nature of a thing. If a produced thing, say, a jar,
depends for its destruction on a special cause such as a shock by a hammer, its destruction
- 84-
(14) Perception of what is pervaded by a thing incomPatible with the
effect [of the object of negation] (kiiryaviruddhavyiiptopalbdhi): (Here
there are no actually efficient causes of fire because of the sensation of
freezing.' The causes of fire are to be negated; fire is their effect; cold
is incompatible with fire; the sensation of freezing which is here perceived
is pervaded by cold.
22r
(15) Perception of what is pervaded by a thing incomPatible with the
cause [of the object of negation] (kiira1Javiruddhavyiiptopalabdhi): (Here
there is no smoke because of the sensation of freezing.' Smoke is to be
negated; its cause is fire; what is incomPatible with fire is cold; the sensa-
tion of freezing, which is perceived here, is pervaded by cold.
228
(16) Perception of what is pervaded by a thing incompatible with the
pervader [of the object of negation] (vyiipakaviruddhavyiiptopalabdhi):
(This is not pennanent because it produces the effect only occ:asionally
(kadiicitkiiryakiiritva).' Pennanency is to be negated; changelessness
(niratisayatva) is the pervader of pennanency ; changeableness (siitisayatva)
is incompatible with it; (occasionally producing the effect' which is here
perceived, is pervaded by changeableness.229
(33.16) It is to be understood that these fifteen fonnulae beginning
with the [second] kiiryiinupalabdhi are essentially identical with the [first]
svabhiiviinupalabdhi [and are derived from the latter]. Further subordinate
fonns may be enumerated according to the various circumstances of applica-
tion (prayuktibheda).
cannot be due to the inherent nature of a jar; therefore destruction is not of neces-
sity or constant. Thus, anityatii is not the essential nature of produced things, i. e. there
is no identical, necessary connection between anityatii and krtakatva. This inconsistency
in the theory of the Naiyayika is criticised by this prasanga. It is also untenable that
non-produced or permanent things the destruction of which is not admitted have the charac-
ter of anityatii ; this is also meant by the word api in the sutra.
Dharmakirti discusses this criticism of the Naiyayika inPV L v. 194-195 and HB
(d. Peking, 339, b6 ff ; Reconstruction 55, 2-7); Arcata minutely and precisely interprets
it in HBT 57-61. Dharmakirti and probably Dharmottara either did not enter into
detailed explanation of the implication of the inference in question, since they are here
concerned with the formula of negative inference.
227. kiiryaviruddhavyiip/opalabdhir yathii, nehdpratibaddhasiimarthYiini vahnikiira't}iini
santi, tUfiirasparsiit=TSop 291, No. 12 ; NB lacks this.
228. kiira't}aviruddhavyiiptopalabdhir yathii, m1tra dhiimas tUfiirasparSiit=TSop 291, No.
10 ; NB lacks this.
229. vyiipakaviruddhavyiiptopalabdhir yathii, nayam n i t y ~ kadiicitkiiryakiiritviit=TSop
291, No. 11 ; NB lacks this.
- 85-
Of these, the svabhavanupalambha, [the first and principal form of
negation] establishes not tlie absence of an object, but the applicability of
negative activities (asadvyavaharayogyatva) because the absence is proved
by the Perception itSelf. All the others establish the applicability of nega-
tive activity as well as the absence of an object, since they have as their
object things not directly perceived [but indirectly inferred] (parok$a).230
Here ends the chapter on inference for oneself of the Tarkabha$a.
Chapter III. Inference for others (pararthanumana)
14. Inference for others defined. (34.6) Inference for others (parartha-
numana) is the statement of a logical mark having the [above mentioned]
three characteristics. A formal argument stating the three characteristics,
which are reSPectively called anvaya (positive pervasion), vyatireka (nega-
tive pervasion) and pak$adharmata (the fact that h is a property of s) is
metaphorically (upacarat) called inference [for others or syllogism].231
15. Two kinds of syllogism. (34.9) This [inference for others] is of
two kinds: syllogism formulated by the method of agreement (sadharmya-
vat) and that formulated by the method of difference (vaidharmyavat).
Agreement [or homogeneity] here is the similarity between the locus of a
probandum (sac1hyadharmin=p) and the locus of its instance (dr$tantadhar-
min=dp) with regard to the presence of the logical mark [in them]. A
syllogism comprising this agreement is called I formal proof by the method
of agreement' (sadharmyavat sadhanavakyam). Difference [or hetero-
geneity] is the dissimilarity between p and dp with regard to the presence
of h [i. e., h is present in p while it is not present in dP], A syllogism
comprising this difference is called I formal proof by the method of dif-
ference' (vaidharmyavat sadhanavakyam).232
16. Illustration of svabhavahetoh sadharmyavan p r y o g ~ (34.13)
230. Cf. n.204 above.
231. NB III, s. 1-2, cited in n. 152 above. A set of propositions is the cause of an
inference which another person acquires by hearing it. Thus a verbal statement is called
inference, not directly, but only metaphorically. For the three characteristics of a logical
mark, see 10 above.
232. NB III, s. 3-5: taddvividham, prayogabhediit, siidharmyavad vaidharmyavac ceti;
NBT on it : dn!iintadharminii saha siidhyadharmi1JaIJ siidrsyam hetukrtam siidharmyam ucya-
teo asiidrsyam ca hetukrtam vaidharmyam ucyate....
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Of these, a syllogism by the method of ag:reement fonnulated, with a logi-
cal mark of identity (svabhiivahetolJ siidharmyaviin prayogaJ;) may be
illustrated by interpreting the Buddha's teaching t All that is produced is
momentary' in view of the Sautrantika doctrine. What is produced
(sainskrta) means all things that have originated as results of the causes
and conditions aggregated together. They are said to be momentary
(k$a1}ika) as they exist only for the moment in which they are produced.
16.1 Proof of universal momentariness. (34.18) Now we see that
all things such as a jar etc. are destroyed by conjunction with a hammer
etc. If the essential nature (svariipa), by which a jar etc. in its last
moment Perishes, is existent in the [same thing] when it is just produced,
then it should perish immediately after its production because of that
[essential nature]. Therefore all things are evidently momentary.
(35.2) It may be contended that a thing is given by its own causes
such an essential nature that it perishes after staying for a certain period
of time. [But it is not reasonable. because] if so, a thing would not
perish even when it is hit by a hammer, but continue to exist again for
the given period of time, since such is its essential nature; again this
may be the case [when it receives another shock of a hammer, and
thus it follows that] it would never perish. Therefore, if a thing were
produced so as to stay for two moments, it would, at the second moment
just as at the first, stay for another two moments due to its being durable
for two moments. In this way it would not cease to exist at the third
moment because it has even then the same nature.
(35.9) [Another opponent] may contend: u A thing is so made by
its own cause as to be durable; but it may be forcibly destroyed by an
inCompatible thing such as a hammer and the rest". This is not correct.
How is it reasonable that the destruction of a thing is caused by an
incomPatible power, while the same thing does not Perish because of its
being permanent. For this is as unreasonable as to say that Devadatta
is dead while he is living. In other words, if it perishes, how can you
say that it is produced by its causes so as to be imperishable? For you.
cannot say that an immortal quality dies. We hold, therefore, that a thing
is produced by its own cause to be perishable, because perishing can be
by no means connected with an imperishable thing, while the disap-
pearance of a thing is actually experienced. Thus, it perishes at the
87-
very moment of its birth. In this way the theory of momentary destruc-
tion [of every thing] (ka1}akaYitva) has been proved. We may for-
mulate [the discussion made above] into the following syllogism: 233
Whatever is by nature perishable perishes immediately [after its
birth as e.g. a jar at the last moment of its existence];
Material objects etc. are by nature perishable at the time of their
birth;
[Therefore, material] objects etc. perish immediately after their
birth];
[This syllogism is] formulated with a logical mark of identity.
16.2 Recognition is merely constructive imagination. (36.1) HIf
things are perishing at every moment, how is our recognition (pra-
tYabhijiiii) in the form 'This is the very same as that' possible?" To
this our reply is this: [This is saidl because every moment [of the flux
of a thing] is produced so as to be very similar to the immediately preced-
ing moment and because our nescience (avidYii) continues to exist. At
the very moment when a thing perishes, another at the next moment
which is similar to it is born. In this way the difference in form
[between the two momentsJ is neglected; and the flux of moments is
not interrupted by non-existence. Consequently an ordinary person gets,
by means of constructive imagination (adhyavasiiYa), the idea of identity
(abheda) that this is the same as that in spite of the actual difference
[of the two moments]. We know by experience that one easily gets an
idea of this being the. same as that regarding completely different things
such as grass, hair etc. which, having been once cut off, grow again
(lunapunarjiitakusakesiidi)234. Why cannot the same kind of imagination
occur in the present case? We have thus proved that what is produced
is all momentary235.
233. T sbyor ba yan snar !tar bya ste=prayogal] punar purvavat kartavyal]. G ayam
instead of punar in M.
234. This is a stock-example of Buddhist logicians meant for the refutation of re-
cognition. See for example, PVBh 144, 3; RNA 84, 3. The refutation of recognition is
dealt with by our author in 28.2. Ratnakirti gives a systematic exposition of the problem
(RNA 106-112).
235. Our author's argument in 16, 1-2 is a brief extract from the highly developed
Buddhist theory of the momentary destruction of all things He seems to
owe his argument here, directly or indirectly, to Karl).akagomin who demonstrates a similar
discussion commenting on PV 1. v. 195 (v. 197 in Kitab Mahal ed) and Svavrtti (d. Karl).a-
- 88-
16.3 (36.9) The syllogism set forth above is
of the formula with a simple, identical logical mark (nirvisear,zasya
svabhavahetol} Prayogal})236. The [same] formula with a simple, identical
logical mark is illustrated by another syllogism. :
All that exists is impermanent (yat sat tat sarvam anityam) as e. g.
a jar;
kagomin, 368, 7-13 and 369, 3-8). This argument of Mokl?akara is in its turn quoted
almost verbatim in SVM 104, 12-105, 15 for the sake of criticism. Mallil?eI].a clearly
ascribes it to our author saying (SVM 105, 25-106, 1) : yac ca
eva pra/apitam tat....
Dharmaklrti discusses the problem of in PV I. v. 193-196, and more
extensively in HB II. Arcata's commentary on HB II is a valuable dissertation on the
problem. His separate work is not extant. Durvekamisra wrote an
other which is also lost now, but his commentary Aloka on HBT is published
together with HBT. Dharmottara's is preserved in Tibetan translation
with its commentary by Muktakalasa; the Tib. text of Dharmottara's
is edited and translated by Frauwallner (WZKM 42, 217-258). Santirakl?ita and Kamala-
slla discuss the same problem in the of TS and TSP. Jnanasrimi.
tra wrote a large article ONA, 1-159) which is the most important
work on this theory; and this work was abridged by his student Ratnaklti in his
bhangasiddhi (RNA 62-88). The latter wrote another article, (RNA
101-121). Ratnakarasanti discuses logical problems concerning the proof of
in his Antarvyiiptisamarthana (SBNT 103-114; the work is translated into Japanese by
me in Bukkyo Shigaku VIII, no. 4, 21-40
The theories appearing in TS, TSP, Ratnaklrti's and Ratnakarasanti's
work are explained' by Mookerjee (d. the first three chapters of his Universal Elux).
236. PV I. v. 186: vii kevalo 'tha vii, ucyate siidhyasiddhy-
artham niise kiiryatvasattvavat. Here Dharmarkirti classifies svabhiivahetu into two kinds,
a) kevala- (illustrated by satJ and b) (ill. by kiirya=krtakaJ; but he
mentions c) (ill. utpattimatJ in his Svavrtti. In NB III. s. 11
-15 too, the above-named three kinds are enumerated. The idea of this classification is
clear: The logical identity of the probandum and the probans does not mean the total
sameness of both, but the sameness in essence. And this sameness in essence may be
sometimes pure and simple as in the case of existence and impermanence, which do not
permit the interference of any third entity; and another time it is understood together
with a contingent. third entity which the probans necessarily presupposes, as in the case
of product-ness and impermanence. Product-ness presupposes a cause. Dharmakirti regards
this third thing as a uPiidhi (contingent condition). But once this main classification is
stated, one is tempted to subdivide. From existence we derive the idea of origination
(utPatti) which Dharmakirti considers a particular property belonging to the existent
itself i. e. this origination is not the third thing separate
from the existent, but a part of it. According to Dharmottara and other commentators
this particular property, origination, is obtained through logical imagination in which
one contrasts it to non-origination. Thus, this case is added in the list as a subdivi-
sion of a) (corresponding to No. 2 of NB & TBh). Concerning b) Dharmakirti says
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These things cognized by valid knowledge
237
all exist;
l Therefore these things are all impermanentJ228.
Another syllogism proving that the Vedas are human products can
be formulated with [the sameJ identical mark:
Any verbal statement is a human product as e. g. the verbal state-
ment of a passer-by239;
The Vedic injunction 'One who wants rebirth in heaven should per-
form the fire-sacrifice' is a verbal statement ;
[Therefore the Vedic injunction is a human product. J
16.3.1 (36.16) A syllogism of the formula with
a qualified identical mark (savise$a1Ja-prayoga) is next shown:
All that have origin is impermanent (Yad yad utpattimat tat sarvam
anityam) as e. g. a jar;
Sound has origin ;
[Therefore sound is impermanent. J
Those things which are excluded from [the class ofJ what has no origin
are called having origin. When we, saying 'the origination of a thing',
mean that this distinct [aspectJ (vYiivrtti) is a different thing [from
'existence'] since it excludes other distinct [aspects incompatible with itJ
(vYiivrttyantaravyavaccheda), then the identical mark [i. e. existence] is
qualified by a property lhaving origin] which, though actually identical
that the idea of product necessarily presupposes the idea of cause, though the cause is
not manifestly expressed. Dharmottara thinks in NBT on NB III, s. 15 that this presup-
posed third entity, cause, may be expressed by its own word as in the case of pratyaya-
bhedabheditva or may not be so expressed as in the case of krtakatva, and that the
presence and the absence of the actual usage of the word 'cause' do not change the
significance. Therefore he concludes that the syllogistic form of svabhiivahetu is three-
fold, viz. 1) suddha =a) = of TBh, 2) or and 3)
or Manorathanandin, commenting on PV I, v. 186 (III, v.
185 in Patna ed.) gives a similar exposition and classifies into suddha,
and TSop follows Dharmottara. It seems to be alone
who enumerates as the fourth the case of pratyayabhedabheditva, giving to this the name
This cannot be a merit of his, because he gave only a separate
name to what was actually recognized by Dharmakirti and his commentators.
237. G pramii1Japratitiil] padiirthiil] instead of pramii1Japratitiil] in M; T, agreeing
with G, reads tshad mas rtogs pal]i dnos po.
238. NB III, s. 11: yat sat tat sarvam anityam yathii gha!iidir iti suddhasya svabhiiva-
hetol] prayogal] ; and NBT.
239. The Tibetan translator may have had in his manuscript instead of
in M. G, as Treads: sin rta zon pa or one who rides a cart.
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(with existencej, is differentiated from it by imagination (kalPitena
bhedena)240.
16.3.2 Bhinnaviselilal].a-prayoga. (36.20) The formula with an id-
entical mark qualified by an contingent property
[ svabhiivahetolJ] pray0 galJ) is next illustrated :
Whatever is produced is impermanent (yat krtakain tad ani/yam)
as a jar;
Sound is a product;
[Therefore sound is impermanent. j241
One may object: ttYou may call an expression such as tone who possesses
a brindled cow' a usage of a contingent property. However, in the
word tproduct' we do not recognize any such word signifying a con-
tingent property242 as we find in the word ta brindled cow' [possessed
by a person]. Thus, how can you call (the probans krtaka] an example
of contingent property?" We reply: A thing which depends for its
own origination cn the operation of other things (i. e. its causes] is
called a product. Therefore, the word tproduct' connotes the nature of
depending on the operation of others; this is why we call it tqualified
240. NB III, s. 12 : yad utpattimat tad anityam iti svabhiivabhutadharmabhedena svabhii-
vasya follows Dharmottara in explaining the formula, but perhaps
with a misunderstanding. Commenting on the word bheda, Dharmottara says: anutpanne-
bhyo hi vyiivrttim iisrityotpanno bhiiva ucyate saiva vyiivrttir yadii
vaktum tadii vyatireki1}iva nirdisyate bhiivasyotpattir iti. According to Durvekamisra
(DP 158, 6-8), the probans, what is originated, is so judged in view of the distinction
from, or the exclusion of, what is not originated such as ether. But the question may
be put forward: if a thing is called what is originated in contrast to what is not origi-
nated, why do you use the expression 'it has origination' (utpattir asya=utpattimat)?
Answer: When we express this distinction without regard to other distinctions such as
magnitude (mahattva), (i.e. when we limit our contrast only to that of origination and non-
origination], we must say 'it has origination'. This is the 'meaning of the passage of
NBT. However, interpretation runs (36, 17 ff.): anutpannebhyo vyiivrtto bhiiva
utpanna ucyate, yadii saiva vyiivrttir vYiivrttyantaravyavacchedena vyatiriktocyate bhavasyotpat-
tir iti tada kalpitena bhedena svabhiivabhutadharme1}a In this passage vyiivrttyan-
tara is used in a sense different from that in NBT. It is neither a misprint nor a mistake
on the part of the editor since T is quite parallel. Our author uses the term as denoting
anutpanna, and if it is made unconsciously, he misinterprets Dharmottara.
241. NB III, s. 13 : yat krtakam tad anityam ity uPiidhibhedena. NBT 45, 17-19 illus-
trates the differences between the three kinds of expressions, suddha, avyatiriktena
1}ena and vyatiriktena by the example of Devadatta: Devadatta
may be referred to by the name Devadatta itself; he may be called the long-eared; he
may be called the owner of a brindled cow.
242. Read for in M.
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by a contingent property' 243.
16.3.3 Prayuktabhinnavisesana-prayoga. (37.7) The formula with
an identical mark manifestly expressing a contingent qualifier (prayukta-
svabhiivasya prayoga1}) is illustrated lastly244.
Whatever is variable according to a change in its cause is a
product (Ya1} pratyayabhedabhedi sa krtaka1}) as smoke;
Sound is variable according to a change in its cause;
[Therefore, sound is a product.]
Pratyaya means kiira1Ja (cause). A thing which is subject to change
according as its cause varies, is here meant by the word pratyayabheda-
bhedin. It means that an effect is big when its cause is big, and is
small if the cause is small. The word pratYayabhedabhedin which mani-
festly expresses a contingent qualifier is here used ; this is why the
formula is called Prayuktabhinnavise$atJa.
Various kinds of the identical mark have been shown "above in order
to remove misunderstanding [about the logical mark of identity], that
is to say, in order to teach that if different properties are imagined
[of a logical mark], the fact of an identical mark being used remains the
same.
17. Illustration of svabhivahetor vaidharmyavin prayogal].. (37.16)
A syllogism by the method of difference formulated with a logical mark
of identity (svabhiivahetor vaidharmYaviin prayoga1}) is next illustrated:
1. Whatever is not immediately destructible at a given time is not
of a perishable nature at that time as e. g. ether
245
;
Those things beginning with matter are, however, perishable at
the time of their birth;
[Therefore, those beginning with matter are immediately destruc-
tible at the time of their birth.]
In a syllogism with a negative vyiipti, lie e. that by the method of
difference] (vyatirekaprayoga=vaidharmyavan prayogalJ) the negation of
243. The same objection is raised in NBT 45, 20-21 and the reply forms NB III, s.
14 : hi krtaka iti.
244. NB III, s. 15: evam pratyayabhedabheditviidayo As said in n. 236,
NBT as well as NB regards this as a special case of the third formula
while our author takes it out as the fourth.
245. T: gan dan gan... de dan de... (=yad yad... tat tad... ) instead of yad yadii... tat
tadii ... in M.
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the probandum is pervaded by the negation of the probans, and accord-
ingly the absence of the probandwn is definitely known in the absence
of the probans. In the same way we can formulate [the remaining forms
of svabhiivahetu] by the method of difference.
2. Wherever there is no momentariness there is also no existence
(yatra k$at}ikatvain nasti tatra sattvam api nasti) as e. g. in a
flower in the sky;
However, sound is existent;
[Therefore sound is momentary].
2.a Wherever there is no impermanence recognized, there is no ori-
gination as in the hair of a tortoise ;
Sound has origination;
[Therefore, sound is impermanent.)
3. Wherever there is no impermanence there is no product-ness as
in a rabbit's horns;
Sound is a product;
[Therefore sound is impermanent.]
4. Wherever there is no product-ness there is no variation con-
comitant with the variation in its cause as in ether;
Sound is variable together with the change in its cause;
[Therefore, sound is a product. J246
18. Illustration of kiiryahetol]. siidharmyaviin prayogal].. (38.8) A
syllogism by the method of agreement formulated with a logical mark of
causality is next illustrated.
Wherever there is smoke there is fire as in a kitchen;
Here there is smoke;
[Therefore, here there is fire.]247
An effect should be applied as a probans for proving its cause, the
probandum, only when the relation of a cause and an effect has been
[beforehandJ established through perception and non-percepion (pratya-
246. These illustrations of vaidharmyavatprayoga correspond, as I number, to those
four forms discussed in 16.3 in relation to siidharmyavatprayoga of svabhiivahetu. NB III,
s. 26 : asaty anityatve nasti sattvam utpattimattvam krtakatvam vii, sams ca sabda utpattimiin
krtako veti
247. NB III. s. 23 : kiiryahetor api yatra dhumas tatragnir yathii mahiinasiidau,
asti ceha dhuma iti.
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ksiinupalambha)248.
18.1 Illustration of vaidharmya-prayoga. (38.11) A syllogism by
the method of difference (vaidharmya-prayoga) [formulated with a logical
mark of causalityJ :
Where there is no fire, there is no smoke as in a great tank;
However, here there is smoke;
[Therefore, here there is fire. J249
19. Illustration of a syllogism of negation by the method of agree-
ment. (38.12) A syllogism of negation formulated by the method of
agreement (anupalabdhel} siidharmyaviin prayogal}) , which is aimed at
denying the existence of a composite whole (avayavin) :
A thing which, being by nature perceptible, is not perceived in a
place, is to be judged as not existing in that place as the horns on
the head of a man;
The composite whole [of ajarJ which is asserted by the opponent
to be perceptible is not perceived in the aggregated parts meant
by the word 'jar';
[Therefore, a composite whole does not exist in a jar.J250
19.1 Illustration of a syllogism of negation by the method of dif-
ference. (38.12) A syllogism of negation formulated by the method of
difference (anupalabdher vaidharmyaviin prayogal}) :
A thing existent as perceptible by nature is necessarily perceived
as a particular object of blue etc. which is admitted as percepti-
ble
251
;
In this particular place
252
we do not perceive ajar, although it is
existent as perceptible by nature;
248. NBT 49, 11-12: yathii mahiinasiidiiv iti, mahiinasiidau hi
kiiryakiira1Jabhiiviitmiiviniihhiivo See also NB ITI, s. 24 : iMpi siddha eva kiiryakii-
ra1}abhiive kiira1Je siidhye kiiryahetur The Buddhist theory of the establishment
of a causal relation by pratyakSiinupalamhha will be soon dealt with again in 22.
249. NB III, s. 27: asaty agnau na hhavaty eva atra casti dhiima iti kiirya-

250. NB III, s. 9: yad san nopalabhyate so
yalJ kascid nopalabhyate ca kvacit
gha{a iti.
251. T snon po la sogs khyad par mnon sum hid du mnon par
instead of of M.
252. T phyogs kyi khyad par na =iha as we read in G.
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[Therefore" there is no jar in this placeJ253.
20. Pervasion explained in relation to the two syllogistic forms.
(38.20) It should be understood that while the probans (siidhana) is
pervaded by the probandum (siidhya) in all the syllogism (siidhanaviikya)
formulated by the method of agreement" the non-existence of the pro-
bandum (siidhyiibhiiva) is pervaded by the non-existence of the probans
(siidhaniibhiiva) in the syllogism by the method of difference. Either the
statement of the necessary existence (niyatatva) of the probans in the
probandum or
254
that of the necessary non-existence of the probandum
in the non-existence of the probans is called tpervasion' (vyiipti). There-
fore when the pervasion [between the two terms] is established by means
of valid knowledge" there should be no shade of doubt that the probandum
might not exist in the same locus (dharmin) in which the probans exists.
20.1. The Naiyayika's proof of the existence of God as an illustra-
tion of untrue vyapti. (39.6) However" doubt arises inevitably when
a universal (sarvopasainhiiravati) vyiipti is not established by means of
valid knowledge as" for instance" in the case of the inference from an
effect which is aimed at proving the existence of God (isvara). That
is to say" they [i. e. the Naiyayikas] state the following proof: 255
253. NB III, s. 25 : yat sad tad upa-
labhyata eva, yathii na caivam sata upalabdhir
ghatasyeti
254. G, T have ca, which is dropped in M.
255. The Buddhist campaign against the theism of the Naiyayika was started by
Dharmakirti in PV II v. 10-29; commentators on PV including Prajnakaragupta further
developed their criticism of theism. Santiraksita and Kamalasi:la devoted a chapter for
the refutation of God in TS and TSP (TS v. 46-93). Santideva and Prajnakaramati deal
with the problem in BCA and BCAP IX, v. 119-126. The theistic arqument of the
Naiyayika which forms the object of criticism for these Buddhists seems to be set forth
by Aviddhakart;ta, Uddyotakara, Prasastamati etc. as named in TSP. In the latest period
of Indian Buddhism, Jnanasrimitra wrote a lengthy dissertation iSvaraviidiidhikiira ONA
233-322), which consisted of and Viirttikasaptaslokivyii-
khyiina. The last chapter consists of three sections and is an elaborate commentary on
the seven verses of Dharmakirti, viz. PV II, v. 10-16. Ratnakirti made a resume of
Jffanasri:'s isvaraviidiidhikiira. It is incorporated in RNA 29-52 under the title isvarasii-
Mok!?akara, as usual, follows the latter two authors when he criticises the
Naiyayika's theism in the following text. The opponents of these three Buddhists are
mainly Satikara, Narasirhha, Trilocana, Vacaspatimisra, Vittoka, etc. (RNA 35-36). Va-
caspatimisra demonstrates his own theistic argument in NVT 953, 1 ff. (ad NS 4, 1, 21).
Following Ratnakirti. Mok!?akara introduces Vacaspati's theory of the classification of the
existent things in the world into three kinds, his syllogism proving the existence of God,
etc. But Buddhist criticism is logical and centers around Vacaspati's theory of vyiipti,
which is found mainly in NVT 138, 25-140, 15 (see n. 270).
- 95-
ttWe are able to prove the existence of the omniscient God, whether
or 'oot an omniscient lord [i. e. Buddha] really exists. For the existent
in the world is of three kinds :256 1) Some things such as a jar etc. which
have been definitely produced by an agent (niscitakartrka) ; 2) some
things such as ether (vyoman) etc. which definitely have no agent (niscitaka-
rtrnivrtti) ; 3) and the third group of things such as the earth etc. the
existence of whose agents is doubted. There is no class of things other
than the above [three]257. [Thus, our syllogism may be formulated as
follows :]
Those which are classified as things the existence of whose agents
is uncertain, trees in a forest whose origination we can actually see
or the earth etc. which have remained very long since their creation,
and so on, must be all considered to have an intelligent agent as
their creator (buddhimatkartrka);
Because they are effects (karyatvat);
For example ajar.258
The probans [of this inferenceJ is not illegitimate (asiddha), because the
256. T omits khalu.
257. JNA 233, 15-16 : trayo hi buddhimatkartrkiis ca akartr-
kiis samdigdhakartrkiis ca RNA 39, 25-28: nanu
katham tail' trividho hi samdigdhakartrko
yathii ,. prasiddhakartrko yathii akartrko tatra prasiddha-
kartrke ghatiidau vyiiptim iidiiya samdehapade kiirya-
tvam upasamhrtya buddhimiin anumiyate.... This latter passage is parallel to that in JNA
284, 21-24. Cf. NVT 953, 1 ff. : etiivad abhipretam iiciiryasya, trayo hi khalu bhiivii jagati
bhavanti, yathii prasiddhatadviparya-
yathii yathii
258. JNA 233, 6-10: iha pratyavasthiinam viviidiispadibhutam bhudhariidi
buddhimatkartrPurvakam, kiiryatviit,. yad yat kiiryam tad buddhimatkartrPurvakam dutam
yathii kiiryam cedam bhudhariidi,. tasmiid buddhimatpurvakam iti. na cdam asiddham,
- bauddhasyapi vindhyagandhamiidaniidiniim kiiryatve viviidiibhiiviit. napi viruddham,
bhiiviit. na canaikiintikam, kvacid api kiirye buddhimad darsayitum
asakyatviit .... Cf. NVT 953, 5ff.: viviidiidhyiisitiis tarumahidhariidaya upiidiiniibhijiiakartrkii
utpattimattviit, acetanopiidiinatviid vii, yad utpattimad acetanopiidiinakam vii tat sarvam uPii-
diiniibhijiiapurvakam yathii priisiidiidi, tathii ca viviidiidhyiisitiis ta-
smiit tatheti, na utpattimattvam asiddham.... A similar syllogism is quoted in RNA
29, 13-17. RNA 36, 14-19 ascribes the same kind of syllogism to Vacaspati: tathii ca
pramiir:ayati. upiidiiniidyabhijiiakartrkiil} ,.
kiiryatviit,. yad yat kiiryam tat tad upiidiiniidyabhijiiakartrkam.... Similar inferences meant
for proving the existence of God are proposed by many Naiyayikas and quoted by Ratna-
klrti in his The inference with kiiryatva as the probans is the most
representative argument of the Naiyayika.
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effectness of all [these] things is established by valid knowledge. Nor
is it incompatible (viruddha), since it is present in the sapak$a. Nor is
it inconclusive (anaikiintika) , because there is a proof contradicting the
opposite of the assertion to be proved (siidhyaviparyaye biidhakapra-
mii1}asadbhiiviit) [i. e. we can argue by the following reductio ad absurdum
to prove the vyiipti :]
We cognize by a mental Perception accompanied by rePeated past
eXPerience (bhuyodarsanasahiiyena miinasapratyake1}a)259 [the pervasion]
that an effect (kiirya) [say, a jar] is always produced through the agency
of a potter who is endowed with intelligence (buddhimat). If [on the
contrary] a thing could come into existence without [being mediated by
some] intelligent [agent], then it [e. g. a jar] might sometimes not be
produced even when the intelligent agent [e. g.. a potter] intends [to make
it]. [But this is absurd], because an effect cannot even once arise with-
out its cause. Therefore, we should in no case suppose that a thing can
259. T man du mthon rgyu can gyi yid dan mnons sum gyis.... =bhuyodarsananiban-
dhanamiinasena pratyake1}a ca.... T seems to understand as a dvandva
compound, which is wrong. 'Krishnamacharya condemned the same word as a mistake on
the part of Mok!?akara, and suggested a correction into (G. Tikii, 77,
20 ff.: atra miinaseneti priimiidikam.... ). He could be right. if
introduced here the theory of the syncretic school of However,
kara, following Ratnaklrti. refers to Trilocana and Vacaspatimisra of the Naiyayika and
Kumarila and Sucaritmisra (Kasikakara) of the Mimamsaka, who all maintain that a
universal concomitance is grasped by perception helped by repeated past experience. RNA
42, 3-5: bhuyodarsanagamyii hi siimiinyadharmayor (SV Anu. v. 12a-b) iti pra-
siddham eva. asyayam kiisikiikiire'fja priiciniinekadarsanajanitasmnskiirasa-
hiiye carame (darsane) cetasi cakiisti dhumasydgniniyatasvabhiivatvam.... (SVK III, 16, 14-15) :
RNA, 42, 10-11: trilocanena punar ayam bhuyodarSanasahiiyena manasii
tajjiitiyiiniim sambandho grhito bhavati. ato dhumo 'gnim na vyabhicarati. tadvyabhiciire'py
upiidhirahitam sambandham atikriimet. hetor pramiit}am upalabdhi-
lakat}apriiptopiidhivirahaniscayahetur anupalambhiikhyam pratyakam eva. tatal] svii-
tathihdpiti svamatam vyavasthiiPitam iti (cf. n. 270 below).; RNA
42, 15: viicaspatindpidam uktam, abhijiitamat}ibhedattvavad bhiiyodarsanajanitasamskiirasa-
hiiyam indriyam eva dhumiidiniim sviibhiivikasambandhagriihiti yuktam (NVT
140, 5-6). These three passages are quoted again in RNA (Vyiiptinirt}aya) , 99, 11-12;
99, 20-21 ; 100, 22-24. Vacapati does not agree with Trilocana and say that sviibhiivika-
sambandha is grasped either indriyapratyaka or other means of valid knowledge according
to circumstances, when it is produced through bhuyodarsana. At least the theory of Trilocana
and Sucaritamisra completely identical with what Ratnakirti and say. inasmuch
as they admit that universal concomitance is grasped by mental perception helped by
repeated past experience. Therefore our text in M needs no correction.
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be an effect and at the same time not produced by an intelligent agent"260.
.20.2. Refutation. (40.5) To this the following reply can be made:
All philosophers agree that in every case a probans proves its probandum
if and only if the pervasive relation (vyiipti) between the probans and the
probandum has been established by valid knowledge generalising [all the
cases of the probans and probandum] (sarvopasainhiire1Ja pramii1Jena)261.
Now, if the vyiipti [in your syllogism] is grasped between [an effect in
general and] an intelligent being who is qualified by having a visible body
buddhimat-), then this probans. just as the probans
prameyatva (being an object of cognition), is inconclusive owing to non-
exclusiveness (siidhiiraflanaikantika), because we find growing grass, which
is not endowed with the said probandum [i. e. is not produced by a visible
intelligent agent], is also an effect.
262
(40.10) You cannot contend that (our criticism is irrelevant, as] the
very grass etc. is comprised in p (of the above said inferenceJ. For an
object clearly deviating from the vyapti (vyabhiciiravisaya) cannot be put
forward as p, since there is a rule (set forth by Dharmakirti]263: A
260. JiHinasrlmitra reproduces five kinds of viparyaye biidhakaprama1'}a which the
Naiyayika proposes in order to substantiate the vyapti 'an effect is produced by an intel-
ligent agent'. Of these five, the first is parallel to what refers to here. See
JNA 237, 22-238, 3: yatha saugatanam citrabhanor anumane yadi citrabhanum antare1'}a
kara1'}antarad api dhiimo deSantare kalantare va jayeta, dntayor api desakalayor na citra-
sakrd apy atmasattam labheta, yasman na tadabhave bhavatas tatkaryaniyamo
atiprasangat .. tatas ca tadrsasya sarvasyaivataddhetutvan na sakrd api jayeta, bhavati
ca, tasman natajjanyam tadrsam iti viparyaye biidhakaprama1'}avrttya
tathdsmakam api yadi kimcid antare1'}anyato' pi karyam upajayeta, hanta
na tarhi sakrd api kumbhakarader utpadyeta, bhavati ca, tatas tajjanyam ity
ekam biidhakam prama1'}am.
261. T bsgub par bya ba dan sgrub par byed pa gan zag gi khyad par thams cad fie
bar sdus tshad mas grub pa.... Gah zag gi khyad par should be read: gan dag gi
khyab pa. Tn has khyab for khyad.
262. RNA 39, 21-24, kim drsyasariropadhina buddhimanmatre1'}a vyaptir grhyate, aho
svid drsyasariropadhividhure1'}a drsyadrsyasadhara1'}eneti vikalpau. yady tada
tathabhiitasadhyam antare1'}apy utpadyamane vitapadau karyatvadarsanat prameyatvadivat sa-
dhara1'}iinaikantiko As for the fallacy of sadhara1'}anaikantika illustrated by the
probans prameyatva see 10.1 and n. 168.
263. PV IV v. 91 : pramii1'}abhyam sa copagama samdigdhe hetuvacanad
vyasto hetor upagama in this verse means M has vyakto instead of vya-
But T bsal, PV, the same verse cited in JNA (244, 3), that in RNA (39,4 f. b.), etc.
agree to vyasto. In the inference in question, the p, grass, is seen by valid perception not
to have an intelligent agent with a visible body. Since grass is clearly rejected as belong-
ing to the class of s by perception, it is absurd to try to prove by inference that it has
an intelligent agent with a visible body as its cause, Le. that it belongs to the class of s.
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probans is stated only concerning a p which is not yet ascertained [to
be s or non-s]; and what has been rejected [to be s by other valid
knowledge] should not be [put forward as] the locus of the probans
264
.
(40.13) [The opponent mayobject:J ((We see smoke without [seeing]
fire on a mountain which is not climbable
265
. Thus, it is easy to point
out the same deviation in the case of [a mountain put forward as the
locus of] smoke". This is not correct. Such a mountain is qualified to be
an object which is doubtful [of having fire] (samdigdhavi$aya) [and fit
to be made a P], just because fire cannot be seen on the mountain as it
is not climbable. In the problem under question, however, you want to
grasp the vyiipti [between an effect] and (having an intelligent agent
with a visible body', land yet we do not perceive the agent, who, if he
existed, would be seen] ; therefore, it is rightly said that the existence of
an intelligent agent is contradicted by the non-perception of a perceptible
object (drsyiinupalambha).
(40.18) Or otherwise, if you construe the vyiipti as that [between an
effect] and an [intelligent agent] whose body is invisible
266
or an intelligent
agent in general, we cannot ascertain the negative vyiipti of such a pro-
bandum as an invisble one or an intelligent one in general by means of
the non-perception of a perceptible object. Thus, yours is a fallacious
probans named samdigdhavipak$avyiivrtlika267. For in this case the vyiipti
between the non-existence of the probandum and the non-existence of the
probans is not availabl&68 because [the probandum itself] is not established
264. RNA 39, 25 ff.: nanu katham tair ...yad iiha,
na siidhyenaiva vyabhiciira ity ayuktam etat. na hi eva (Read so
instead of bhavitum arhati, samdigdhe hetuvacaniid vyasto hetor aniisraya iii nyiiyiit.
ca dnyasariropiidher buddhimanmiitrasya tr1Jiidyutpattau drsyiinuPalambh-
ena .... This is a citation from ]NA 284, 21-285, 1.
265. For asakYiiroha1Je parvate T has skyed (p. bskyed) par mi nus pa la la (Even
some places which are unable to give rise to (fire)). But here iirohana must be taken
in the sense of climbing.
266. Read with G and T adrsyasarire1Ja for drsya- in M.
267. For this fallacy see 10.2.4.
268. M has iikiisiidau between siidhaniibhiivasya and asiddhatvena,. but better to omit
it. Concerning our author's argument in this paragraph, d. RNA 40, 2 ff : atha vyabhi-
ciiracamatkiiriis trividhabhiivariisivyavasthiipaniirtham ca vi/apiidau dr-
syiidrsyasiidhiira1Jena buddhimanmiitre1Ja vyaptir avagamyata iti tadii vi/a-
piidau buddhimanmiitrasya sambhavyamiinatviit na siidhiira1Janaikiintikatiim kim tarhi
vyiiptigraha1Jakiile drsyiidrsyasiidhiira1Jasya buddhimanmiitrasya sadhyasyddrsyatayii drsyiinupa-
lambhena vyatirekiisiddher vyiipter abhaviit samdigdha vyiivrttikatvam ....
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[to be real]. In this connection the revered master ]fianasrimitra says:
If you, in order to remove [the fallacy that hJ effect-ness, is found
in the vipak$a [i. e. in what has not a visible intelligent agent as its
cause]. imagine an invisible agent, how can you establish the vyiipti, since
it is deprived of confirmation by the negative vyiipti?
Or, if you, hoping to establish the negative vyiipti, rely on a visible
agent, then [h, effect-ness] is clearly seen in the vipak$a, because grass
etc. grows without it [i. e. the operation of a visible agentJ269.
20.2.1. Trilocana's objection rejected. (41.7) Trilocana said as fol-
lows :270 ttJust as smoke etc. is connected with fire etc. by the intrinsic
269. is found only in M. The first half of this verse can be
certainly ascribed to him since it occurs in JNA 285, 7-8, but the second half cannot be
traced in JNA. It is Ratnakirti who put these two halves together as the summary of his
preceding argument, and it is likely that the second half is a product of Ratnakirti himself.
RNA 41, 9-12: karyatvasya sambhavyate ' karta ced vyatireka-
siddhividhura katham sidhyati, drsyo 'tha vyatirekasiddhimanasa kartii samasriyate
tattyiige' pi tada tr1Jiidikam iti vyaktam M has tadyogena vina instead of
tattyage 'pi tada in RNA and G. Tc-d : ci ste ldog pa palji yid kyis bltar mi run
byed pa po brten par bya ba yin na, de dan ldan pa la yan rtsva la sogs pa
bsal bar mi mthun Phyogs la mthon baljo. Mi and delji should be omitted; .de dan ldan
pa should be read de dan mi ldan pa ; gsal bar is better than bsal bar.
270. In 20.2 the Buddhist criticised the Naiyayika's argument, pointing out that the
vyapti between 'effect' and 'intelligent agent' does not represent a valid causal relation.
But the Naiyayika contends that it is not only causality but the intrinsic relation of a
thing with another which forms valid vyapti. Vacaspati on NS 1.1.5 refutes the Buddhist
theory of vyapti that invariable concomitance is determined not by mere perception and
non-perception but by the principle of causality or essential identity (ct. PV I, v. 31:
karyakara1Jabhavad vii svabhiiviid vii niyiimakiit, aviniibhavaniyamo ' na na darsanat).
After criticising the Buddhist and the Vaisei?ika view of vyapti, he proposes the intrinsic
relation (svabhiivikasambandha) as the criterion of vyapti, and says that this intrinsic rela-
tion is grasped by sense-perception or other pramii1Jas helped by past repeated experience
of perception and non-perception (cL n. 259 above). In RNA 41, 17 ff. Ratnakirti sum-
marises this argument of Vacaspati and introduces it as a here
presupposes the same though he ascribes it to Trilocana, the guru of Vacas-
patL
Vacaspati's argument may be recapitulated as follows: 'effect-ness' is a probans not
because it is perceived in the and not in the but because it possesses a
sViibhavika relationship with 'intelligent agent'. This svabhlivika relationship is understood
by perception in the and non-perception in the in such a manner as we
explain in the following. Thus, mentioning perception and non-perception in connection
with the svabhiivika relation is also not irrelevant. If it is ascertained that x is related with
y by a svabhiivikasambandha, x is the probans and y the probandum. For instance, the
relation of smoke with fire is svabhavika, but that of fire with smoke is not, because fire
without smoke can be seen as in the case of red-hot iron. Fire is connected with smoke
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relationship (svtibhtivikalJ samhandhalJ), just so is tbeing an effect' related
with tan intelligent agent', for in this case no limiting condition (uPiidhi)
[of the relation] is found, nor is any case of deviation (from the rela-
tionship] (vyabhiciira) experienced" .271
But this is not correct, for by the word uPiidhi is meant some other
thing by the dependence on which [the probans is related to the probandum,
1. e. if x needs z in order to be related with y, this z is called uPiidh'lJ.
This tother thing', however, is not always perceptible; and it may be
existent, though invisible owing to its inaccessibility in place, time or nature.
Therefore, there may be an uPiidhi even in the relation of smoke with
fire, and yet it may not be seen. Thus, how can it be ascertained as
absent just because it is not cognized?
(41.14) The other reason proposed [by Trilocana]. because no de-
viation is experienced' is not established because it is doubtful. Even if
we do not see deviation repeatedly owing to the lack of other conditions
only when it is connected with wet fuel. Thus, when fire is related to smoke, the rela
tion is limited by a contingent condition (upiidhi), i.e. wet fuel, and it is not by nature.
On the other hand, the relation of smoke with fire is intrinsically necessary because no
limiting condition is found here, since no case of deviation is seen, and because we
cannot harbour doubt about what is not experienced. You cannot suspect the validity of
the intrinsic relation by imposing a limiting condition which is imagined simply becaue
there is neither proof nor disproof and which is actually imperceptible by nature. That
is nothing but excessive doubt (sankiipisiici). Therefore, if we do not find a limiting
condition in spite of our effort to do so, then we come to know that no limiting condition
is existent. And we can ascertain the intrinsic nature of the relation.
271. As explained above, sviibhiivikasambandha is a term used by Trilocana and Vacas-
pati as meaning an intrinsic, necessary relation of a thing with another, its antonym be-
ing aupiidhika- or sopiidhika-sambandha. Ratnakirti's representation corresponding to the pas-
sage that concerns us now runs: (RNA 42, 18-19) sviibhiivikas tu dhumiidiniim
tadupiidher anupalabhyamiinatviit, kvacid vyabhiciirasyddarsaniid iti tvayaivdsya
uktam. This passage is identical with NVT 139, 2-3, where, however, Vacaspati
adds as the third reason anupalabhyamiinasydpi (ct. n.
270 above, Ratnakirti's summary of Vacaspati's argument). Buddhist reply to this reads
(RNA 42, 20-23): etac cdsiddham, yata upiidhisabdena svato ' rthiintaram
abhidhiitavyam. na cdrthiintaram drsyatiiniyatam. adrsyasydpi deSakiilasvabhiivavipraknla-
sya sambhaviit. tatas ca dhumasydpi hutiisena saha sambandhe syiid na
iti katham adarsaniin ndsty eva ....
The traditional definition of uPiidhi by the Naiyayika after Udayana is: siidhyavyiipa-
katve sati (That which is not a pervader of h, while it is a pervader
of s.) Vacaspati. however, explains uPiidhi by the illustration of wet fuel (NVT 138, 2
f.b.-139,2=RNA 41, 20-22. See n. 270 above). The definition of uPiidhi in RNA and TBh
arthiintaram kimcid is based on this explanation of Vacaspati and perhaps
his teacher Trilocana, though it is not verbally found in NVT.
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[for itscognitionJ, we cannot negate [the possibility of deviationJ in all
the cases
272
. This much [of scrutinyJ is not to be blamed for transgress-
ing the established custom of logicians (priimii1JikalokayiUrii)273, for the
logician enjoins that doubt should be harboured about anything which is
lacking a proof (siidhaka) or disproof (biidhaka). And even if we doubt
in such a way, we would not fall into [the fault of] abstaining from
action in all cases, for action is possible from doubt as much as from
valid knowledge
274
.
(42.2) [The opponent says: J275 "Just as Buddhists call a thing an
effect and another a cause, but not everything, despite the fact that all
things are not different in respect of their individuality, just so we also
maintain that a particular thing such as smoke etc. is connected by an
intrinsic relation with [another such asJ fire, but not everything [with
272. RNA 42, 2.7-29: kvacid 'vyabhicarasyadarsanad iti tu yad uktam tat pratyuktam eva,
adrsyasyapy sambhavyamanatvat, vyabhicarasya ca pratyayantaravaikalyenahatyada-
rsane 'Pi asakyatvat.... The passage recurs with slight differences in RNA 102,
30-33.
273. Vacaspati argues (RNA 38, 11-13 =100, 10-11 =NVT 139, 9-11): tasmat pra-
mafJikalokayatram anupalayata yathadarSanam sankaniyam, na tv adntam api.
hi samsayo nasmrter bhavati, na ca smrtir ananubhiitacare bhavati. The Buddhist
replies to it (RNA 43, 1 ff.): na caitavata pramafJikair eva
sadhakabiidhakapramafJabhave nyayapraptasya samsayasya vihitatvat.
274. Vacaspati argues in NVT 139, 6-7=RNA 38, 9-10: Excessive suspicion, if it is
given an opportunity beyond the limit of the world of knowledge, will move about at
liberty and will not be checked anywhere. Thus, one will not take action in any matter
(nayam kvacit pravarteta) , for all things may be somehow thrown into doubt. See also
NVT 139, 21-140,1: tu vina vahnim anupalambhad, upadhibhedasya cadrsyama-
nasya kalpanayam pramafJabhavad, ca samsayasyanupalabdhapiirve anutpa-
dad, utpade catiprasangat sambandho'vadharyate. Ra-
tnakirti replies to this (RNA 43, 2-3) : na ca pramafJad artha-
samsayac ca pravrtter
275. Replying to Buddhist logicians, Vacaspati argues that karyatva is a probans
only because it is related to its probandum by svabhavikasambandha (d. n. 270 above).
Buddhist logicians, criticising this theory, argues (NVT 139, 11-14 =RNA 41, 29-31=
RNA 100, 16-18): If one thing is connected by svabhavikasambandha with another which
is not the former's cause, it would follow that everything is by nature
connected with any other; and everything would be inferred from everything. Or on the
contrary, if one thing is connected with another because the former is an effect of the latter,
why is everything not an effect of any other, since all things are similar in their in-
dividuality (anyatva). Thus, if (Le. svabhavikasambandhaJ necessarily entails the fault
of over-application (atiprasanga). To this Vacaspapti replies: na parya-
tasmad pi kithcid eva karafJam karyam ca kimcid. It is this passage
that appears in our text 42, 2-5 in a slightly different form. ascribes it to
Trilocana.
-102-
any other]".
(42.5) This is untenabl&76. Is sviibhiivikasambandha established by a
proof (pramii1Ja) so that your assertion may be correct, just as the causal
relation that a thing called smoke is dependent on fire is established through
a proof? Again, what is the meaning of sviibhiivikasambandha? There
may be three alternative interpretations (of the word] : 1) self-born (svato
bhutalJ) ; 2) Born out of its cause (svahetor bhutalJ); 3) Born without
causes (ahetuka). Among them. however, the first alternative is un-
reasonable, because it is incongruent that a thing acts upon itself. Nor
is the second tenable. because (by asserting it,] you would come to ac-
cept the causal relation (tadutpattisambandha) (which the Buddhist holds].
If the third is maintained, the theory of sviibhiivikasambandha would be
extremely irrationaP77, as it is not detennined in place, time, and nature.
(42.12) Again, a vyiipti is not established
278
by the mere existence of
an example be it that in agreement or in difference, because
othewise such a relationship would be recognized even between a camel and
an ass which happen to be together by accident. Therefore, an instance
which is called a corroborative example is applied to a probans in order
to recall the proof establishing the necessary relation (of two things],
which, once cognized, has been forgotten ; but you cannot take up a case
of mere accidental proximity (svasainnidhimiitra) (as a corroborative ex-
ample]. For, returning to 'ether' (which is the instance in difference of
your syllogism], it is not known in this case that the absence of the
probans (i. e. 'not being an effect'] is necessitated by the absence of the
probandum (i. e. 'not having an intelligent agent as cause'] because we
find in ether not only the absence of an intelligent agent but also the
276. In NVT 139, 15-16 as well as RNA 43, 5-6, the reply of Vacaspati cited above
is criticised: You cannot say that the essential nature of a thing is not to be questioned.
For the same indisputableness of the nature of a thing (Read svabhiiviinanuyogo) could be
maintained even when things other than effects and causes are supposed to be connected
by nature.... Ratnakirti continues his criticism and comes to say (43, 16-20): kim ca
sviibhiivikasambandha iti kim svato svahetuto bhuto, ahetuko veti
na tiivad sviitmani kiiritravirodhiit. tu tadutpattir eva
sambandho mukhiintarer:a sVikrta iti na kascid ahetukatve tu
miibhiivaprasangiid ity sViibhiivikal] sambandhal].
277. asangal] in M is a misprint for asangatalJ.
278. Read vyiipter asiddhilJ instead of vyiiptisiddhil] in M, according to T (khyab pa
grub pa ma yin te) and G.
-103-
absence of a not-intelligent cause
279
What is the thing which necessitates
by its own absence the absence of teffect-ness'? This is the question to
be solved in order to establish the negative vyiipti (vyatireka) , viz., the
absence of the probans necessitated by the absence of the probandum.
[But it is not known from your example.] You may contend: oWe
se&80 the positive vyiipti between effect-ness and an intelligent agent in
the case of a jar ; and this makes us know that in the case of ether too
the absence of effect-ness is due to the absence of an intelligent agent
alone" . But this is not tenable. For the relation between the two [i. e.
teffect' and tintelligent agent'], be it that of identity (tiidiitmya) , or
causality (tadutpatti) or of intrinsic nature (sviibhiivika) , has not yet
been established by a proof beforehand
281

20.2.2. Vyatireka cannot be established by mere non-perception.

(43.5) Furthermore, a negative vyiipti is not established only by non-
Perception (adarsanamiitra). For, by saYing that h is not cognized in
the vipak$a, we mean the absence of the knowledge cognizing it [i. e. h
in the vipak$a]. And a cognition is the effect of its object, since there
is a universal rule that what is not a cause is not an object of cognition.
However, we cannot infer the absence of a cause from the absence of its
effect, since fire without smoke can [sometimes] be perceived. Your
argument [that there is no object when there is no cognition] may be
valid if the presence of an object were PerVaded by the presence of its
cognition; but this vyiipti is an utter impossibility, because, otherwise, it
would follow that everyone is omniscient (sarvadarszn). Thus, the negative
vyiipti cannot be proved only by non-Perception. In this connection the
following is said :
Non-Perception of [h in] all the sapak$a means the uncertainty [of
the vyiipti] ; non-Perception of [h in] one member of the sapak$a alone
[when h is seen in others of the sapak$a] means a deviation [from the
vyiipti] ;
For even a seed that is covered by soil or submerged in water is
279. M acetanasya kiirat}asya nivrttir nasty eva makes no sense here. G and T (sems pa
med rgyu yan ldog pa yod pa kho na ste) agree to the reading nivrttir asty eva.
280. T rjes su ba ma mthon ba las (anvayiidarsaniid) ... ma must be omitted. G 24,
4-5 must be read according to the footnote l.
281. G pramiinato na prasiidhita ity uktam. T agrees with M.
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apparently seen to be absent
282
.
20.2.3. Viicaspatimisra's objection refuted. (43.15) Vacaspatimisra
said: "Doubt is [wavering knowledge] in which the memory of the
details [of an object] is lacking. Therefore, it is customary to doubt
when we see an object, [but not when we do not see an object at all.]"283
To this we reply: That principle is not universally applicable. We
will argue, however" having hypothetically admitted it. 284Seen from your
point of view, tcognizability' (prameyatva), tsmokiness' (dhumatva) and
'being an effect' (kiiryatva) are all of the same kind, inasmuch as they
all have the common quality of tbeing deprived of the relations of identity
(tiidiitmya) and causality (tadutpatti), [since you do not accept these
two relations]. Among these, prameyatva has been shown to have the
fault of deviation; and this makes us throw doubt upon the other two.
Thus it is that we doubt what we see
285
.
(44.3) Thus, [the Naiyayika's syllogism for proving the existence of
282. Our author follows RNA 38. 19-26: tad etat pralapamatram. na hi mahatdpi
prayatnena mrgyama1Jasya hetor adarsanamatre1Ja vyatirekal] sidhyati. tatha hi
hetur nopalabhyata ity anena tadupalambhakaprama1Janivrttir ucyate. prama1Jath ca
prameyasya karyam. ndkara1Jam Ii nyayat. na ca karyanivrttau kara1Janivrttir upalab-
dha. nirdhumasydp vahner upalambhat. yadi punal] prama1Jasattaya prameyasatta vyapta
syat tada yuktam etat. kevalam iyam eva vyaptir asambhavini, sarvasya sarvadarsitvaprasangat.
tan nddarsanamatre1Ja vyatirekasiddhil]. yathoktam: sarvadn!is ca sathdigdha
vyabhicari1Ji .. vindhyadrirandhradurvader api sattvatal]. The last half of the verse at
the end (Because rocks. h()les. Durb grass. and so forth on the Vindhya range of hills
are really existent though not seen (from a distant place)) differs from that in M. where
it reads: bhujalantargatasyapi bijasydsattvadarsanat. T sbyan (p. rjan) gi nan du son pal]i
sa bon yan yodpa fiid du mthon bal]i phyir ro. Yod should be read med if Skt. is to be
followed. sbyan =washed off? r jan=rdsan rna = store room. G reads khalavila (granary
pit) for bhujala-.
283. This co.ntention of Vacaspati is often quoted by Ratnaklrti. See. for instance.
RNA 38. 11-13: 100. 10-12: tasmat prama1Jikalokayatram anupalayata yathadarsanam eva
sankaniyam. na tv api. hi samsayo nasmrter bhavati. na ca
smrtir ananubhutacare bhavati (ct. n. 273 above). See also NS 1.1.23 : samananekadharma- .
papatter vipratipatter upalabdhyanupalabdhyavyavasthatas ca visefapekfo vimarsal] samsayal].
284. M tatha hi (karyatvadhumatvayol]) tadatmatadupattisambandhaviyogitvena sadha-
ra1}ena dharme1}a prameyatvadhumatvakaryatvadinam tanmatenapi sajatiyatvam. The bracket-
ed words are not found in G. T and are certainly redundant. G -tyagena for viyogitvena;
T agrees with M. G sadhara1}adharme1}a for sadhara1}ena dharme1}a. G. M tanmatena. but
T and RNA (n. 285) have tvanmatena.
285. RNA 39. 7-10: evam ca sati tadatmyatadutpattilakfa1Japratibandhaviyogitvena sa-
dhara1}ena dharmet}a prameyatvadhumatvakaryatvadinam tvanmatena sajatiyatvat prameyatva-
vyabhicaradarSanam eva sankam upasthapayatiti yathadarsanam evedam asankitam.
-105-
God] cannot escape the criticism that the probans has the fallacy of
saindigdhavipak$avyiivritikatva (h's exclusion from the vipak$a being
doubted) ; and this is a valid confutation (saddu$a1Ja). He [VacasPati]
however, objected: HOur probans is not fallacious, and is not to be refuted.
By pointing out [a fallacy in it], you have fallen into a position of defeat
(nigrahasthiina) called tblaming what is not fallacious' (ado$odbhiivana)"286.
But, contending in this way, the disputant [VacasPati] has been con-
tradicted by his own doctrine of a position of defeat called trefuting what
should not be refuted' (niranuyojyiinuyoga) 287. We should not Pay any
more attention to this pitiable person (deviiniiin priyalJ)288.
20.2.4. The problem of solipsism discussed.
289
(44.9) The objection
286. G T skyon ma yin pa brjod pa seems to agree with M.
287. NS 5, 2, 22 : anigrahasthiine nigrahasthiiniibhiyogo
288. RNA 39, 13ff. : tad evam ' darSanamiitret}a hetor samdigdha-
niima durviiram eva. ata evasyopanyiiso'
niima nigrahasthiinam iti yad anenaveditam tad api siivadyam. pratyutasmin hetau
parihartavye nayam na parihartavyo ' sya copanyiiso ' niima ni-
grahasthiinam iti bruvann ayam eva tapasvi svamatena nigra-
hasthiinena nigrhyata iti krPiim arhati.
289. 20.2.4 is entirely lacking in G and partially preserved in M, in which the
meaning is not very clear: only T has maintained the whole section. Whether the exist-
ence of the minds of other persons can be inferred or not is a vexed problem in Buddhist
philosophy, since the radical idealism of the VijiHinavadin easily leads to solipsism, while
the Sautrantika as biihyiirthaviidin used to criticise the former for solipsism. However,
the Vijffanavadin does not always hold solipsism. In fact, he recognizes the existence of
other people's minds in the sense of samvrtisatya, Le. he thinks that the existence of
other persons' minds as representations of one's own mind is established in the domain of
logic; but in his epistemology, which is a radical empiricism, he says that all things are
representations of one's own mind, and that therefore the existence of another personality
independent of one's own cannot be proved in the sense of paramiirtha. Thus, it is often
found that one and the same Vijffanavadin proves sometimes the existence of samtiiniintara
and another time disproves it. Ratnakirti wrote in which he demol-
ished the opponent's inference of other people's minds from the standpoint of paramiirtha;
but in his in which he argues from the standpoint of the Sautrantika
or the samvrtisatya of the Vijffanavada, he says that the inference of the existence of
samtiiniintara is logically valid, whereas the inference of the existence of God is not.
Regarding this double attitude toward the problem, see Introduction to my paper 'Bud-
dhist solipsism -a free translation of Ratnakirti's (IBK Vol. XIII, no.
1, pp. 9-24). In the Tibetan version of 20.2.4 follows Ratnakirti as asserting
that samtiiniintara exists.
argument found in T is merely a digest of Ratnakirti's discussion and
can be reconstructed by the light of the latter's passages in RNA. The Tibetan is once
restored into Skt. by Iyengar in M Appendix III. But we can better it, now that RNA is
published, The following are Tibetan text and a Skt. reconstruction. The fragments
-106-
may be raised: "If vyapti-since it is grasped by direct perception and
non-perception -were a relation which holds between universals related as
cause and effect only when both are perceptible, as in the example of the
universals 'smoke' and 'fire', then one could not infer the existence of
other personalities, since the mind of another person, being invisible by
in M are retained so far as they are identical with T. My tr. is based on T in principle.
Tibetan: 1}o na b/tar run me dan du ba spyi dag gi bzin du bltar (p. n. /tar) run
ba1}i bdag nid kho na1}i 1}bras bu dan rgyu spyi dag nid kyi khyab pa mnon sum (dan)
(Read so instead of gyis) mi (d. ni) dmigs pa las yin na de1}i tshe gzan gyis (n. gyis)
sems rjes su dpag pa nams teo gzan gyi sems ni bltar mi run ba nid kyis khyab pa IJdsin
pa1}i dus na nan du 1}dus pa ma yin pa1}i phyir ro ze na ma yin te. gan gi phyir ran
rig pa ni der khyab pa pa po ste. ran dan gzan gyi rgyud du son ba1}i ran rig pa
tsam la bltos (d. ltos) pas na. gzan gyi sems kyan bltar run ba tsam nid kyi phyir ro. yan
na bltar run ba1}i Ius dan dbyer med par IJjug pa nid kyi phyir gzan gyi sems kyan bltar
run ba nid do. de ltar tha snad byed pa ni gan gis 1}di yan bltar run bar 1}gyur ba dban
po1}i mnon sum tsam gyi blo de ldan pa tsam mam. dsiitha-ra tsi-tra la sogs pa thun mon
palJi me tsam spyod yul du rigs pa yan ma yin teo de1}i phyir bltar run ba kho nalJi mes du
ba la khyab pa grub po zes gnas so. ran dan gzan gyi rgyud la thun mon pa bltar mi
run ba1}i sems tsam gyis mnon sum gyis bltar run ba g' yo ba la sags pa la khyab pa 1}dsin
pa (p. inserts mi byed pa) mi rigs pa1}i phyir ro kyan brjod par (mi) (Inserted by the
translator) phyi rol gyi (n. gyis) don gnas pa la ni. ran dan (n. dban) gzan gyi
rgyud thun man palJi sems tsam ni ran gi no bas bltar mi run ba nid na yan. bltar run
ba1}i Ius dan lhan cig tshogs pa gcig pas 1}brel pa1}i phyir ro. rnam par dbyer med par
1}jug pa1}i ran dan gzan gyi rgyud thun mon sems tsam ni g'yo ba la sogs pa1}i khyab
(p. n. d. khyad) par byed pa rtogs so. de ltar bltar run balJi bdag nid dam bltar run ba dan
rnam par dbyer (d. dbye ba) med par 1}jug palJi dnos po gnis ni tha snad palJi sin tu gsal
ba1}i mnon sum las grub pa dan khyab pa 1}dsin pa yan ste. de lta bu nid med par byas
(P. n. d. ma byas) pa dan ldan pa (bltar) (Inserted by the translator) mi run ba dan thun
mon palJi sems tsam gyis ni ma yin no zes pa rgyud (p. rgyu) gzan rjes su dpag par rigs
so. delJi phyir gal te mnon sum dan mi dmigs pa dag gis khyab pa 1}dsin pa de1}i tshe
bltar run ba kho nas bltar run ba la1}o zes rigs pa1}o. (Td 355. b-356a; p 384a-b ; n 397b)
Sanskit restoration: nanu yadi drsyiignidhumasiimiinyayor iva drsYiitmanor eva kiirya.
kiira1JasiimiinyayolJ vyiiptis. tadii smhtiiniintariinumiinam na syiit (T
lit. paracittasyadrsYiitmakatayii vyiiptigraha1Jakiile' nantarbhiiviid iti
cen na. svasamvedanam hi tatra vyiiptigriihakam. svaparasamtiinagatasvasmvedanamiitriipe-
paracittasyapi drsyatviit. atha drsyasarire1Ja sahdvinirbhiigavartitviid paracittasyapi
drsyatvam. na "caivam buddhimanmiitram jatharacitra-
siidhiira1Jam vahnimiitram vii gocare yujyate. yenasyapi drsyatii syiit .. tasmiid drsyenaiva vahninii
dhumasya vyiiptisiddhir iti sthitam.. svaparasamtiinasiidhiira1Jiidrsyacittamiitre1Ja
drsyacalaniider vyiiptigraha1Jam na yuktam" ity api viicyam. biihyiirthasthitau hi svaparasam-
tiinasiidhiira1Jasya cinmiitrasya svarupe1Jadrsyatve pi drsyasarire1Ja sahaikasiimagriprati-
bandhiid .. avinirbhiigavarti svaparasamtiinasiidhiira1Jam cinmiitram kampiider vyiipakam adhi-
gamyate. tad evam drsyiitmano drsyiivinirbhiigavartino vii padiirthadvayasya vyavahiirikapa-
siddhir vyiiptigrahas ca. na tu tathiitvaviniikrtiidrsyasiidhiira1Jacinmiitrasyeti
samtiiniintariinumiinam ucitam. tasmiid yadi vyiiptigrahas tadii
drsyenaiva drsyasyeti nyiiya1}. (Cf. RNA 40.3 f. b.-l f. b. ; 139,6-9 ; 138,8 f.b.-4 ; 40, If.b-41.7).
-107-
nature, is not comprised (in the situation] at the time when the vyapti is
(said to be] grasped".
But this is not acceptable, for in this situation self-consciousness is
the factor which brings about the knowledge of the vyiipti ; because, on
the basis of self-consciousness in general, located in one's own and in
another's Personality, the mind of another Person is (in this senseJ visible.
Or alternatively, the mind of another Person is 'visible' because it always
occurs in conjunction with a visible body.
Nor is the following objection tenable: Ulf this were so, an intelligent
being in general, or fire in general common to the fire of digestion or of
a picture, would properly come within the range of normal sensory Percep-
tion in general, so as to be visible; (and this is obviously not soJ. There-
fore, vyiipti is established only between visible fire and smoke, and it is
not valid to assert by direct Perception a vyiipti between the motions (of
a bodyJ which are visible and non-visible minds common to one's own
Personality and the Personalities of others, (since this rests on an illicit
extrapolation from data visible to sense-perceptionJ".
(This argument is not correct] because, although a mind in general
common to one's own Personality and the personalities of others is by
nature invisible, it is related to a visible body so as to form a single
unity, so far as we admit the existence of the external object. And such
a mind in general as occurs inseparably (with a visible external objectJ,
though common to one's own Personality and the Personalities of others,
is known to be the Pervader of the motions (of a body]. Thus, two
objects, when they are by nature visible or occur inseParably with a visible
thing, are established by clear normal perception; and the vyiipti between
them is also grasped. But this does not hold good when a mind in
general common even to invisible persons is concerned, since it is deprived
of the said relation (to a visible body]. After all, therefore, another
Personality can be inferred. It is in this sense that the rule is set forth
that a vyiipti, when it is grasped by direct Perception and non-wrception,
holds good only between two visible things.
20.2.5. Other fallacies of the proof of God are pointed out. (45.1)
Again, if your reasoning is aimed at proving that (an effectJ presupposes
(as its cause] an intelligent being in general, the proof is to be criticised
for asserting the obvious (siddhasiidhanatii). [For we admit that all ef-
-108-
fects are produced by actions" which are caused by the mind.]
Alternatively if the precedent existence of the intelligent agent who
is qualified by uniqueness" permanence" omniscience and other qualities" is
to be proved" the vyiipti between the probans 'effect' and the probandum
'[the intelligent agent] qualified by such special qualities' cannot be es-
tablished in the locus of your corroborative instance [e. g. a jar] by
means of any valid cognition" [for a potter is not omniscient etc.]. Thus"
your reasoning is inconclusive (anaikiintikatva)290.
C45.5) You may contend: "We grasp the vyiipti [between hand s]
referring to [an intelligent being] in general" and then prove the existence
of [the intelligent being qualified by] the particular qualities on the basis of
h [effect] being found in p [trees" earth etc.] Cpak!}adharmatii)." But
this is not allowed. You may establish by virtue of pak!}adharmatii the
specific qualities belonging to s only when h does not fail to occur in p
together with the qualities. For example" from smoke is inferred a general
quality of fire" 'its occurrence on a mountain'291. but not particular qualities
[of fire] such as 'being caused by grass' . For we see smoke [caused by the
leaves of trees]292 on a mountain" even if there is no grass. Likewise" if
you mean the existence of an intelligent being with a physical body" let it
be proved ; but not his omniscience which is absolutely not the case. An
effect can be produced without an omniscient being
293
.
290. RNA 30, 15-16 : nanu buddhimatpurvakatve siidhye siddhasiidhanam, abhimatam hi
api karmajatvam kiiryajiitasya, karmat}as ca cetaniitmakatviit cetaniihetukatviid vii ;
taddhetukatvam ca At the beginning of his Ratnakirti pro-
fusely cites arguments from the Nyiiyakat}ikii; for the passage which concerns us now see
NKan 212, 14ff. discussion in 20.2.5 which is closely related to RNA has
much to do with NKan too. See also RNA 30, 16-17 : sarvajnapurvakatve tu siidhyavyii-
svapne' pi nopalabdhii, dntiintas ca kuliiliidiniim asarvajnatviit.; 49, 14ff. :
yad etat kiiryatvam siidhanam kim anena visvasya buddhimanmiitrapurvakatvam siidhyate,
iiho svid prathama-
siddhasiidhanam, dvittye tu vyiipter abhiiviid anaikiintikatii.
291. M parvataddavrttitva, but G parvataikadesavrttitva and T (n, p) dper na du ba
las du phyogs su pa nid kyi me bzin no (=dhumiid dhumadesavrttitvasya.... Tp
has la instead of las du but it is misleading.
292. M tiirt}atiim antaret}dpi parvate dhumadarsaniit ; G ... api piirt}atve dhumasya sam-
bhaviit ; T sin gi 10 ma las byun ba nid las.
293. This paragraph is an abbreviation of RNA 30, 22-31,5 which consists of cita-
tions from NKan (siimiinyamiitravyiip/iiv apy antarbhiivitavisefasya siimiinyasya
tiivasena siidhyadharmi1JY anumiiniid anumiinam bhavaty eva ... and The Bud-
dhist reply to it). See also RNA 49, 17ff. : nanu siimiinyena vyiiptau pratitiiyiim api pakfa.
dharmatiibaliid ... and Ratnakirti's reply to it.
-109-
(45.13) Onmiscience cannot be proved even by (supposing the agenes]
being perfectly conversant with (the nature,J materials, (auxiliary causes,
recipients, objects to be given etc. of the worldJ (upiidaniidyabhijnatva)294.
It might be proved if the uniqueness [of the intelligent beingJ were before-
hand established, which is, however, not the case
295
. For teffect' is made
possible even by the tprevious existence of plural agents' as e. g. an ant-
hill is made by a number of insects. If you mean by the probandum
that an ant-hill also presupposes the supervision of God, then how can
you set forth as the corroborative instance a jar, which according to you
would also presuppose the unique, omniscient God (and which would be
a Part of PJ? Or else, how can you deprive a potter of his agent-ness
which is actually experienced? How again can you remove the cause-ness
of the insects which is also well known? You may not assume that if
there are many agents there would be differences of opinion [which
may hinder producing an effectJ, just because we actually see (an ant-hill
being made by many insectsJ296.
(46.1)297Therefore, it is settled that the universal vyiipti between the
probans and the probandum must be shown in reference to the locus of
the corroborative instance through the means of valid knowledge. 297
(46.3) 298Moreover, when the probandum is the intelligent being
who is permanent. unique and omniscient, your [probansJ is incompatible
(viruddha). For 'effect' is actually pervaded by thaving intelligent agents
who are impermanent, plural and of imperfect knowledge.' The kind of
probans proving that which is incompatible with the probandum is called
'incompatible hetu' ; and your probans proves what is incompatible with
the probandum. 298
(46.6) 299 So much for our treatise demonstrating the criticisms of
294. RNA 49, 28 ff. (Opponent:) yadyevam svasvarupopiidiinopakara1}asampradiinapra-
yojaniibhijna eva kartii siidhyate, svarupam iha ca dvya1}ukam kiiryam,. upiidiinam iha para-
upakara1}am sampradiinam
yiin ayam bhagaviin svakarmabhir abhipraiti,. prayojanam
evambhute buddhimati siidhye siddhasiidhanam, na .... Ratnakirti's
reply follows in 50, 19 ff. See also RNA 29, 8-9; NKan 210, and Vacaspati's syllogism
in n. 258 above.
295. RNA 51, 10 : ekakartur na siddhau tu sarvajnatvam kimiisrayam.
296. RNA 32, 23-25 : ekasya kartur abhiive bahuniim vyiihatamanasiim sViitantre1}a paras-
paravirodhena sviinukuliibhipriiyiinavarodhena utpannasya vii
syiid iti. ekatve tu siddhe sarvajnatiisiddhir avirodhini.
297. 298, 299. G has 298 before 297 and omits 299. T agrees with M.
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God which had incidentally become a topic. 299
21. Relation of anvaya and vyatireka. (46.8) (Objection: J HIn the
syllogism by the method of agreement the anvaya alone is stated, but not
the vyatireka ; and in the syllogism by the method of difference the vya-
tireka alone is stated, but not the anvaya. How then can you say that
the three characteristics of the probans are stated by (each of] these two
syllogisms ?"
(Answer : J This is not a fault. For even when a syllogism is for-
mulated by the method of agreement, the vyatireka is also understood by
implication. And on the other hand, if the vyatireka is not grasped, the
error (viparyaya) must be pointed out by supposing that the probans is
not absent even when the probandum is absent. If so, even the anvaya
would be invalid, because it is implied that the probandum is not present
even when the probans is present. In the same way, when a syllogism
is formulated by the method of difference the anvaya is also understood
by implication. For if the anvaya is not grasPed in this case, the error
must be pointed out by supposing that the probandum may not be present
even when the probans is; and this renders even the vyatireka invalid,
since it is implied that the probans is present even in the absence of the
probandum. Thus both the syllogisms m.anifest in effect the three charac-
teristics of the probans ; and there is no fault (in our theoryJ300
22. Antarvyiipti and bahirvyiipti. (47.1) Now, the following sum-
mary is given in order to make two problems easily understood: In what
locus is vyiipti between h (siidhana) and s (siidhya) grasped? By what
proof is it grasped ?
Regarding the vyiipti between 'existence' (sativa), h as essential nature
(svabhiivahetu) , and 'momentariness' (k$a1Jikatva) some logicians are of
the opinion that it is to be grasPed in P (siidhyadharmin) itself; they
maintain the theory of intrinsic Pervasion (antarvyiipti)301.
300. This problem is discussed in NB III s. 28-32 and NBT. (NBT 51, 1-2): nanu
ca siidharmyavati vyatireko vaidharmyavati tat katham etat tririipalingii-
khyiinam ity iiha. (NB III, s. 28) siidharmyet}api hi prayoge'rthiid tathii
vaidharmyet}apy (s. 31) asati tasmin Siidhyiibhiive .
301. So far as I know, Ratnakarasanti is the only Buddhist logician who openly pro-
pounded the theory of intrinsic determination of universal concomitance (antarviiptiviida).
He wrote the AntarvYiiptisamarthana (SBNT 103-114), maintaining that the vyiipti be-
tween 'existence' and 'momentariness' is grasped in p itself by means of viparyaya-biidha-
kapramiit}a (d. 24.1). He discarded the necessity of a corroborative example and said
-111-
Others hold that the same vyiipti is to be grasped in dp (dr$tiinta-
dharmin), say, ajar, by means of reasoning to an undesired conclusion
CPrasanga) and its reduction into a normal syllogism (prasangaviparyaya) ;
they maintain the theory of extrinsic pervasion (bahirvyiipti)302.
As for hetus as essential nature other than that of I existence' , hetus
as effect and hetus as non-cognition, the vyiipti is to be grasped in d.
[To be more precise] the vyiipti between lasoka tree' and its pro-
bandum Ito be called a tree' is grasped in reference to a corroborative
instance by means of perception and non-perception (pratyak$iinupalambha) ;
the vyiipti between I existence' and I momentariness' is grasped by two
proofs, prasanga and prasangaviparyaya, or by the proof which refutes
the opposite of the assertion to be proved and which is aimed at exclud-
ing successive and simultaneous action [the pervader of effective action
or existence] from [what is not momentary, i. e. the permanent] (siidhya-
viparyayabiidhakapramii1}ena kramayaugapadyanivrttilak$a1}ena)33. This
vipak$a taken as the locus [of the siidhyaviparyayabiidhakapramii1Ja, i.
e. what is not momentary] is not definite as to its reality, and is regarded
as real when considered to be established by self-consciousness and as
unreal when considered to be just imaginary304.
that asiidhiirafJiinaikiintika, which necessarily follows in such an inference is not a hetviibhiisa
for clever persons who do not rely on external examples for determining vyiipi. Mookerijee
gives an excellent exposition of the theory, see 24 ff. My Japanese translation of the
Antarvyiiptisamarthana is available in Bukky6 Shigaku, Vol. VIII, no. 4, 219-238
. (:1 r -r -;/J:1 '/-\' -:/7'" {
302. Buddhist logicians in general maintain bahirvyiiptiviida; at the later stage of
Buddhist logic JiHinasrimitra and Ratnakirti asserted it in contrast to antarvyiiptiviida
held by Ratnakarasanti. The former two logicians recognized the necessity of a corrobo-
rative example even in the inference of the Buddhist theory of universal momentariness,
though they are not so far from Ratnakarasanti inasmuch as they also rely on viParyaya-
biidhakapramiifJa when determining the vyiipti between existence and momentariness. See
HHinasrimitra, Ratnakirti's digest of it, of which a
detailed exposition is supplied by Mookerjee, 1-83. prasanga, Pra<;angaviparyaya, and viparya-
yabiidhakapramiifJa are illustrated in 24. 1, where our author again follows Ratnakirti.
303. See 24. 1.
304. The p of the viParyayabiidhakaPramiifJa formulated by Buddhist logicians (cf.
24. 1), viz. 'the permanent', is not real for Buddhists. Thus, the inference necessarily
contains the fallacy of asiddhi. The Naiyayika vehemently attacked this point and Ratna-
kirti in RNA 78 ff. tries to prove that even the idea of 'the permanent' has a kind of real-
ity and can be put forward as the subject of a proposition. The discussion is interpreted
in Mookerjee 24 ff. See also my paper :1 r j-::f- -
264-270.) But our author here seems to refer also to the theory of the
Siikiiravijiiiinaviidi yogiiciiri who admits that every content of self-consciousness is real.
-112--
The vyiipti between h as effect, and is grasped in a
dp such as a kitchen ; and it is grasped by means of threefold cognition
consisting of perception and
[according to some], or by fivefold cognition consisting of perception and
[according to others]305.
The vyiipti between be called non-existent' is
grasped by the perception [of things other than the denied object].
As for other cases, be they h as essential nature or as effect, we should
grasp the vyiipti by making appropriate deductions according to the nature
of a case.
23. Untrue vyapti effects the fallacy of anaikintikatva. (47.19)
When vyiipti is not definite, the probans has the fallacy of inconclusiveness.
And this [inconclusive probans] is threefold: inconclusive due to h being
subsistent only in p (asiidhiira1}iinaikiintika); inconclusive due to h being
non-exclusive (siidhiira1}iinaikiintika); inconclusive due to h's non-occur-
rence in the being doubtful Of
these, an asiidhiiraniinaikiintika [-hetu] is illustrated: [This] living body
305. In the Buddhist logic, causality (kiiryakiirartabhiiva) , which together with iden-
tity (svabhiiva) forms the two principles of valid pervasion (vyiiPti) between the probans
and the probandum, is said to be inductively understood through positive and negative
perception here means the observation of the
concomitance in agreement, as well as in difference, of a cause and an effect. The theory
was first propounded by Dharmakirti and was maintained throughout the subsequent
development of Indian Buddhist logic. However, Dharmakirti did not definitely prescribe
how many times cognitions are required as indispensable for determining a causal relation.
Hence, the logicians following him came to hold different opinions on this point. The
causal relation of fire and smoke, for instance, can be ascertained if we observe that
smoke, which has not been there, occurs when fire has appeared, and that when the fire
has gone, the smoke disappears as well. In this illustration we can count one prior non-
perception of smoke, two successive perceptions (fire and smoke), and two successive
perceptions (no fire and no smoke). Thus, some of Buddhist logicians, such as Dhar-
mottara, asserted that all five of these cognitions are indispensable. Others such as JiHinasri.
mitra, however, thought that either 1) one prior non-perception of fire and smoke as a
unit, followed by two successive perceptions, or 2) one perception grasping fire and smoke
together and followed by two sucessive non-perceptions can severally determine a causal
relation without requiring all five, for either group contains in itself both perception and
non-perception which respectively prove the concomitance in agreement and that in differ-
ence. Thus, in this theory the number of indispensable cognitions is reduced to three.
I discussed the history of this problem in detail with an English translation of JiUinasri-
mitra's Kiiryakiirartabhiivasiddhi in my paper 'Trikapancakacinta, Development of the
Buddhist theory on the determination of causality', MIK Nos. 4-5. 1-15.
306. See 10; 10. 2. 4 with notes.
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is endowed with a soul, because it has breathing and other characteristics
like another living body and unlike ajar. We are not certain if this pro-
bans [breath] is pervaded by a soul in the case of another living body;
and we are also not certain if in the case of a vipak$a, jar, breathing is
not found exactly because it has no soul; however, it is somehow found
in p, this living body. For these reasons, it is called an exclusive,
inconclusive hetu
307
Another illustration of asiidhiirana : Sound is imPer-
manent because it is audible like a jar and unlike ether [where a homo-
logous example is not available, since a jar is not audible]. Siidhiira-
1Jiinaikiintika [-hetu] is illustrated
30B
: Sound is Permanent, because it is
an object of cognition like a jar and unlike ether. Saindigdhavipak$avyiivr-
ttika [ -hetu] is illustrated: He must be black, because he is a son of
that man as other sons of that man who are actually seen.
24. Prasanga defined. (48.11) We have said before that the vyiipti
between 'existence' and 'momentariness' is to be understood by prasanga
and prasangaviparyaya. What is here meant by prasanga ? Prasanga
is reasoning for bringing out an absurd conclusion which is undesirable to
the opponent by means of a statement based on a vyiipti established by
proof CPramii1Japrasiddhavyiiptikena viikyena parasyani$fiipiidaniiya pra-
sanjanam prasangal})309.
24.1. Illustrations of prasanga, prasangaviparyaya, and sadhyavipar-
307. The illustration is borrowed from NB III, s. 99 : yathii siitmakam jivacchariram
PriifJiidimattviid iti. does not give a detailed explanation of the fallacy, which is
discussed by Dharmakirti and Dharmottara in NB III, s. 100-107. About the history of
this proof of iitman, see Stcherbatsky's note i in II, 208.
308. Read yathii instead of kathii.
309. After this, T has the passage illustrating Prasanga, prasangaviParyaya, and
siidhyaviParyayabiidhakaPramiifJa, which are taken evidently from the of
Ratnakirti. R Iyengar gave his Skt. restoration of this part of the Tibetan text (M 92-
93). His restoration is quite good except at a few places. I present here the Tibtan text
and my Skt. translation in which I tried to make Prof. Iyengar's restoration more faithful
to the Tibetan.
T (d. 358, a2-35S3, bI) : dPer na grub (Read bum paJ la sogs pa rnams pa dan ma
dus dag na no bo gcig Pa ftid du khas len Pa la, pa dan ma dus su
don bya ba byed pa ftid du thaI bar byed pa lta bu ste. de !tar ni, gan gan
gi tshe gan bya bar nus pa de ni tshe (deJ byed Pa kho na ste,. dPer na rgyu tshogs pa
thams cad (p. omits cadJ ran gi bu bzin,. bum pa yan pa dan ma
dus kyi dnos (p. po don bya ba da ltar gyi dus su byed par nus pa yin no zes Pa
ran bzin gtan tshigs llyi thaI bar IJgyur balJo. byed pa yan ma yin no zes Pa bzlog gan
zig gan (d. omits ganJ gi tshe gan mi byed pa de ni tshe de la nus Pa ma yin te, dper
na myu gu mi byed PalJi kO-fa-Pas salJa-li myu gu la bzin ,. bum Pa IJdi yan Pa
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yayabiidhakapramaJ:.1a. (Td. 358, a 2) For example, if a jar [at the
present moment) were admitted to maintain one and the same nature that
subsisted in the Past and will continue to do so in the future, then we
could point out [the absurdity] that it is [at the present moment] capable
of producing the effects belonging to the Past and future [moments of
dan ma dus kyi dnos don bya ba (d. adds dan) da /tar gyi dus su mi byed do
zes Pa (p. 387a) khyab Par byed Pa mi dmigs Pa las nus Pa med skad cig
pa ni go zes Pa thai bar ba dan thai ba las bzlog tshad ma dag gis yod pa
iiid la skad cig Pa iiid kyi(-s) khyab pa po. bsgrub par bya ba las bzlog pa (p. la)
gnod pa can gyi tshad mas sam zes bSad pa de brjod par bya ste. gan zig rim gyis
bu byed Pa iiid dan rim Pa ma yin par bu byed Pa iiid du yod Pa ma yin pa de ni don
bya ba nus pa ma yin te, dPer na nam pa-dma bZin; skad cig ma yin par yan rim
gyis bu byed pa iiid dan, rim ma yin Par bu byed pa iiid dag yod pa ma yin no
zes pa khyab byed mi dmigs mtshan iiid can bzlog Pa la gnod Pa can gyi tshad mas,
skad cig ma yin pa iiid las khyabpa (p. omits pa) byed rim dan cig car bldog Pas ldog bzin
don bya ba byed pa iiid kyi mtshan iiid can yod Pa iiid ni skad cig pas nal ba med do
(Read skad cig pa la nal bal}oJ, (d, 358 bJ de nas skad cig pa iiid kyis khyab po zes yod pa
iiid la skad cig pa iiid kyis khyab Pa po zes
Sanskrit translation: yathii gha!iidiniim' svarupaikyiibhyuPagame
'tUiiniigatakiilabhiivyarthakriyiikiiritvaprasaiijanam. tathii hi, yad yadii yatkriyiisamartham
tat tadii (tat)2 karoty eva, yathii (antyiiJ3kiiratJasiimagri svakiiryam; atitiiniigatakiilabhiivi-
kiiryajananasamarthas cdyam gha!o vartamiinakiile 'piti
na karotiti ca yad yadii yan na karoti na tat tadii tatra samartham, yathii
siilyankuram akurvan siilyankure; na karoti gha!o vartamiinakiile' tUiinii-
gatakiilabhiivyarthakriyiim iti sambandhiid nivartata
iti
4
PrasangaPrasangaviParyayiibhyiim PramiitJiibhyiim sattvasya vyiiptis sidhyati.
siidhyaviParyayabiidhakaPramiitJena vety uktam tad ucyatiim. yat kramikiiryakiiryakrami-
kiiryakiiri ca na bhavati na tad arthakriyiisiimarthyam, yathii vyomapadmam,' na vidyete
kramikiiryakiiritviikramikiiryakiiritve iti
6'" vyiiPakam kramayaugaPadyam vinivartyata iti vinivartya-
miinam (vyiiPyam) visriimyati,
vyiiPtam iti vyiiPtis sidhyatiti.
Notes: (1) grub pa la sogs pa rnam lit. means siddhiidiniim which Iyengar restores. But
siddha or prasiddha (things well known) is very unlikely though not absolutely impossible.
1 assume this is a mistake for bum Pa due to the orthographical similarity, though no
Tibetan ed. gives this reading. (2) T drops tat. Cf. RNA 63, 14-17 : yad yadii yaj janana-
vyavahiirayogyam tat tadii tat janayaty eva, yathdntyii kiiratJasiimagri svakiiryam; atUiinii-
cdyam gha!o vartamiinabhiivikiirykaratJakiile sa-
kalakriyiitikramakiile'piti (3) T omits antyii, which, however, is
very important in this context. (4) RNA 64, 8-11 : yad yadii yan na karoti na tat tadii
tatra samarthavyavahiirayogyam, yathii siilyankuram akurvan kodraval} siilyankure ; na karo-
ti gha(o sakalakriyiitikramakiile cdtUiiniigata-
kiiryam iti vyiiPakiinuPalabdhir bhinatti (5)
RNA 77, 11-12: yasya kramiikramau na vidyete na tasydrthakriyiisiimarthyam, yathii sasavi-
na vidyete kramiikramiiv iti vyiiPakiinupalambhal}. Iyengar: yat krami-
kiiryakiiri akramikiiryakiiri ca na bhavati na tad arthakriyiisamartham, yathii vyomapadmam ;
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the' jar]. For [it is inferred in the following way]310 :
Whatever is capable of a certain action at a certain time, does make
that [action] at that time, as e. g. the totality of cause and conditions
at its last moment is caPable of producing its own effect;
[According to the Naiyayika], this jar is caPable even at the present
moment of producing the effects belonging to the past and future time;
[Therefore, this jar should produce the effects of the past and future,
which is absurd].
This is a prasanga formulated with a logical mark of essential identity.
The CPrasanga-) viparyaya can be formulated by adopting "not producing'
[as h] :
Whatever does not produce a certain effect at a certain moment is
incaPable of producing that effect at that time as e. g. a grain seed
which cannot produce a rice-shoot is incaPable of producing a rice
[-shoot];
This jar does not produce at the present moment the effects belong-
ing to the past and future;
[Therefore, it is incapable of producing them, i. e. not permanent].
We have said that [the same vyaptt is proved] also by the sadhyaviparyaya-
badhakapramana. This is to be stated :
Whatever does not possess causal efficiency in succession or in simul-
taneity, is not capable of causal action as e. g. the sky-lotus;
What is not momentary does not possess causal efficiency in suc-
cession and in simultaneity;
[Therefore, it is not caPable of causal action, i. e. not existent].
kramikiiryakiiritvam anarthasya kiiryakiiritvam ca ndstiti. No word for anartha
is found in T. (6) T skad cig pas nal ba med do must be corrected into skad cig Pa la
nal bafJo. Otherwise, it is unintelligible. Cf. RNA 78, 8-9 : tad ayam vinivarta-
miinafJ svavyiipyam sattvam nivartya visriimayati. nal ba means vi-sram (d. J. Bacot,
Dictionnaire Tibetain-Sanskrit, s. v.), which the Tibetan translator misunderstood. Iyengar's
restoration avilambiit is not acceptable.
310. Prasanga, prasangaviParyaya and viparyayabiidhakaPramiir:a are used in order to
establish the vyiipti of another independent syllogism (svatantraPrayoga). In our present
context the independent inference concerned is : yat sat tat yathii gha!afJ;
santas cdmi viviidiispadibhiitiifJ PadiirthiifJ. Thus, the vyiipt to be proved by prasanga is :
whatever exists is momentary. We have to keep in mind that since Dharmakirti's time,
Buddhist logicians had defined 'existence' as 'being making effective action' (arthakriyii-
kiiritva). Hence, the concerned vyiiPti can be proved by refuting that the non-momentary
or permanent has no effective action; arthakriyiikiiritva is the pervader of sattva (existence).
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This is an inference sublating the opposite of the assertion to be proved
(siidhyaviparyayabiidhaka), fonnulated according to the fonnula of vyii-
pakiinupalabdhi. 311 Through this inference is excluded the pervader [of
(existence'], (succession and non-succession' from the non-momentary:
and so (existence' defined as (being causally efficient' (arthakriyiikiiritva),
[the pervaded], which is also excluded from the non-momentary, neces-
sarily rests with the momentary; therefore (existence' is pervaded by
(momentariness'. Thus, the vyiipti between (existence' and 'momentari-
ness' has been established.
24.2. (48.15) [Another example of prasanga is seen when] we deduce
the plurality of a universal, when it is admitted [by the opponent] that
a single universal (siimiinya) abides in many individuals. For the inference
is formulated as follows :
Whatever abides in many things (at the same time] must be plural,
as e. g. the fruits of the fan-Palm contained in many vessels;
A universal is said to abide in many;
(The absurdity that] follows is: Therefore, a universal must be plural.
[You have to admit this absurd conclusion], or if you do not admit it,
you may not assert the occurrence of a universal in many individuals.
24.3. Function of prasanga. (49.1) [objection:] ('This inference
called prasanga cannot be a valid means of proof since [h in this case}
does not possess the three characteristics [of the valid probans]312. How
can you argue by means of it ?"313 [Answer:] Prasanga is used in
the same way as one term of a vyiipti
314
is stated in order to recollect
311. For vyiiPakiinuPalabdhi see n. 212 and 216 above.
312. M nanu yady etat prasangiikhyam siidhanam pramii1Jam na bhavati trairiiPyiibhiiviit.
trairiiPyiibhiiviit omitted in G, T ; Prasangiikhyam siidhanam omitted in G.
313. In Indian logic the validity of hypothetical inference had long been disapproved both
by the Naiyayika and the earlier Buddhist school of logic. The three characteristics of a
logical mark are possible only of catergorical inference or what is called svatantriinumiina
(independent inference). In Prasanga-anumiina, which is hypothetical destructive inference,
h's subsistence in P is not real to one who formulates the Prasanga, and breaches the first
characteristic, which causes the fallacy of asiddhi. The conclusion deduced is evidently
false to one who infers, which is not allowed in the case of independent inference. The
Naiyayika, who called this form of inference tarka, classified it under false knowledge.
though they admitted its value as complementary means of an independent inference.
Later Buddhist logicians, however, came to recognize prasanga as a valid inference.
314. M vyiiPyaikadeSa., but G, T vyiip!yekadesa.
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the vyiipti itself. It is said [by DharmakirtiJ : 315
Prasanga may be applied to show that when two terms are neces-
sarily connected, the absence of one of them [viz., the absence of the
Pervader, necessarilyJ implies the absence of the other [the PervadedJ.
The meaning of this half-verse is as follows: When the universal con-
comitance between the Pervaded and the pervader is admitted, if the
Pervader is not recognized [in a certain locusJ, the existence of the pervaded
is also not allowed there. In other words. when the Pervaded is recognized,
the pervader is to be necessarily recognized.
25. Confutation. (49.7) According to the rule, when a debater has
stated a proof, the opponent is to make a confutation (du$a1}a) of it.
Confutation consists in pointing out the fallacy due to any illegitimate,
incompatible or inconclusive hetu as defined [by DharmakirtiJ :
Confutation is pointing out the defect [of an inferenceJ316.
[Objection : J 't If Confutation consists of pointing out these [three
kinds of fallaciesJ alone, where are others such as useless argument
(vaiyarthya), inefficient argument (asiimarthya), unwarranted stretch of a
rule (atiprasanga) etc. included? "
[Answer: J They are included in the same three fallacies. Of these,
the useless argument can be included in the 'asiddha'. For a probans is
said to be a quality of p which is not yet determined [as to its relation
to the probandumJ (samdigdhasiidhyadharma) ; and when useless argument
is made of a certain thing, the probans fails to conform to the [above
mentionedJ definition of a probans, 'being a quality of p which is not yet
determined [as to its relation to the probandum]'. Thus it can be called
[a sort of] asiddhi,317.. ' [because the essential characteristic of a probans is
not existent in this case]. .. 317 The following is said [by Dharmakirti in
connection with thisJ318
A probans is stated concerning only a p which is not yet ascertained
[to be s or non-sJ; and what has been rejected [to be s by other
315. PV IV, v. 12c-d : Prasango dvayasambandhiid ekiibhiive 'nyahiinaye. Rahula San-
krityayana reads Prasange for Prasango, but the latter is given in a foot-note. G ekiiPiiye
for ekiibhiive, but T, M ekiibhiive.
316. NB III, s. 138 : According to III, s. 139 and NBT on it,
any of the three kinds of fallacies, viz., asiddha-, viruddha- and anaikiintika-hetu is meant
by nyunatii.
317. Found only in M.
318. See 20. 2 and n. 263.
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valid knowledge] should not be [put forward as] the locus of the
probans, viz., p.
Inefficient argument, on the other hand, is included in the fallacious pro-
bans which is illegitimate by itself (svarupiisiddhi). For the essence
of a probans is the efficiency of the probans, and because [the lack of
efficiency] means the unreality of the probans (hetor avastutva).
The Unwarranted stretch of a rule should be included in the t an-
aikiintika', since [in it h] is connected even with the stretching
itself beyond the quality to be proved (siidhyadharma).
25.1. Refutation of iitman. (50.1) The confutation of h whose locus
is unreal (iisrayiisiddhahetu)3J9 takes place when a p, in which [a debater]
starts to prove [the existence of] s, turns out to be sublated by another
proof, as is the case with [the inference] tiThe soul (iitman) is ubiquitious,
because it has the quality to be perceived everywhere"320. [This can be
confuted as follows:] Since Buddhists do not admit the reality of the
soul itself, how then can it be established that it has the quality to be
perceived in every place?
For this is said by the heretic: tlThere exists another substance called
iitman, which is separate from things such as a body and which is the
actor of good and evil deeds (subhiisubhakarmakartr), the enjoyer of
their results (tatphalabhoktr), permanent (nitya) and ubiquitous (vyiipin)321.
Although it pervades the whole world, it is yet said that a living body, which
is admitted
322
as a receptacle [of the soul's] experience [of pleasure and
pain] (upabhogiiyatana), is possessed of the soul"323.
But this is not tenable, since there is no proof for establishing [the
existence of] the soul. For the soul is not apprehended by sense-percep-
tion, because [the five kinds of sense-] perceptions beginning with the visual
have the five kinds of objects, colour etc., which are determined to their
319. M, G, iisrayiisiddhir hetor T gzi ma grub pa rtags kyi skyon no =iisrayii-
siddhir hetor (or iisrayiisiddhahetor) Asrayiisiddhahetor may be better.
320. NB III, s. 67 : dharmyasiddhiiv apy asiddho, yathii sarvagata iitmeti siidhye sarva-
troPalabhyamiinagutJatlJam.
321. TS v. 171-172 : anye punar ihdtmiinam icchiidiniim samiisrayam, svato 'cidriipam
icchanti nityam sarvagatam tathii. subhiisubhiiniim kartiiram karmatJiim tatPhalasya ca, bhoktii-
ram cetaniiyogiic cetanam na This represents the theory of iitman expounded
by the Naiyayika and Vaise!jlika.
322. M inserts ParetJa before Parigrhitam, but it should be omitted as in G, T.
323. NBh ad NS 1. 1. 9 : tasya C=iitmanoJ bhogiiyatanam sariram.
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respective [senses, and the soul is not the object of any of these five
sense-perceptions]. [Nor is the soul the object of] ego-consciousness
(ahampratyaya) which is none other than mental perception (manasa)
[as defined by the NaiyayikaJ. Since this has as its object the body and
others [but not the SOulJ324, ego-consciousness occurs in the form of 'I am
fair', 'I am big', 'I go' and so on ; and in this connection the Alarilkarakara
[PrajiiakaraguptaJ said
325
:
The knowledge of'!' pertains to the parts of the body or sense-
organs, since [our knowledge in the form of] 'I am one-eyed', 'I am
happy', 'I am fair', takes place because of the experience of the recep-
tacle common [to these conditions].
And there cannot be such qualities as fair complexion or bigness
apart from the body of a person; nor is the action of going, which is
connected with a bodily substance, reasonably ascribed to the ubiquitous
and formless soul. Nor can this [idea of soulJ be applied [to the bodyJ
in the secondary sense of the word (bhiikta), just as the idea of a lion is
[figurativelYJ applied to a boy, since [if so,J it follows that this is after
all false identification (skhaladvrtti) 326.
(51.1) [The existence of the soull is not known by inference either,
since we do not find a logical mark as effect or essential nature [for the
proofJ. Firstly, a logical mark as effect is not found because nothing is
causally related to the soul, since this, being always beyond our percep-
tion, lacks the definite presence in a particular place, time and form
327
,
while a causal relation is to be established by [the clear perception ofJ
324. While the Vaiselilika holds that iitman is not perceptible, but only inferable, the
Naiyayika thinks that the jiviitman is an object of Cf. NK s. v. iitmii; ,
TS v. 212 : parikalpitam, svasamvedyo hy ahamkiiras
tasydtmii TSP ascribes this theory of the perceptibility of iitman to Uddyo-
takara, Bhavivikta, etc. We have to note that of the Naiyayika is quite
different from that of the Buddhist.
325. =PVBh 368, 20 (III, v. 744) : aham ity api yaj jniinam tac charirendriyiitmavit,
aham sukhi samiiniidhiiravedaniit. M reads anga-, G and T amsa- instead of
-iitma-. For a similar argument see TS v. 214 with TSP.
326. TSP 90, 21 ff. : tatas ca yad uktam upabhogiiyatane sarire
'yam yathdnukule bhrtye riijii brute ya eVdham sa evdyam me bhrtya iti, tad
apiistam bhavati. tathii hi yady ayam syiit tadii skhaladvrttir bhavet, na hi loke simha-
mii1}avakayor mukhyiiropitayor dvayor api simha ity askhalitii buddhir bhavati....
327. M deSakiiliikiiravyatirekavikalena .. G desakiilavyatirekavikalena .. T yul dan dus daY,
rnam pa bral My tr. here follows T.
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the concomitance in agreement as well as in difference [between two
terms]. Secondly no logical mark as essential nature is available just
because the existence of the entity (dharmin) [which is to be called a
soul and to which a logical mark is to belong] is itself not established.
And there is no third logical mark [admitted by US]328.
You may propose another kind of probans to be pervaded by the
probandum [or the soul], but how can the probans be pervaded by the
latter, when this is not at all existent? Furthermore, we should ask if
this soul is a conscious being or an unconscious being. If it is a conscious
being and a permanent entity, it would necessarily follow that the eyes
and other sense-organs are useless. If, on the other hand, it is an im-
permanent conscious being, then you have merely given the name
ii/man to knowledge ; and there should be no difference of opinion between
us. Or, if the soul is unconscious and invisible
329
, then the fact that it
is not perceived does not permit its existence. Thus, the non-existence of
the soul is proved beyond objection. Therefore, all things that are products
are without iitman.
25.2. Confutation of svariipssiddha; untrue vyspti is not different
froln anaikintika. (51.13) A probans which is fallacious owing to its
own unreality (svarupiisiddha) is also called illegitimate (asiddha) as in
the case of [the inference] 'sound is impermanent, because it is visible' 330.
[Objection: J "Why do you not mention [the disclosure of] the illegi-
timacy (asiddhi) of a vyiipti as a kind of confutation, when it renders
what the opponent wants to prove impossible ?"
[Answer : ] It is not mentioned. seParately, since it is understood by
the confutation of inconclusiveness (anaikiintika). For vyiipti cannot be
grasped between two Particulars because a Particular, which
is determined. in place, time and form
331
, has no common aspect with
other Particulars. Instead, vyiipti should be grasped only between a pro-
bans and a probandum represented as universals. And in this case too,
if the probans is not known as pervaded by the probandwn, it is in fact
inconclusive since the probandum may not be present when the probans
328. For a similar discussion see TS v. 207-209 with TSP.
329. G abodhasvarupo'drsyas ca, though M as well as Treads abodhasvarupo drsyas ca.
330. NB III, s. 60: yathii, anityal} sabda iti siidhye ubhayiisiddham.
331. M deSakiiliikiiraniyatatvendpy.... ; api is omitted in G, T.
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is present.
26. The theory of apoha. (52.3) [The following objection may be
raised: ] "The universals (siimiinya) are indeed not accepted [by you
Buddhistsl ; 332 how then can you grasp a universally applicable (sarvopa-
sainhiiravati) vyiipti between a probans and a probandum that are univer-
sals ?"
[Answer : J There is no such a fault [in our theoryJ. Buddhists do
not admit such a universal as that which others wrongly imagine, since
it is sublated by valid knowledge. We do not, however, deny [the
universal] called apoha (discrimination) which is defined as the negation
of the opposite (anyavyiivriti) and which is well known in our verbal
usage (vyavahiira).
[Objection : ] "What is this apoha? [It may be interpreted in the
following three senses : ]
1) An external object such as a jar as conceptually determined
(yathiidhyavasiiyam) is called apoha, the term being understood as when
we say tthe other or the dissimilar is discriminated from this' ;
2) Or apoha may mean the mental image (buddhyiikiira) as it
manifests itself (yathiipratibhiisam), the term being understood as in tthe
dissimilar is discriminated or made distinct in this mental image' ;
3) Apoha, when taken as the negation of a proposition (prasajya-
rupa), may actually mean the mere absence [without implYing the affir-
mation of the opposite] (nivrttimiitra), apoha being understood as negat-
ing (apohana)333.
332. T 1]0 na khyed la ci ma grub pa ma yin nam. Ci here must be a mistake for spyi.
Then, this passage may mean nanu bhavatar'h samanyam aprasiddham. M, G nanu samanyar'h
ced aprasiddham. Iyengar's footnote 1 in M 52 is unreliable.
333. Our author reproduces these three kinds of wrong interpretations of apoha, fol-
lowing the in Ratnakirti's Apohasiddhi (RNA 53, 2-4) : nanu ko'yam apoho nama.
kim idam anyasmad apohyate, asmad vdnyad apohyate, asmin vanyad apohyata iti vyutpaltya
vijativyavrltar'h biihyam eva " buddhyakaro va " yadi vapohanam apoha ity anya-
vyavrttimatram iti trayaf,f Professor Frauwallner once wrote (WZKM Bd. 38, 231,
17 ft.) : "Ratnaklrti scheint namlich in seiner Udayana nicht zu ken-
nen... Dagegen schliesst sich der seiner Apohasiddhil]. (SBNT S. 1-3, 4) (=RNA
53, 2-24J eng an eine Stelle aus Udayanas Atmatattvavivekal]. an (B. 1., S. 278, 1 ft.), und
ein grosserer Absatz ist fast wortlich daraus iibernommen (S. 1, 15-2, 11 (=RNA 53, 9-16J
=S. 279, 17-282, 5). Der Atmatattvavivekal]., Udayanas altestes Werk, ist also aller Wahr-
scheinlichkei t nach zwischen Ratnaklrti's und Apohasiddhi1,l verfasst".
This observation, together with others, led Frauwallner to the following conclusion:
-122-
And if [apoha, i. e. negation1 means affirmation (of a positive entity)
(vidhi) as conceptually determined, then it indeed comes to mean the
same as an object (vi$aya) (which renders the designation apoha mean-
ingless ; and the other two interpretations are also untenable1
334
' ,
(Answer: ] (These three interpretations are] not (acceptable]. (By
apoha] we mean the affirmation (of a positive entity] qualified by dis-
crimination (apohavisi$fo vidhilJ)335. However, those who stress affirma-
tion (vidhiviidin) think that after we have known the cow, we conse-
quently determine the discrimination of the essence of the cow from that
of the non-cow; those who stress the negative function of apoha (nivrtty-
(232, 21 ff.) "Ratnakirti muss daher ein alterer Zeitgenosse Udayanas sein. Wir werden
infolgedessen nicht fehlgehen, wenn wir seine Bliitezeit urn 950 ansetzen. Damit ist aber
auch die Zeit seines Lehrers Jiianasri bestimmt. Er muss in der ersten HaUte des X.
Jahrhunderts gelebt haben und der Hfihepunkt seines Wirkens diirfte ungefahr in das Jahr
925 fallen". This insight of Frauwallner which was once so significant, however, must be
corrected, now that we have the edition of Jiianasrlmitra's works which were then
unknown to Frauwallner. The of Ratnakirti's Apohasiddhi is in fact an
abbreviation of that of Jnanasrimitra's ApohaprakarafJa (JNA 201-202). The three kinds
of wrong interpretations of apoha, which we have seen in RNA as well as TBh, are found
in JNA 202, 12-24 ; the passage beginning with atha yady api nivrttim aham pratyemiti na
... , which Ratnakirti quotes and whose authorship Frauwallner ascribed to
Udayana, is originally cited by Jiianasrimitra (JNA 201, 17-202, 1). Since I think no one
would dare to say that Jiianasrimitra is indebted to Udayana for these passages, we have
to infer that Ratnakirti, and Udayana owe these to Jiianasrimitra who in his
turn must have cited these from an author unknown to us.
For the Buddhist theory of apoha readers are referred to E. Frauwallner's Beitrage
zur Apohalehre, a German translation from the Tibetan text of the portion treating apoha
in PV I (WZKM Bd. 37, 39, 40 and 42) and of the ApohaprakarafJa of Dharmottara (Bd.
44) ; Mookerjee's exposition in his Universal Flux 107-139; Dharmakirti's elucidation is
now available in Skt. original, being included in Gnoli's edition of PV I ;
view of apoha, as well as KamalasHa's, is found in TS and TSP, Among
other Sanskrit texts containing apohavada, the most important are JNA 201-232, Apohapr-
akarafJa and RNA 53-61, Apohasiddhi.
334. JNA 202, 13-14: tena na kasicd apohanamna vidher eva
na . ca namantarakarafJe The other two interpretations are
also refuted by the opponent in JNA 202-203 and RNA 53, 5-8. The argument is, in brief,
as follows: The first two meanings of ap:Jha signify affirmation, which renders the use of
the name apoha (negation) useless; the third is absurd, since in our cognitive experience
we get a positive idea, say, fire in a mountain, and not the mere negation 'there is no
nonfire'.
335. RNA 54, 1-2: atrabhidhiyate, nasmabhir apohasabdena vidhir eva kevalo 'bhipre-
napyanyavyavrttimatram, kim tv sabdanam tatas ca na
pra!yeka pa
-123-
apohaviidin) are of the OpInIOn that we first know the discrimination of
the dissimilar thing and then consequently confirm the thing which is
discriminated from the cow. Thus [both the interpretations]
are wrong. For at the time of judgment we do not experience an order
of comprehension in which [ negation or affirmation] occurs first. In fact
it is not the case that one, having understood the affirmation, later confirms
the negation by implication (arthiiPattitalJ,) , or that one, having under-
stood the negation, later confirms what is discriminated [from the dis-
similar]. Therefore, we say that the very understanding of the cow is
the same as the understanding of what is discriminated from the dis-
similar.
(53.3) Although it is pointed out that the word denoting discrimina-
tion from the dissimilar is not clearly expressed through the word tcow'
which is actually pronounced, we do not .remain unconscious of the dis-
crimination of the dissimilar which is the qualifier [of the cow]. For
the word tcow' is applied by verbal agreement to the thing that is dis-
criminated from the non-cow. Just as on hearing the word indivara on
which we are agreed to mean the blue lotus, we unavoidably represent
blueness at the very moment
336
we understand the lotus, just so on hear-
ing the word tcow' denoting in verbal agreement the thing that is dis-
criminated from the non-cow, we unavoidably represent the negation of
the non-cow at the same time as we understand the cow, since the former
is the qualifier of the latter. To cite direct perception as another instance,
its function of grasping the mere non-existence in the form of prasajya-
is none other than its function of generating the concept of
non-existence; in the same way, of the affirmative concept, its function
representing the likeness [of its object]337 is said to be the same as the
grasping of the non-existence [of the dissimilar]. Otherwise, If the dis-
crimination of other things is not comprehended even when the meaning
of the word tcow' is known, how then does a person who so knows begin
to look after a cow, leaving aside other animals? It would then follow
that a man who has been commanded to tether a cow may tether horses
336. G, T tatkala eva; M tulyakiilam eva, but the manuscript of M seems to agree
with G, T (d. M 53, n. 2).
337. T rjes su mthun pa rjes su sgrub pa par nus pa =anuruPiinu!hiinadiinasa-
kti (d. RNA 54, 13).
-124-
too
338
Thus, it has been settled that the external object is placed in (i.
e. superimposed as] the content of the word through logical construction
(adhyavasaya) , but not through the manifest perception of the discrete
nature (svalak$a1Ja) (of the object]. This is attested by the fact that the
discrete nature of an individual thing as determined in a Particular situa-
tion, i. e. in place, time and form, is not manifested (in the word] as it
is in direct perception
339
Concerning this the supreme lord of logic
(nyayaparamesvara) [Dharmakirti] said :
Unless one's visual organ operates, the object [of a word] does not
become visible in his knowledge by [simply hearing] the word; it is
not as in visual perception
340

(54.3) Moreover, if a thing discrete and distinct (svalak$a1Jatma- vastu-)

formed the content of a word, it would be entirely comprehended [when
the word is heard] ; this renders both the affirmative and negative usage
[of the word] impossible. For when the object is present, [the statement]
that it is is useless and [the statement] that it is not is incoherent; and
when the object is not present, it is useless to say that it is not, and it
is incoherent to say that it is. But [in practice] we use the words. lit is'
and so forth. Therefore, it is settled that a word does not signify a
338. RNA 54, 3-15 : yat tu pratitau na tadiitmdpariitmeti siimarthyiid pasciin
nisciyata iti vidhiviidiniim matam; anyiipohapratitau vii siimarthyiid anyiipoqho 'vadhiiryata
iti matam, tad asundaram. priithamikasyapi pratipattikramiidarsaniit, na
hi vidhim pratipadya kascid pasciid apoham avagacchati; apoham vii prati-
padydnyiipoqham. tasmiid pratipattir ity anyiiPDqhapratipattir ucyate.... (RNA up to 54.
15 well corresponds to M up to 53, 15). The so-called vidhiviidin may be represented by
(d. TS, TSP 1019-1021), while the (or nivrttiviidin) is likely
to refer to Dignaga and Dharmakirti (cf. Frauwallner's citation from Sankaramisra in
WZKM Bd. 38, 230: kirti-dinniigiidibhir gaur iyam ityiidivikalpe vidhisphurat}am nasty evety
uktam, jniinasriyii tu vidhisphurat}am adhyupagamya api tatra bhavatiti
svikrtam. yad iiha : tatrapohas tadgut}atvena gamyata iti. The last part of the passage is
found in JNA 206, 3). Mookerjee classifies three stages in the development of apoha-
theory, represented by 1) Dignaga, 2) Santirak!ilita, and 3) Ratnakirti (Mookerjee, 132),
which seem to correspond to vidhiviida and the synthetic theory of
Jnanasrimitra respectively. By Ratnakirti referred to by Mookerjee, we have to understand
both jnanasri and Ratnakirti.
339. RNA 55, 16-18 : tatra biihyo 'rtho' dhyavasiiyiid eva sabdaviicyo vyavasthiipyate, na

340. buddhiiv apratibhiisaniit. arthasya dntiiv iva (=jNA 208. 17-18
=RNA 55. 19-20). jNA as well as RNA ascribes the verse to Siistra. i.e. Dharmakirti; but
it is not found in PV.
-125-
particular entity341.
(54.8) [Objection: ] "Just as you, having grasped a jar as a parti-
cular, later apply another means of valid knowledge [i. e. inference] to
the same object in order to determine [other qualities of it such as]
momentariness, just so even if we have by the word ttree' apprehended
an element of it ttree-ness', we may again use the word texist' in order
to determine t existence, as another element [of the tree]".
[Answer : ] This is untenable. Since direct perception is indeterminate
by nature, we apply another means of knowledge [even after we have
perceived] an object with a nature with which we are not well acquainted.
In the case of conceptual knowledge (vikalpa) which is itself determinate,
however, if the nature [of an objectJ is once grasped, there remains noth-
ing else to be grasped by another means of knowledge
342
.
27. Refutation of a universal. (54.15) We do not find any proof
to establish the existence of a universal (siimiinya) which is conceived
by others as inherent in many individuals (anekavyaktisamaveta) , visible
(drsya) , single (eka) and permanent (nitya)343. Therefore, it is not
correct to maintain the existence [of a universal]. For when we experience
an individual (vyakti) such as a cow, no single dependent (anuyiiyin) [to
be called a universal] other than the characteristics of the individual
consisting of a [peculiarJ colour and form appears in our perception, just
because such a thing is not directly experienced.
Nor is it reasonable to imagine the existence of a universal because
it is otherwise inexplicable (anyathiinupapatti) that we get an idea reflect-
ing on one [class-] form immediately after we perceive the particular
341. RNA 56, 6-9: kim ea vastuni viieye sarviitmanii vidhi-
tasya hi sadbhiive'stili vyartham, nastily asamartham; asadbhiive tu nastili
vyartham, astity asamartham, asti
342. The same kind of objection is quoted as of Kumarila in RNA 56, 20-21=JNA 212,
20-21 : yae eoktam sabhiigatviid eva vastuno na hy
anirdhiiritabhiiviibhiivam sabdiid avagamyate, tayor anyataret}a sabdiintariivagatena samba-
dhyata iti.... But passage is more akin to RNA 56, 28-57, 5 : nanu
na vrkSatviimse eodite saUviidymnsaniseayaniirtham astyiidipadaprayoga iti eet, niramsatvena
padiintaret}a
pramiit}iintaretJa vii. ' pi dn/eli eet, bhavatu tasyaniseayiitmakatviid
; vikalpas tu svayam niscayiitmako yatra griihi tatra kim aparetJa....
Cd. JNA 212, 25 ff, too).
313. NK s. v. siirniinya : siimiinyam nityam ekam syiid anekasamaviiyi ea; SBNT 94, 3:
vyiipakam nityam ekam ea siimiinyam prakalpitam....
--126 -
characteristic (of an individual]. For this idea may arise indirectly
(paramparayii)344 from individuals with generative efficiency ,effected by
their own cause3 [so as to give rise to an idea]. Though individuals
are all different from one another, some alone are capable of generating
[a certain class-idea], but not all; in this way, a relation of cause and
effect [between individuals and a class-idea] is cognized by percertion
and non-perception, and cannot be violated. And in fact we experience
that such efficiency belongs only to some individuals, though all are equally
discrete and distinct (bhediivise$a), as [only] the Cocculus cordifolius
(gurjuci), neemb etc. are effective as anti-febrile [and not others]. Con-
cerning this [Dharmakirti] said:
Some things, though they are distinct and discrete, are determined
by nature to bring out one and the same effect such as the same
judgment, the cognition of one object and so forth, just as a sense
organ, [an object, light, attention, a soul and their contact bring out
one cognition of colour, though they are distinct]345.
Furthermore, we may ask a question: We admit [for the sake of
argument] that a universal [say cow-ness] is distinguished from all other
dissimilars; but how is it inherent only in individual [members] of (the
class of] cow even when they are as much distinct and discrete as other
individuals, and how can it generate the same form of mental image
344. Mookerjee, 90: "The contention of the Naiyayika that ideas of universals arise
immediately on the operation of the sense-object contact is not true, because such ideas
are conceptual in character and conceptual thoughts can emerge only after the name
relations are remembered. First of alL there is the sensuous presentation immediate and
direct and divested of all foreign reference. Secondly, a mental energising towards the
recalling of the verbal association; thirdly, the remembrance of the name. So the mind
has travelled far away from the immediate datum of presentation and the idea of the
class-character arises only after a series of psychical operations, which have little bearing
on the immediate objective datum".
345. The first half of this verse is omitted in G, T. PV J, v. 73-74 : ekapratyavamarsii-
rthajiiiiniidyekiirthasiidhane, bhede 'pi niyatii!J. kecit svabhiivenendriyiidivat. yathendriyavi-
fayiilokamanaskiirii iitmendriyamano'rthatatsamnikarfii vii' saty api tadbhiivaniyate siimiinye
riipavijiiiinam ekam janayanti, evam simsapiidayo'pi bhedii!J. paraspariinanvaye'pi prakrtyai-
vaikam ekiikiiram pratyabhhijiiiinam jana'yanti anyiim vii yathiipratyayam dahanagrhiidikiim
kiif!hasiidhyiim arthakriyiim, na tu bhediivise'pi jaliidaya!J., srotriidivad riipiidijiiiine. jvariidi-
samane kiiscit saha pratyekam eva vii ; dn!ii yathii niiniitve 'Pi na cdparii!J.. ya-
thii vii guqiicivyaktyiidaya!J. saha pratyekam vii ekam kiiryam kur-
vanti. na ca tatra siimiinyam apekfante, bhede'pi tatprakrtitviit, na dadhitrapus-
iidaya!J. .... Also see TS v. 723-726 ; Frauwallner, Beitrage zur Apohalehre, WZKM Bd. 39,
S. 264.
-127-
(buddhi) in relation to them [i. e. individual cows] and them alone? 346
And the opponent may reply that it happens so by nature (svabhiivena).
But this l reply] lacks a proof. On the other hand, when we explain
the. phenomenon on the basis of their essential nature (svabhiiva), it is
well established by proof for us and is supported by logic.
(55.17) Similarly, the opponent proposes another syllogism in order
to prove [the existence of] a class (jiiti) :
uA distinct knowledge (visi$tabuddhi) is invariably connected (niin-
tariyaka) with the congnition of a qualifier (vise$a1Ja), as the
knowledge of a stick-holder (da1Jfj.in) ;
The knowledge 'This is a cow' is a distinct knowledge;
[Therefore, it is invariably connected with a qualifier, the class of
cow.]
This syllogism is in sense based on the principle of causality [since
distinct knowledge is an effect of the cognition of a qualifier]".
We reply : Is the probandum here the invariable connection of the
distinct knowledge with the cognition of a separate qualifier or its invari-
able connection with the perception of a qualifier in general? If the
first alternative is maintained, it is sublated by perception, since nei-
ther [the qualified nor the qualifier] is [separately] manifested in inde-
terminate perception which grasps the total reality as a whole. Moreover,
distinct knowledge set forth as the probans of [the existence of] a
universa}347 contains the fallacy of inconclusiveness, since distinct know-
ledge is acquired even without the cognition of a qualifier seParate from
the qualified, as we know that this jar has its own form or that cow-
ness
348
is a .universal. If on the other hand the second alternative is
maintained, it only proves what is obvious (siddhasiidhana) as one as-
serts that a jar has its own form, since [even Buddhists] admit the re-
lation of the qualifier and the qualified as derived from the imagined
346. G kim ca sarvato vijiitiyiid vyiivrtte' pi siimiinye kim iti pi
eva samavetam tatraiva caikiikiiriim pratitim janarati. M reads sarvagate (which is unfit)
for sarvato, inserts tat siimiinyam before tatraiva and has buddhim instead of pratitim. T
seems to omit ca after tatraiva; otherwise it agrees with M.
347. Both M and G wrongly have ca siimiinyam ity anaikiintiko
T khyad par can gyi blo nid kyan spyi fa gtan tshigs ma nes pa yin
ca siimiinye 'naikiintiko See Ratnakirti's passage in n. 350.
348. Read gotvam for gotva in M 56, 6.
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difference, and use such an expression as 'This thing has the universal
of a COW'349. For, in fact, the judgment 'This is a cow' is made by
virtue of the cognition of what is discriminated from the non-cow.
Thus, the universal cannot be established by this inference either
350

Since in this way the universal imagined by others does not withstand
scrutiny, the following has been settled: The universal, which is merely
an entity distinguished from the dissimilars and which is designated by
the word 'discrimination' (apoha), forms part of our verbal convention
according to our logical construction; this is quite immune from faults.
(56.14) The following syllogism should also be formulated in order
to refute the universal: 351
When a thing, being by nature perceptible, is not perceived at a
given place, it is the object to be judged as absent then and there,
as horns on the head of a horse;
The universal, in spite of [your supposition that] it is by nature
perceptible, is not perceived in the particulars which are actually
seen ;
[Therefore, it is not existent.]
This is formulated on the ground of the non-cognition of an entity itself
(svabhiiviinupalabdhi) .
No asswnption of the fallacy of illegitimacy (asiddhi) can be made
[concerning this inference], since, in spite of a thorough examination,
we do not find anywhere [a universal which isJ the second entity following
349. T, G vyavahiirakiira1}am krtvii for bhedam upiidiiya. T (gsal ba fr.id) for
.
350. verbaly follows RNA 59, 21-60, 3 : athedam jiitiprasiidhakam anumiinam
abhidhiyate. yathii da1}qijniinam; vi-
cedam gaur ayam ity hi
siddheti.
vii siidhyam vii.
dhii siidhaniivadhiinam anavakiisayati.
ca siimiinyahetur antare1}api darsaniit,
yathii svarupaviin gotvam siimiinyam iti vii, tu siddhasiidhanam, svarupa-
viin gha!a ityiidivat gotvajiitimiin Pi1}4a iti parikalpitam bhedam upiidiiya
agovyiivrttiinubhavabhiivitviid gaur ayam iti vyavahiirasya.
351. owes this inference to PaJ;lc;lita Asoka. Cf.
SBNT 97, 8-11: yad yad san nopalabhyate tat tad asad iti pre-
vyavahartavyam yathambariimburuham,. nopalabhyate
siimiinyam kvacid The same logic, however, is applied by Bud-
dhists to the negation of avayavin, see e. g. TSP 188, 5 ff.
-129-
[a particular], independent of the particular entity characterised by colour
and form. Nor is it tenable that it is, in spite of its invisibility, established
by Perception as in the case of knowledge. For, while knowledge, though
not grasped by visual cognition, is established by the proof of self-con-
sciousness (svasamvedana), this universal, being a quality of an object
of the senses (arthadharma), should be grasPed by visual cognition.
And in fact the opponent admits its Perceptibility. Thus the universal
fictitiously conceived by the opponent does not withstand scrutiny ; only an
entity which is [by logical constructionl discriminated from others is said
to be a universal. And it is settled that all things that are products are
void of such a universal as is imagined by others.
28. Refutation of God as the permanent agent. (57.7) It should
not be understood that [all produced things] are made by some intelligent
being. For if there were an operator of this world, he would be either
a pennanent being or an impermanent one. Of these, first, he cannot
be permanent, because when the operator is active permanently, the crea-
tion, preservation and destruction [of the world] would certainly occur
simultaneously. The very nature by which he is (said to beJ the operator
of preservation and destruction should continue to be present in him even
at the time of creation, and accordingly he would at the very time [of
creation] effect preservation and destruction. It may be contended that
he will not act so because he lacks auxiliary causes (sahakiirin) , but
this is not correct. For he is never dissociated from permanent auxiliary
causes which are always present with him; and again he is never dis-
sociated from impermanent auxiliary causes, since these must be depend-
ent on him for their origination. Therefore, it would follow that he
effects all l the three kinds of operations] at the same time
352

(57.17) [The opponent: l ttThere is not such a fault, since God is

endowed with intelligence. For an agent deprived of intelligence may
effect simultaneously all the works which are caused by its presence alone.
An intelligent being, on the other hand, need not work when he does
not wish, though he is always capable of doing so. Why then is he
criticised? ' '353
Answer: He is to be criticised in this way: These wishes are also
352. For a similar argument see BCAP 258, 22-30; TSP ad TS v. 87.
353. A similar objection is ascribed to Uddyotakara in TSP 55, 4-8.
-130-
caused by his own existence alone ; and why does he not 354 work ? You
may contentd that although he is efficient by his own existence, he has
such a nature that he does not work without being given contingent powers
which are defined as auxiliary causes. But this [objection] has no sense
at all, since [in the same way] one can show you a conclusion that [a
woman], who is by birth a barren woman, is also a mother.
(58.6) [The opponent:] HAn effect indeed has such a nature that
it is not produced merely by the efficiency [of an operative cause], but
comes into existence after having depended on auxiliary causes too; [so,
you should not criticise as above]"355.
[The author : ] This is not correct. For efficiency will necessarily
produce its effect without expecting the help of auxiliary causes, because
otherwise it would be just inefficient..
28.1. The permanent cannot produce an effect gradually. (58.9)
Again it is not correct that a permanent [agent such as God] produces an
effect gradually (krame1}a), since it does not require [anything else for
its action]. Regarding this, Dharmakirti whose name is celebrated all
over the world said : 356
Successive [change] cannot occur to the pennanent, since this is
independent [of other causes], and since this remains the same self
at both times whether it is doing an action or not doing it.
By this it is refuted that the permanent such as a soul or momen-
tary things such as a jar etc. produce an effect gradually357. And in
this argument there is no fault of incomPatibility with perception, since
we cannot grasp the pennanent by indeterminate cognition. For indeter-
minate cognition that is momentary cannot perceive what is not mo-
354. G as well as T inserts na before karoti.
355. TSP ad TS v. 87 (54, 23-25) : syiid etat, nesvara eva kevalam kiira1Jam api tu
dharmiidisahakiirikiira1Jiintaram apekfya karoti, nimittakiira1Jatviid isvarasya, tena
kiira1Jiintarasya vaikalyiid avikalakiira1Jatvam asiddham iti .. BCAP ad BCA IX, 125 a (259,
17-23).
356. M dharmakirtil} ; G and T have only kirtil}. PV II, v. 268 b-269 a: nityasya
nirapekfatviit kramotpattir viruddhyate, kriyiiyiim akriyiiyiim ca kriyii ca T of
TBh agrees with this verse completely; but M and G change viruddhyate into na yujyate and
kriyii ca into ca.
357. M, Tread: iitmiidiniim gha!iidiniim ca krame1Ja kiiryaka-
rafJam pratyuktam. G nityiiniim iitmiidiniim akfafJikiiniim (ca) gha!iidiniim.... is unintelligible.
A momentary thing cannot operates for many moments in order to produce an effect
gradually.
-13l-
mentary. The non-momentary [or the pennanent] indeed means what
operates for many moments; and how can it be grasped by indeterminate
cognition which lasts only for a moment? What resided in the past or
..
will reside in the future does not manifest itself at the present time, for
otherwise it would follow that it belongs to the present. Or it would
follow that the termini of the birth and destruction [of the present thing]
are manifested. Therefore, indeterminate cognition is not able to grasp
a thing which pervades the past and future time
358

28.2. Refutation of recognition. (59.3) The same argument serves

to explain that recognition CPratyabhijniina) is not of the nature of in-
detenninate cognition. Indeterminate cognition is indeed [defined as]
intuitive knowledge (siik$iilkiiri jniinam) ; and what resided in the past
is not to be put before the eyes, but only to be remembered. Indetermi-
nate cognition, on the other hand, is not of the nature of remembrance
(smrti ).
The following objection may be raised: HWhile remembrance is that
which does not intuit the present state of a thing, how can that [recogni-
tion] which is intent upon intuiting it [=the present state] be called
remembrance? Regarding this, Kumarilabhatta said: 359
Remembrance takes place in the fonn t [I remember] that', pertain-
ing only to what has been cognized before; recognition, on the
other hand, is in the form tThis is the same as that', and is quite
different [from remembranceJ" .
[The Author :] If so, recognition would have a twofold nature, that
of remembrance and that of grasping, and is not of the nature of grasp-
ing alone, since what is remembered cannot be grasped and what is
grasped cannot be remembered. However, it is impossible that there
are remembrance and grasping in one cognition, because these two are
incompatible with each other. No sane person can contend that we grasp
(a thing] by the same function of lknowledge] by which we remember; 360
358. M purviiparakiilavyiiptam artham, but G -vyiiptim, with which T (sna ma dan Phyi
dus la khyab don) agrees.
359. This verse is not found in SV, but in TS v. 453: purvapramitamiitre hi jiiyate sa
iti sa evayam itiyam tu pratyabhijnii'tireki?Ji. TSP ascribes the opinion to Kumarila.
360. M yena hi svarupe?Ja (G rupet}a) smara?Jam na tena svarupet}a (G rupet}a) graha-
?Jam ity anunmattena (G inserts here na) sakyate vaktum. T omits the first na and retains
the second, which is most intelligible.
-132-
and if you say that grasping is made bya function different [from that
of remembrance], there cannot be both remembrance and grasping in
one [cognition]361. Even if this [possibility] were admitted, it would
mean that [the knowledge] has at the same time the nature of pratyaksa
and that of non-pratyaksa, and not that it is only of the nature of
pratyaktja, for pratyaktja cannot occur in an object which is being re-
membered
362
. Therefore, the knowledge of [the so-called] recognition is
simply erroneous, because it has no proper object. [Our argument may be
formulated into] the following syllogism :
The knowledge of recognition has in reality not a single object as in
the case of grass which, having been once cut, grows again;
tThis blue [thing] is the same as that' is the knowledge of recogni-
tion;
[Therefore, it has not a single object].
This is a negative inference derived from the cognition of what is
pervaded by a thing incomptible with the denied object (viruddhavyiipto-
palabdhi). Since oneness and plurality are incompatible with each other,
two perceptions respectively pertaining to the one and the other are also
mutually incompatible. Thus, the knowledge of recognition is pervaded
by thaving plural objects' which is incompatible with thaving a single
object', as the logic explained above shows. Accordingly recognition does
not sublate our inference of momentariness.
(60.6) Again, it cannot be contended that [recognition] pertains to a
single object because, when hair and other things are recognized, it has the
universal [of hair etc.] as object. For in fact it is only particular hairs
that are recognized. If, on the contrary, a universal is recognized, we
would [acquire the knowledge that] this hair-ness is the same as that,
and not that this hair is the same as that [as we actually recognize].
Therefore, when one object is concerned, the occurrence of the knowledge
of recognition, be it successive or simultaneous, is incongruent; and you
361. M riipiintare1}a caikasya smara1}agraha1}e na syiitiim. but G riipiintare1}a graha1}e na
ekasya smara1}agraha1}e syiitiim ; T seems to read riipiintare1}a graha1}ena. I follow G.
362. I follow G : bhiive'pi syiit. na tu pratyakfatvam eva. smarya-
mii1}e M : bhiive'pi syiitiim. na tu smaryamii1}e
eva. ; T agrees with M. though it has pratyakfapratyakfe for pratyakfiipra-
by mistake. M and T may be understood as meaning".... and not that there is only praty-
when an object is being remembered. since this cannot be
-133-
should not suspect the possibility of [the probans of our inference] being
incompatible or inconclusive. Nor can you say that the very recognition
determines the singleness of the object, since it is just the object of the
present examination. Thus, it has been settled that there is no permanent
agent
363
.
28.3. Karman or the mind is the sole cause of the world. (60.12)
[The Opponent:] ttIf the permanent agent is not the [supreme] cause
of the world, what then is the cause of it?"
[The Author:] Actions of sentient beings, called good. or evil. [fonn
the instrumental cause of the world,] as is said [in the following]364 :
The mind alone produces the world of sentient beings as well as
that of inanimate things in all their various aspects ;
for all the universe is said to have been produced by actions, and no
actions are possible apart from the mind.
Employing the view
365
of the school the omniscient Buddha
said: 366
Ether and the two kinds of cessation Li. e. that due to wisdom and
that not due to wisdoml, these three are the non-produced which are
eternal;
all produced things are momentary, devoid of iitman, and have no
creator [other than karman].
29. The existence of an omnicient person proved. (61.3) "It may
be fitting for you to adduce the words of the omniscient one if and only
if the existence of the latter is established. What proof do you put forward
363. See n. 234 above.
364. sattvalokam atha bhiijanalokam cittam eva racayaty aticitram, karmajam hi jagad
uktam karma cittam avadhiiya na casti. Cf. AK IV, v. 1: karmajam lokavaicitryam
cetanii tatkrtam ca tat, cetanii miinasam karma tajje viikkiiyakarmat}i.
365. M iisritya; G=T iisritya. The expression of course
means that the understands the Buddha as teaching the following.
366. iikiisam dvau nirodhau ca nityam trayam asamskrtam, samskrtam sarvam
iitmasiinyam akartrkam. The first half is omitted in G. The verse is identical with JSS v.
21 (Yamaguchi, 292: nam pa gnis dag dan, ma byas gsum po ni rtag,
byas bdag gis kun ston la, byed pa po med skad cig ma.) Cf. AK 1, v. 5 ff. : aniisravii
miirgasatyam trividham capy asamskrtam, iikiisam dvau nirodhau ca tatrakiisam ....
Regarding akartrka, on which Bodhibhadra comments that there is no agent other than
karman, see ad AK IV, v. 1 (de la Vallee Poussin, IV, 1: Ce n'est
pa Dieu qui la fait intelligemment .. , La variete du monde nait des actes des etre vivants.)
Two kinds of nirodha means pratisamkhyii- and apratisamkhyii-nirodha.
-134-
for the existence of an omniscient one ?"
We answer:
A quality of the mind, when brought about by repeated meditation
which is made ardently, incessantly and for a long time, can be
manifested clearly, as e. g. the figure of a girl [is clearly mani-
festedJ to her lover ;
The mental images having the four noble truths as objects are also
the qualities of the mind produced by the practice as described
above;
[Therefore, they can be manifested clearly. J
This is an inference formulated with a logical mark of essential identity.
[Regarding this inferenceJ you may not suspect the fallacy of illegitimacy
(asiddha- ) either in respect of the locus of h or in respect of h itself.
The p [of this inference, i. e.J the mental images which are brought
under conceptual knowledge and which have the four noble truths as their
objects, and h, a quality of the mind in general, are [real and legitimateJ
since they are both the contents of everyone's self-consciousness (pratyii-
tmavedyatva). Nor is this [hetuJ incompatible, because it is present in
a lover as a sapak$a. Nor is it inconclusive, for we can establish by
means of perception and non-perception a universally applicable causal
relation between a mental quality accomPanied by repeated meditation,
as cause, and its vivid manifestation as effect, just as between a potter
and a jar; and once this relation is established, it is also established
that the probans 'a mental quality accompanied by repeated meditation'
is pervaded by [the probandumJ 'fitness for manifesting itself clearly' 367
[The procedure of grasping the causal relation in question is as follows : J
The locus (adhikara1Ja) of the vyiipti in question is the figure of a
girl occurring in [the mind ofJ a man who is in love with her. (1) We
do not see the manifestation [of the figureJ before it has become a quality
of [the 10ver'sJ mind through earnest, incessant and prolonged medita-
tion upon it [anupalabdhi No. 1J ; (2) later we come to see the medita-
tion [by himJ [upalabdhi No. 2J; (3) and then we see the clear manifes-
tation [of her figureJ [upalabdhi No. 3J. Thus the causal relation between
clear manifestation and the mental image produced by repeated medit.a-
------------
367. M sphutaprdtibhiisakiirafJaVOgvatii ,. G -karafJa- " T gsal bar snan bar byar rUfJ ba.
G's reading is better. Cf. Ratnakirti's passage in n. 368 below.
-135-
tion is established by three cognitions consisting of perception and non-
perception (trividhapratyak$iinupalambha). And from this we know the
universal vyiipti (between the probans and the probandum in question].
Therefore, there being no fallacy of inconclusiveness, our hetu is fault-
less
368

29.1. Proof of the existence of an all-knowing person. (62.4)369

(The opponent :] t tBy the inference stated above you may indeed prove
(the possible existence of] an omniscient being (sarvajna) who is meant
to be a person intuiting the images of the four noble truths, from the
fact that he intuits the images of the four noble truths ; but you cannot
establish one who intuits everything without restriction (avise$e1Ja sar-
vadharmasiik$iitkiirin). Therefore, to prove this, you have to state another
inference" .
(The Author ; ] We will answer :
368. This section consists of verbatim citations from RNA 1, 16-21 and 3, 12-19 : yo
yal] siidaranirantaradirghakiiliibhyiisasahitacetogu1J-al] sa sarval] yathii
kiiminal] yathoktiibhyiisasahitacetogu1J-iis cami
iikiirii iti svabhiivo hetul]. tatra na tiivad iisrayadviire1J-a hetudviire1Ja vasiddhisambhiivanii,
smnkalparu4hiiniim caturiiryasatyiikiirii1Jiim cetogu1J-amiitrasya ca hetol] pratyiitmavedyatviit, ...
na viruddho kiiminy iikiire sambhaviit. na abhyiisasahitace-
togu1J-asphutapratibhiisaY0l] kiiryakiira1J-ayor ghatakumbhakiirayor iva sarvopasamhiire1J-a praty-
kiiryakiira1J-abhiivasiddhiiv abhyiisasahitacetogu1J-atvasya siidhanasya sPhu!a-
pratibhiisakara1J-ayogyatayii vyiiptisiddhel]. tathii hi, vyiiptyadhikara1J-e kiimiituravartini yuva-
tyiikiire siidaranirantaradirghakiiliibhyiisasahitacetogu1Jiit purvam anupalabdhil] sPhu!iibhasya,
pasciid abhyiisasamvedanam sphutiibhasamvedanam iti,
sphu!apratibhiisiibhyiisasacivacittiikiirayor iyam upapannii sarvopasamhiira-
vati vyiiptil]. ato'naikiintikatapy asambhavinity anavadyo For
bha see n. 305.
369. At the beginning of Sarvajfiasiddhi (RNA 1, 9-14) Ratnakirti quotes PV II, v.
33 in which Dharmakirti declares that he means by the supreme source of knowledge one
who knows the truths regarding what are to be abandoned and what are to be acquired
together with their means, but not one who merely knows everything (heyopiideyatattvasya
siibhyupiiyasya yalJ pramii1Jam asiiv na tu sarvasya vedakalJ). Ratnakirti calls
this supreme source of knowledge sarvajna and a knower of everything sarvasarvajna.
For Buddhists following Dharmakirti sarvajna is more important than sarvasarvajna. And
Ratnakirti says that his inference beginning with yo yaJ: siidaranirantaradirghakiiliibhyiisa-
... , (which Mok!?akara cites in 29) is meant for proving sarvajna, and
not sarvasarvajna. He continues to say, however, that he will quench the thirsty desire
of common people for the proof of the existence of a sarvasarvajfia, and he formulates an
inference proving it in RNA 28, 10 ft. Thus, we have to bear in mind that there are two
kinds of omniscient beings. deals with sarvajna in 29 and sarvasarvajna in
29. I,

Words agreeing with a proof and having a definite object presuppose
directly or indirectly the knowledge intuiting that object, as e. g.
the words 'fire bums';
The words tall produced things are momentary' also agree with a
proof and have definite objects ;
[Therefore, the words presuppose the knowledge intuiting all things,
i. e. there must be an allknowing person.]
[This inference] is in content based on the priniciple of causality.
It has not the fallacy of illegitimacy (asiddhi), since we prove the
momentary destruction of all things and accordingly these words are
true. Nor is [the probans] incompatible, since it is present in the
Nor is it inconclusive, since, though words in general may be preceded
by doubt or error, we know by perception and non-perception that the
words agreeing with a proof
370
and having a definite object are directly or
indirectly preceded by the knowledge intuiting that object
371
If this were
not admitted, all the probans as effect would be annihilated, since even
smoke etc. would not have their cause
372

29.2. Proof of the succession of lives. (62.17) The following ob

jection may be raised: HConceptual ideas which are meditated upon
would be manifested
373
only after a long time expressible in terms of a
succession of many lives. But what proof do you adduce in order to
establish a succession of lives (bhavaparamparii)?"
We answer:
[A moment of] the mind is necessarily joined together with (pratz
370. Read pramiitJasamviidi instead of .samvadi in M 62, 13.
371. M 62, 15 .purvakatvena, but G, T -tvam, which is better. Or we may construe
the passage reading (M 62. n. 2) so that it may run: ... vacanasya... -tvena... vyiipter
upalambhiit (we know the vyapti between the words agreeing with a proof and having a
definite object on the one hand and the precedence of the knowledge intuiting that object
on the other.)
372. RNA 28. 11-19 : yat pramiitJasamviidiniScitiirthavacanam tat paramparayii vii
yathii dahano diihaka iti vacanam; pramiitJasamviidi nis-
citiirthavacanam cMam sarvasamskiirii ity
asya vacanasya satyiirthatviit. nfipi
bhiiviit. na vacanamiitrasya samsayaviparyiisapurvakatve' pi pramiitJaniscitii-
rthavacanasya piiramparyetJa anyathii niyame-
na pramiitJasamviidiiyogiit.
373. G ... bhiivyamiinasya samkalPiirurlhatvam sambhiivyate, but M=T bhiivyasya samkalpii-
rurlhasya sphu!iibhatvam sambhiivyate.
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saindhatte) another [viz. the next moment of] the mind, as the
present moment of mind;
That belonging to the moment of death is also a [moment of the] mind;
[Therefore, it necessarily engenders another moment of the mind]374.
[This is an inference] formulated with a logical mark of essential
identity. There is no deviation [from the vyiipti of this inference] even
in the case of the last moment of the mind of an arhat (arhaccaramacitta).
For it is known only from a Buddhist tradition (iigama) that [an arhat,
having destroyed all passions, does not receive another life after his
death] ; 375 and [some Buddhists are of the opinion that even the last
moment of the mind of an arhatJ engenders another mind free from
passions
376
; moreover, the probans [of this inference] implies the qualifi-
cation ISO long as [the mind is accompanied by passions' 377 . Thus is
proved the existence of the future lives. It is commonly said that all
PeOple enter into religious practices (abhyiisa) such as austerity, liberality,
374. A similar argument is found in TS v. 1899 and TSP : svopa-
ragi,!o hinasangatvat purvavijiianavat tatha. yat saragam cittam tat
svopadeyacittantarodayasamartham saragatvat purvavasthacittavat ,. saragam ca mara'!a-
cittam iti
In this inference h is not a mind in general, but the mind beset with passions; this
is implied in inference. since he says: klese satiti
cites this inference of our author for the sake of criticism, ascribing it to
(SVM 123, 18-20 : yac ca yac cittam tac cittantaram pratisam-
dhatte yathedanimtanam cittam, cittam ca mara,!akalabhavUi bhavaparamparasiddhaye prama-
nam uktam tad vyartham....
375. Cf. E. Krishnamacharya's commentary in G 98-99. In TS, the Lokayata formu-
lates a syllogism which denies the next life (TS v. 1863) saying that a mind at death
and beset with desires does not engender another moment of the mind because it is also a
mind at death, just as the last moment of the mind of an arhat. To this replies TS v.
1916, pointing out that the opponent cannot adopt the Buddhist doctrine that the last moment
of the mind of an arhat does not engender another moment of the mind. For if he presupposes
a Buddhist doctrine for his inference, he has to admit another Buddhist doctrine, that of
the next life too. expression tasyagamamatrapratitatvat is too brief to convey
his intention. But probably he means the same as TS, Le. the doctrine of the last moment
of the mind of an arhat is known to the opponent only by a Buddhist tradition; so he cannot
points out the vyabhicara utilizing this theory which is not accepted by himself.
376. TS v. 1917-1918 and TSP say that some of the Mahayana Buddhists, say, the
Madhyamikas, are of the opinion that Buddhas reside neither in nirva,!a nor in samsara.
This means that the last moment of the mind of Buddhas engenders another free from
passions.
377. See n. 374 above. M hetoh klese sati visesana-... , but G, T ... klde satiti visesana-....
. . . . .
which is better,

learning etc. (because of the impressions caused by] their practices in former
lives. And in order to establish this, we will formulate a proof :
Every (moment of theJ mind is preceded by another [moment of
the] mind, as the present moment of the mind;
That belonging to the time of birth is also a [moment of theJ mind;
(Therefore, it is also preceded by another, viz. a Past mindJ.
This inference is based on a logical mark as effect
378
.
30. The doctrine of the (60.10) [The opponent: J
ItIs emancipation not possible by intuiting the truth? And the truth is
unique as (Dharmakirti himself] says :
EmanciPation is [accomplished byJ seeing emptiness ;
all other religious practices are for that purpose
379
.
How then can there be two kinds of omniscient beings [i. e. sarvajna and
sarvasarvajnaJ and also different schools among Buddhists ?"
(The author : J This is not to be confuted, because the Blessed One
(or the BuddhaJ taught all these (different doctrinesJ in order to introduce
sentient beings (of different capacitiesJ into truths. Thus, the
holds:
Ether and two kinds of cessation, these three are the non-produced
which are eternal ;
All produced things are momentary, devoid of atman, and have no
creator (other than karmanJ380.
381-CAlthough the knowledge born out of sense-organs has not the
form (of atomsJ, the assemblage of atoms apPears as an existent.J ... 381
31. The doctrine of the Sautrantika. (63.17) The Sautrantika holds
the following theory: All that is manifested in the form of blue etc. is
knowledge, and not an external object (bahyo'rthalJ) , since an insentient
378. TS v. 1897 : tasmat tatrddivijnanam svopadanabalodbhavam ; vijnanatvadihetubhya
idani1ntanaeittavat, and TSP.
379. PV II. v. 254 : sa (= ea sa nairatmyadrg-
muktis tu sunyatadntes Our text seems to cite the last
half of this verse. M as well as G has muktis tu sunyatadntis but T
(ston pa nid lta bas grol bar bsgoms pa lhag ma de don yin) agrees with PV.
380. See n. 366.
381. This verse which is found only in T is also identical in sense with the first half
of JSS v. 22 (Yamaguchi, 292) : mig las skye blo rnam med cin, mnon sum rig pa rdul gyi
tshogs, blo dan bya kha ehe yi, bye brag smra gsun du bSad. (The last half means:
This is said to be the theory of the wise of Kashmir).
-139-
(jarJa) thing is not able to become visible (prakiisa). Concerning this
it is said:
The range of the senses [i. e. the external reality] (indriyagocara)
is not perceptible itself, though it gives rise to the knowledge with
the form of it [or the objective reality]382.
The author of the [PramiitJaviirttika-] Alainkiira, [Prajfiakaragupta]
says too:
If a blue thing is perceived, how can it be said to be external [to
the knowledge] ?
If a blue thing is not perceived, how can it be said to be externaP83?
[The opponent:] Itlf that which is visible is none other than know-
ledge, how then do you know that there is an external reality?"
[The author: J The proof of an external reality is lTl;ade through
[the following reasoning] by the method of difference (vyatireka) : Indeed,
forms such as blue do not become visible at every place and every time;
nor are they possible even when we suppose that they occur only be-
cause of our own material cause since,
if so, it remains inexplicable why they occur pertaining only to a definite
object. Therefore, we can ascertain that there must be. aPart from the
immediately preceding moment of our own consciousness (samanantara-
pratyaya), something which is a cause of these [visible formsJ and by
virtue of which [the representations of forms] occur only at some place
and sometimes. This tsomething' is the external reality385.
31.1. Refutation of the soul. (64.9) However
385
, this external reality
382. sviikarajnanajanaka drsya nendriyagocaralJ. This is identical with JSS v. 23 a-b :
mthon ba dban polJi yul min te, ses pa rnam pa bcaspa skye (Yamaguchi. 296). T of TBh
translates it : ran rnam can ses skyed byed pa, dban polJi spyod yul snan run min. This
verse is quoted in SVM 110, 18, in which -jnana- is changed into
383. =PVBh 366, 17 (III, v. 718) : yadi samvedyate nilam katlzam balzyam tad ucyate,
na cet samvedyate nitam katham biihyam tad ucyate. Quoted in SVM 110, 20-21.
384. M, G svopadiinamatrahalahlzavitve sati .. T ran gi ne har len pa tsam las nes par
snan ba nid du gyur na yan = svopadanamatrabalapratibhiisitve sati.
385. About the siikaravada of the Sautrantika see n. 148 above. For a similar and
more detailed description of the epistemology of this school see SDS 33, 220-38, 271.
Jadunatha Sinha gives a good account of it in his Indian Realism Chap. II. Kanakura also
collects and translates into Japanese the accounts of the Sautrantika theory as appear in
non-Buddhist works (E. Kanakura, Gekyo no Bunken ni mieru Kyobu-setsu, Studies in In-
dology and Buddhology, presented in honour of Prof. S. Yamaguchi on the occasion of his
sixtieth birthday, pp. 55-68).
386. G kalJ punar .. M=T na punar....
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is neither a composite whole (avayavtn), nor any of quality (gu1}a) and
the other categories conceived by other schools as depending on sub-
stances (dravyasrayin), nor any of the nine kinds of substances including
atoms (paramii1}u).
Of these, neither quality nor the others [i. e. karman, samiinya, and
are [the external reality], since their existence is negated through
the negation of the substance [which forms their substratum]. And since
[the relation called] inherence (samaviiya) cannot possibly exist when there
is no substance in which [quality etc. is said to] be inherent, we do not
care for a separate criticism of this [inherenceJ here
387
Substance is of
nine kinds, i. e., earth (Prthivi), water (apas), fire (tejas), air (vayu), ether
(akiisa), time (kala), direction (dis), soul (atman) and mind (manas).
(64.14) Firstly, the following inference may be formulated for the
negation of the soul :
Knowledge which occurs occasionally is necessarily preceded by an
occasionally existent cause, as e. g. the knowledge of lightning.
The consciousness of the self (ahainkarajizana) occurs only occasio-
nally,
[Therefore, it is preceded by, or has as its object, an occasionally ex-
istent cause, and not a permanent thing such as a soul].
This inference is in sense based on the principle of causality. The pro-
bans has no fallacy of illegitimacy, since the presence of knowledge-ness
[h] in self-consciousness (ahainkara), p, is established by perception. Nor
is the qualifier t occasionally existent' illegitimate, because actually we are
not always conscious of ourselves. It is not incompatible, since we see it
in the sapaksa : nor is it inconclusive, since the vyapti between the occasio-
nally occurring knowledge and the occasionally occurring cause of it is as
well attested by perception and non-perception as that between smoke and
fire. If otherwise occasional knowledge occurs because of a non-occasional
cause, the absurdity would follow that it does not occur because of an
occasional cause. If [you contend that it has] not a definite cause, it is
tantamount to saYing that it has no cause at all. If none the less this
inference is said to be inconclusive, even a well known probans such as
smoke [for the proof of fire] would be inconclusive too, because we see
no difference between them. Or, we may say, if the consciousness of the
387. G api. but M. T atra....
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self is preceded by a non-occasional cause, it would occur continually,
which is obviously not the case. For a cause must be by nature function-
ing; what is not functioning can be called a cause only figuratively ;388
and what is functioning and what is not are not identical. If they were
identical, then even that which is functioning would become that which
is not functioning, since it could have the nature of that [which is not
functioningJ389. Moreover, if the consciousness of the self were (constant-
ly] produced by a non-occasional cause, other knowledge would necessarily
occur together with it (which is not permissible to the opponent
390
J, since
(a non-occasional, or a permanent cause is] a self-contained totality [de-
pending on nothing elseJ (avyagrasiimagrika) [and should occur always].
You may contend that a soul is not the cause, but the object of the con-
sciousness of the self. But we say 'No'. There cannot be an object [of
knowledge] which is not a cause (of knowledgeJ, since otherwise every-
thing could be its object (atiprasangiit).
31.2. Refutation of ether, time, direction and the mind. (65.13)
As to the problem whether or not
391
there is any real entity called ether,
we say there is not. For at a place where there is already a resisting
substance (sapratigham dravyam), ether does not make room [for it] ;
and at a place where there is nothing, room [for a thing] is made by virtl1e
of the very absence (without the intervention of ether]. Where then
will ether make room ?392 Inasmuch as [the essential function of] ether
is said to consist in making room (avakiisaprada), if ether were existent,
there should be room at all times, at all places and by all means; but
this is not the case. 'Therefore, we comprehend that there is no ether.
This refutation, however, is made from the standpoint of the
(66.1) Others [like the and NaiyayikasJ hold that ether
has sound as its quality; besides, it [=ether] is said to be a single
entity. [But this is untenable, sinceJ if so, no sounds, depending on
the common substratum, could be heard separately. Thus, a sound sup-
388. G=T upacarikakara1Jatvat; M kara1Jatvat.
389. G kurvato'py but M=T kurvato'py
390. In connection with this, perhaps we should recall NS 1. 1. 16 : yugapajjnananut-
pattir manaso lingam.
391. M ta nasti vii. fa must, be omitted.
392. vii in M 65, 15 and If' are omitted in G, T.
393. Read V instead of
-142-
posed to have occurred ata distant place would be heard as loud as that
at a close place; or otherwise there should be the necessary corollary394
that if a distant sound is not heard, a close sound would not be heard
either. Again, direction as well as time is also held to be a single unity.
This entails that the notion of 'east' and 'before' (purva) as well as
'west' and 'after' (apara) is impossible. The same logic may be applied
to [the proof thatJ the mind (manas) cannot be permanent. For, the
present opponent infers the existence of a mind on the ground that
[two or more pieces ofJ knowledge do not in reality occur simultaneously
[and that this fact is due to the existence of a separate entity called
mind which mediates between the soul and knowledgeJ395. [But this is
against our experienceJ for we experience plural knowledge simultaneously
as when we see many girls dancing. And if the mind is permanent
396
,
then it is not correct to maintain that plural knowledge [occrus successivelyJ.
Therefore there is no mind either.
31.3. Refutation of earth, water, fire and air. (66.10) [The sub-
stances ofJ earth and the rest are still left [to be examined]. They are
regarded [by the opponent] to be of two kinds according as they are seen
as a composite whole (avayavin) or as the component atoms (paramiilJu). 397
Of these, a composite whole such as a jar is known to have been made
up of atoms through a definite process of fonnation beginning with the
combination of two atoms, etc.; but we [have refuted itJ saying that the
394. G but M=T
395. See n. 390 above.
396. nz'tyam omitted in G, T. In this case the sentence may be translated: If there
will be a mind, then (the simultaneous occurrence of) plural knowledge (which we ex-
perience, for instance, when seeing dancing girls) will not be possible. might
mean this, but if so, the permanency of a mind referred to at 66, 5 would remain unrefu-
ted, though the singleness of it could be refuted. TS v. 632 Cnz'tye tu manas
pratyayii tena hetur ha prokto as well as the verses
cited in G 203, 7-11 Cof which the source is not mentioned by Krishnamacharya) refutes
the permanency of a mind, saying that if a mind is permanent, plural knowledge would
occur simultaneously. Thus, if we read ntyam of M 66, 7 we must understand the sentence
to mean : If a mind is permanent, then plural knowledge would not occur successively;
or dropping na in M 66, 8 we should read: If a mind is permanent, then plural knowledge
would occur simultaneously, which contradicts your theory.
397. Of the nine substances, the first four, viz. earth, water, fire, and air are perma-
nent when seen as atoms, and impermanent as effects made of atoms; ether, time and
direction are single, permanent and ubiquitous; the soul is permanent and ubiquitous;
the mind is permanent. Cf. NK 370, 20-23; TS v. 550, etc.
-143-
non-perception of that (composite wholeJ which is [said to beJ by nature
perceptible does sublate [its existence].398 (The following objection may
be raised:J It Without the composite whole, how is this (jarJ manifested
as a single entity?" To this we have already replied [quoting the verse
of Dharmakirti:J399
Only parts placed closely (togetherJ are seen as they are, but
another entity which is their possessor and which itself consists
of no Parts (i. e. a composite whole] is not apprehended.
(The opponent:] It What is meant by the manifestation of parts?"
(The Sautrantika :] It is simply the manifestation of atoms, which,
being placed in different directions are piled together (samcita).
[The opponent:] It If so, why did Dharmottara say that grossness
(sthaulya) is the quality of the manifested (pratibhiisadharma)400 [and not
the quality of the real]?"
(The Sautrantika:J The significance of the words is as follows: An
(externalJ reality (artha) is not known itself, because it is said that the
knowledge of an [external] reality is possible only in the secondary sense. 401
Therefore, this manifestation of blue etc. is perceived as pervading dif-
ferent spots; the very manifestation is none other than the manifestation
of grossness (and there is no seParate, gross entityJ.
(67.2) To the it is atoms that make up the composite
whole; according to the theory of the Vaibhasikas, atoms l when united
together] come directly into the range of perception; according to the
Sautrantikas [however, they are not perceptible themselves, but] are just
liable to leave an impress of their own forms [in our knowledge]. But
these atoms are not existent at all according to the theory of the Yoga-
caras.
398. See 7. 2.
399. See 7. 2 and n. 140. T tha dad pa thag he bar gnas pa rnams kyi kho na de Ita
de itar snan ste, de dan (n. dban) ldan pa zig kho na sial' yan dbye ba med par rtogs
par i}gyur 1'0. The Tibetan translator seems not to have realised that this is the same
verse as that in M 22, 14 ( 7.2) where he gives a different translation. In the present
translation he missed out na in the last half.
400. pratibhiisadharmai} sthaulyam, not identified. But a similar passage is found in
DP 43, 8-10 : ekajiiiinagriihyiis tathiividhii sthula iti. eko' yam sthula
iti tu tathiibhutapratibhiisiisrayetJa vyavasthiipyarniinatviit pratibhiisadharma ity ucyate, na
vastudharma1} , pratyekam aparisamiipter iti.
401. bhiiktarh syiid arthavedanam. Not identified.
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32. The doctrine of the Yogieira school. (67.5) [The Yogacarin's
argument for the refutation of atoms is as follows:] A single atom can
never be established, for when an atom is placed in the middle, surrounded
by [other] atoms existing over, below, and on the four sides of it, it
would necessarily have six Parts [thus the argument for the alleged in-
divisibility of an atom falls to the ground]. For [if it is an indivisible
entity] the same atom in the middle which is in contact with another
atom in the front is not able to be in contact with another at the back,
since the fonner two atoms would necessarily occupy one and the same
spot. 402"'In the same way, if the atom at the back is in the same spot
[in which the middle and front atoms are placed], then the middle atom
alone could be in contact withit. 402 Even when there is no direct contact
[between atoms], if they face each other, it will come to the same thing.
Thus, a bodily object would be reduced to the size of an atom [which is
absurd].
(67.13) Or we can examine the problem as follows: 403"'What is visible
cannot consist of one [atom] as is understood by the examination stated
immediately above ;".403 nor can it consist of many [atoms] since one atom
is not united with another.
404
That is to say, if this [atom] has Parts, how
can it be an atom [which lTIUSt be indivisiblel ? Or if it has no parts, all
bodily objects, say a mountain or the earth, would be reduced to the size of
an atom, because conjoined atoms, being wholly united, all occupy one and
the same spot. Therefore it is necessary to admit that two atoms [1. e.
that in the front and that at the back] are distinct in existence from each
other. And just as they are Ldistinct], just so are those conjoined atoms
at the upper, lower, southern and northern part distinct in existence from
one another. Thus, it will be a necessary corollary that an atom is six-
sided ($arJainsatii), as is said by [Vasubandhu] as follows:
If an atom were conjoined with six other atoms simultaneously, it
would be six-sided; if six atoms occupied the same spot.. a bodily
402. G evam ca sa paramii1}um pratyiisided yadi so
'pi tatra syiit ,. T de /tar ni rdur phra rab sar ma dan fie ran bzin de rdur phra rah
ma rtogs pas gal te na de yan der ro. Both G and T seem to be defecti ve.
I follow M.
403. Omitted in G.
404. T rdul phra rah kyi Cn. inserts chaJ sas la (p. d. las) rdul phra rah mi dmigs
phyir ro. I follow M, G.
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object would be of the size of an atom. 405
And when an atom is not established, a number [ of atoms] are also not
established; thus there are no atoms at all.
406
(68.6) [The opponent:] H If there is no external object, what is this
cognized image (pratibhiisa) related to?"
[The Yogacarin :] The image of our cognition occurs because of our un-
true, latent seeds of representation [which have been stored in subconscious-
ness] since the beginningless past (aniidivitathaviisanii),40'l and is seen
408
[as if external], though it has nothing [external] as its object. Thus: the
image of our cognition will have an object only if there existed an external
reality to be referred to. But this (external reality] must be either a com-
posite whole or the accumulated atoms. But both the contentions have
been refuted by the proof contradicting them which we have stated just
above, and have no more reality than a day-lotus in the sky. Concerning
this the following is said:
There is no composite whole, nor are atoms real; the image of
cognition has no object, but resembles experiences in a dream. 409
Knowledge in a dream is known to have no Lexternal] object; and there
is no difference between the experience in a dream and that in a state of
waking, since both are seen to be the same in every respect. Knowledge,
when it has not acquired a different feature from the knowledge having
no [external] object, is not able to experience what is related to an [ex-
ternal] object. [This argument may be formulated into the following
405. =Vimsatikii, v. 12 : yugapad yogiit paramii't}oJ: samiina-
desatviit Pi't}4aJ: syiid anumiitrakaJ:.
406. Detailed refutation of paramii't}u by the Yogacarins is found in various texts such
as Vimsatikii ,. Digniiga's ,. TS v. 1967-1998.
407. M=G vitata, but T ji Ita ba biin ma yin pai}i=vitatha.
408. G sambhiivyate (made possible) ; M=T
409. na sann avayavi niima na santi paramii't}avai}, pratibhiiso niriilambai} svapniinubha-
vasamnibhaJ:. The first half is missing in G, T, and M has san navayavi which must be
corrected into sann avayavi. The source is not identified, but this verse is again identical
with JSS v. 25 (Yamaguchi, 302) : cha sas can zes bya med cin, phra rab rdul rnam med pa
dan, so sor snan ba dmigs med dan, nams su myon ba rmi lam J:dra. Here, however, the
last piida reads 'experience resembles a dream'.
410. G dvitiyam ,. M dvitiymh jniinam ,. T dvitiyam iikiisakdadarsanam. Akiisakda, a
hair in the sky, is the illusion of a hair floating in the sky seen by a man with diseased eyes,
and is used as a simile of a cognition which occurs without depending on an external
reality.
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syllogism: J
Knowledge" which is not different from the knowledge having no
[externalJ object, has no [externalJ object, as the second cogni-
tion [of a hair in the skyJ410 is not different from the first cogni-
tion of it.
The knowledge in a state of waking" the present subject of con-
troversy, is not different from the knowledge in a dream [which
has no external objectJ.
[Therefore it has no external objectJ.
(69.2) [The opPOnent:J H If there is no external thing, then what is
the ultimate reality ?"411
[The Yogacarin: J The ultimate reality is the pure consciousness with-
out manifoldness which is freed from stains beginning with [tlie bifurca-
tion of] cognitum and cognizer (grahyagrahakadikalankanankitam
pancavijniinamiitram), as is expressed in [the following verse :J412
Consciousness freed from cognitum and cognizer is the ultimate
reality.
Again, the following is said [by Dharmakirti: J413
[Excepting knowledge itselfJ, there is nothing to be experienced by
knowledge, and [likewiseJ it has no experience other [than self-
experiencel; since knowledge is deprived of cognitum and cognizer,
it is illuminated by itself.
The Blessed. One said too :414
External objects are not existent as ignorant people imagine; the
mind, urged by the latent seeds of representation, takes the fonn
of the external thing.
411. M paramiirthasat ; G, T sat.
412. griihyagriihakanirmuktam vijniinam paramiirthasat. This is identical with JSS v.
26 a-b (Yamaguchi, 302) : gzun dan pa las grol rnam ses dam don du yod.
A very similar verse is found in JNA 435, 9 : griihyagriihakavaidhuryiid vijniinam paramii-
rthasat, ekiinekaviyogena vijniinasydpi sunyatii.
413. PV III, v. 328: ndnyo'nubhiivyas tend (=jniinendJ sti tasya tasyd-
pi tulyacodyatviit svayam saiva prakiisate, which is changed by our author into ndnyo
'nubhiivyo buddhydsti tasyii ndnubhavo' griihyagriihakavaidhuryiit svayam saiva pra-
kiisate. This change is followed by Vadirajasiiri (NVV I. 317, 19), Hemacandra (AYV 111,
1-2), Madhava (SOS 31, 196-197) and GUJ;laratna (TRO 40, 13-14).
414. biihyo na vidyate hy artho yathii biilair vikalpyate, viisaniiluthitam cittam arthii-
bhiisam pravartate. Lankiivatiirasutra, Nanjio ed. 285, 4-5, where viisanair lurJitam is given
for Viisaniiluthitam.
-147-
32.1. Sakaravada and nirakaravada of the Yogacarins. (69.11) Con-
cerning this point, some (Yogacarins, i. e. Sakarajfianavadins] maintain the
following: All this that is commonly known to be existent as the body or
the object (of its activity] is none other than knowledge. And since this
knowledge is conscious only of itself, we conclude that there is neither
cognitum nor cognizer for anyone; through logical construction (kalpanii),
however, appears the relation of cognitum and cognizer. Therefore, the
truth consists in the knowledge which, though having ( various] images
(iikiira),415 is freed from the imaginary relation of cognitum and cognizer.
Others (i. e. Nirakarajfianavadinal). Yogacarit,lal).] however, argue as
follows: The essence of knowledge is not stained by the specks of any
images and resembles a pure crystal (or the clear sky of an autumnal
midday].416 Those images of cognition (iikiira) are indeed not real and
become perceptible by being shown by nescience (avidyii). Therefore
the cognized is not existent in reality; and since the cognized is not ex-
istent,417 the quality of cognizer, which is ascribed to knowledge in relation
to the [cognized], also does not exist. 418
33. The doctrine of the Madhyarnika. (69.19) According to the view
of the Madhyamikas, however, even that knowledge Lwhich is admitted
as real by the Yogacarins] is not in reality existent, since it cannot with-
stand scrutiny. For in the world they say that what is endowed with
independent essence (svabhiiva) is ultimately real. But when examined,
that (knowledge] cannot have an independent essence, be this single or
plural [i. e. uniform or variegated], 419 since it does not withstand the ex-
415. Read siikiiram instead of M 69, 15 siikiira. This word is missing in G, T, but has
a very important significance.
416. The second simile is found only in T : ston ka dri ma med nin phyed kyi
nam Ita bu.
417. M, G griihyiibhiiviit,. T rnam pa thams cad du de med phyir=sarvathii tad-
abhiiviit.
418. See Appendix II.
419. M purvaviciiriisahatviit; T gCg du ma rnam par dpyad pa sitar bjod
phyir ro (since we have before stated the examination of singleness and plurality); G
omits it totally. The author refers to the negation of the existence of an atom as well
as atoms, which is demonstrated at the beginning of the present section. A more elaborate
arlSument of the Madhyamika against the existence of cognition is found in PV III,
v. 209-210: yady ekatvam na yujyate, saiva tiivat katham buddhir
ekii citriivabhiisini. idam vastubaliiyiitam yad vadanti yathii yatharthiis cintyante
visiryante fathii fathii. When a controversy as to how cognition which is by nature
-148--
amination which is stated above [regarding atoms]. Concerning this, the
following is said: 420
To the wise, that knowledge [which the VijfHinavadins admit as
real] is also not ultimately real, since it, as the sky-lotus, is de-
prived of single or plural essence.
The revered Dharmakirti said too :421
An essential form by which things are defined does not in truth
exist; because single or plural essence is not present in these
things.
In the same way, the following is said by the author of the [Pramii:lJa-
viirttika-] Alamkiira [Prajiiakaragupta]:
When neither conceptual knowledge nor the other [i. e. indeter-
minate perception] has validity, who is then to blame even if
everything is shattered? 422
In the sense of the highest truth, there is no difference between
the fettered and the emancipated, since no difference appears to
those who see that all things are equal. 423
The syllogism [for the proof] also runs as follows:
A thing of which the essential quality is determined neither as
single nor as plural is not ultimately real, as e. g. the sky-lotus;
Knowledge has not an essential quality either single or plural;
[Therefore, it is not ultimately real].
single can grasp its object having plural aspects is going on, the Madhyamika enters into
the arena and argues that after all cognition is not ultimately real because we cannot
determine cognition to be either single or pluraL which means it has no svabhiiva, and
that therefore the Madhyamika's doctrine of universal emptiness is superior to the Vijna-
navada. The same argument is abbreviated by ]nanasrimitra at the beginning of the
Siikiirasiddhisiistra (JNA 367, 22-368, 5).
420. tad api dhirii1}iim vijiiiinam piiramiirthikam, ekiinekasvabhiivena viyogiid ga-
ganiibjavat. This is again identical with ISS v. 27 (Yamaguchi, 315) : rnam ses dam
don ldan pa, de yan brtan rnams mi de. gcig dan du ran bzin dan, bral phyir
nam padma bzin.
421. = PV III, v. 360 : bhiivii yena nirupyante tad rupam nasti yasmiid ekam
anekam ca rupam na vidyate. In our text ca and are changed into vii and
respectively.
422. = PVBh 382, 24-25 (III, v. 107) : yadii tu na vikalpasya na ccmyasya pramii1}atii, tadii
visiryamii1}e 'Pi sarvasmin ko' pariidhyatu.
423. =PVBh 382,8 (III, v. 902) : baddhamuktiidibhedo'pi naivasti bhedo
hi navabhiity eva sarvatra samadarsiniim. Mok!jlakara changes naivasti into na casti. For
baddhamukta, G has bandhamukta- and T buddhasvapna-(sad dan rmi lam sogs).
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This inference is based on the principle of the non-perception of the Per-
vader [of the probans] (vyiipakiinupalabdhz). Firstly, this is not an
illegitimate probans,. since it is quite manifest that an essential quality,
single or plural, cannot be possessed by knowledge with an image, just as
it is not by an external thing. For the object, concerning which ordinary
People talk of the external thing, is none other than cognition itself to
those who maintain [that the world is merely] knowledge with various
images (siikiiraviidzn). Therefore, the [argument], which, against lthe
view of ordinary] people, contradicts externally existent things plays the
same role of a contradictor also concerning the internally existent. A gross
object is not admitted as consisting of one atom or many atoms.
424
And this
image which [according to you] consists of knowledge
425
may be a single
gross image or plural images divisible into many atoms [of knowledge] ;
but in either case you cannot avoid the [same kind of] criticism [as
was] made against the assertion of [the reality of] external objects.
426The distinguished Bodhisattva said in the Ma-
dhyamakiilarhkiira :
If knowledge were admitted [by you to consist of Parts] as many
as the number of [its variegated] forms, then it would be difficult
[for you] to avert the same kind of criticism which is made regard-
ing [the reality ofl atoms....
426
424. M=T... tato yat tasya bahirbhave biidhakam tad evantarbhave'pi badhakam, na hi
sthulam ekam anekam ca paramat}urupam G tato yat tasya bahirbhave bhavaMdhakam
tad evantarbhave' piti Mdhakena hi... paramat}urupam apophyate. I follow M, but G is not
different from it in sense.
425. M vijnanatmakanam ayam akaro, but G, T (rnam par ses bdag iiid du gyur
palJi rnam pa ... ) vijiianatmakas cayam akaro.... The latter reading is definitely better.
About vijiianatmaka- paramat}u- and sthiila see for instance RNA 123, 4 ff.
426. This is inserted between bhinnaIJ and ubhayathdpi (M 91, 3) only in T: dbu ma
rgyan du bdag iiid chen po bo-dhi-sa-tva yis, ci ste rnam grans bzin du rnam par ses
pa khas len na, de tshe rdul phran IJdrar gyur dpyad pa las bzlog par zes
gsuns so. Iyengar gives his own restoration into Skt. in M 93, 13-16, which is not very
faithful to the Tibetan especially in the last half of the verse. The verse is a verbatim
quotation from Madhyamakalmnkarakarika v. 47 (Peking ed. 50, b4). own
interpretation of it is found in Madhyamakalmnkaravrtti, Peking ed. 62, b7-63, a5: gal
te bar med par gnas palJi rdul phra rab kyi iw bo rnams /tar rigs mthun rnam par ses
pa man po IJdi dag kyan IJbyun na, deIJi tshe rdul phra rab la dpyad pa ci bas snar
byas pa de ba nid rnam par ses pa rnams la yan bzlog par dkaIJ bar te.... Then
he gives his criticism of atoms which is very similar to the passage we met in M 67,
7-12. It is quite likely that this portion is a later interpolation, and so I have translated
it after the present Skt. sentence is finished.
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For that is not [meant merely as] a criticism relating to external
things but also as applicable to what is not [external. J427
The objection that a contradiction Pertaining to a bodily object (milrii)
is not [applicableJ to a bodiless [image] consisting of knowledge is also
not cogent. For even knowledge, inasmuch as it is [maintained to be]
endowed with a form, has a shaPe, since this image Pervading a certain
space
428
is none other than a shaPe (milrii).
Here ends the chapter I Inference for others' of the Tarkabhii$ii writ-
ten by the Buddhist monk great doctor
429
of the monas-
tery of Jagaddhala.
430
By the merit I have gained by writing this Tarkabhii$ii may all
People in this world attain Buddhahood !
---------- -
427. The text seems confused here and I follow the amended text of G which reads:
na hi tad bahirbhiivanibandhanam yena tadabhiivena bhavet (ct. Suddhipatra in
G, 111). M has: na hi tadvijiiiine bahirbhiivanibandhanam yena tadbhiivena bhavet
(Concerning knowledge you cannot put forward a criticism relating to external things,
which is possible only as that relating to external things.) This may be understood as
a part of the objection in M 71, 5-6. T. : gan gi phyir gan gis de yod na yod par
ba rnam par ses pa de phyi rol gyi dnos rgyu mtshan can (d. p. omit can) ma yin te
could be understood as M.
428. G desacittiiniim iikiiro ; T yul la rnam par rgyas pa dan ldan rnam pa... = M
desavitiinaviin iikiiro.
429. G mahiiyati, but M, T mahiipa1J4ita.
430. G srimadriijajaddhala ; M, T srimanmahiijagaddhala.
APPENDIX
Appendix l=n.212. Buddhist logicians set forth various kinds of the classification of nega-
tive inference (ct. the diagram). Dharmakjrti himself classified it into four kinds with four
subordinate forms (PV I, v. 4 and Svavrtti), three kinds (HB), and eleven kinds (NB). The
four basic kinds proposed in PV I, v. 4 are : 1) viruddhasiddhi=svabhiivaviruddhoPalabdhi
(illustrated by na sitasParso ' 2) viruddhakiiryasiddhi = svabhiivaviruddhakiiryo-
palabdhi (na sitasparso 'tra dhumiit) ; 3) hetvasiddhi=kiira1Jiinupalabdhi (niitra dhumo 'nag-
; 4) drsyiitmanor (natra dhumo However,
in his Svavrtti on the same verse Dharmakirti actually enumerated six forms, adding a
derivative form to each 1) and 4), viz., la) vyiipakaviruddhasiddhi=vyiipakaviruddhopalabdhi
(na tusarasparso 4a) vyiipakasvabhavasiddhi=vyapakiinupalabdhi (natra simsapii
Furthermore, in PV I, v. 5 he adds 3a) =
kiira1Javiruddhopalabdhi (nasya santi and in
the Svavrtti on it he gives 3b) kiira1Javiruddhakiiryopalabdhi (6, 15-16: etena tatkiiryad
api tadviruddhakiiryabhavagatir uk/a vedi/avya yatha na
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ayam pradeSo dhiimiit). Thus he concludes that non-cognition is eightfold due to the
variety of application or syllogistic argument (6, 18: .. ..iyam prayogabhediid
These eight formulae correspond in the order of our enumeration to Nos. 5, 9, 3, 1,
8, 4, 7, 11 of Mok!?akara's classification respectively. It is to be noted that kiiryiinupalabdhi
and its three subordinate forms (Nos. 2, 6, 10, 14 in TBh) are totally missing in PV.
In HB Dharmakirti proposes a classification into three kinds, viz., kiira1}iinupalabdhi,
vyiipakiinupalabdhi and svabhiiviinupalabdhi (HBT 202, 15 ff, : HB Reconstruction, 68, 12-
13). These three formulae form the principle which underlies the classification in PV,
for kiira1J:iinupalabdhi can subsume Nos. 3, 3a, and 3b in PV, vyiipakiinupalabdhi Nos. 4a,
1a. and svabhiiviinupalabdhi Nos. 4, 1, and 2. Arca!a, when commenting on HB followed
Dharmakirti's classification into three, but at the same time he enumerates at another
place (6, 5-6) four kinds of anupalabdhi, viz., the above-named three forms of HB with
. viruddhavidhi as the fourth.
In NB Dharmakirti more derivative forms than in PV, the total amounting to
11. The three new forms added in NB are: No.6 viruddhavyiiptopalabdhi as a subordinate
form of svabhiiviinupalabdhi, No. 2 kiiryiinupalabdhi and its derivative No.7 kiiryaviruddho-
palabdhi. Kiiryiinupalabdhi appears in NB for the first time; adding this to the three forms
in HB, we get four forms which seem to offer the basic principle for the classification of
negation. In NB, however, Dharmakirti does not explain his principle, nor does Dharmot-
tara in his com. on NB.
What we have referred to just above form Mok!?akara's principle of classification. He
takes up svabhiiva-, kiirya-, kiira1J:a- and vyiipaka-anupalabdhi as the four basic forms.
Dharmakirti in NB has already given four forms related to svabhiiva (Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6) and
this suggests that three subordinate forms may be enumerated under each of the four
basic forms, although Dharmakirti himself actually gave only one subordinate form under
kiiryiinupalabdhi, two under kiira1}iinupalabdhi and one under vYiipakiinupalabdhi. Now
Mok!?akara formally gives three subordinate forms to each of the four basic forms, adding
as the result five forms which lacked in NB. Thus, the total number becomes 16. TSop
followed TBh in classifying anupalabdhi into 16 forms, though the order of enumeration
is a little different between the two.
Durvekamisra, the commentator on NBT clearly knew the classification into 16. He
says in DP 124, 15 that negation is to be regarded as of 16 kinds ( ... tu
and in DP 140, 10 ff. that 11 forms enumerated in NB and NBT are a synec-
doche since more forms may be added. Saying so, he enumerates three more
forms: vYiipakaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi (No. 12 of TBh), kiiryaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi (No. 10)
and vyiipakaviruddhavyiiptopalabdhi (No. 16), illustrating each of them by the same inference
as in TBh. And then, he says (DP 141, 1-2) that there are some people who add ano-
ther two forms, viz. kiiryaviruddhavyiiptopalabdhi (No. 14 of TBh) and kiiratJaviruddhavyii-
ptopalabdhi (No. 15), giving again the same illustrations as in TBh. Thus, Durveka
himself classified negation into 14 forms and at the same time knew that the classification
into 16 was made by some people.
The problem is : Who are some people referred to by Durveka? So far as we know,
the classification into 16 forms is clearly described only in TBh and TSop, both of which
seem to be posterior to DP. According to the editor of DP, Durvekamisra is a pupil of
Jitari, who was a teacher of Atlsa. That is to say, Durveka is a contemporary of Juana-
srimitra, who preceded Mok!?akara by more than two generations. Therefore, Durveka
cannot refer to Mok!?akara as well as Vidyakarasanti, the author of TSop. It is most
likely, therefore, that the classification of negation into 16 kinds existed before Mok!?akara.
]nanasrimjtr'l mentions vyiipakaviruddhakiiryopalabdhi, which is admitted by Durveka and
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Classification of anupalabdhi
TBh PV HB NB ; NBT DP Tsop
1 svabhava-anupalabdhi 4 drsyatmanor 3 svabhava-anup. 1 svabhava-anup. ibid 1
asiddhi (s. II, 32)
5 svabhava-viruddha- 1 viruddha-siddhi 4 svabhava-viruddha- ibid 5
upalabdhi upa. (II, 35)
9 svabhava-viruddha- 2 viruddha-karya- 5 viruddha-karya- ibid 13
karya-upa. siddhi -upa. (II, 36)
13 svabhava-viruddha- 6 viruddha-vyapta- ibid 9
vyapta-upa. upa. (II, 37)
2 karya-anupalabdhi 2 karya-anupalabdhi ibid 4
(II, 33)
6 karya-viruddha-upa. 7 karya- viruddha- ibid 8
upa. (II, 38)
10 karya-viruddha- 10 karyaviruddha- 16
karya-upa. karya-upa.
....
(]'I
14 karya-viruddha- 15 karyaviruddha- 12
CJ.)
I
vyapta-upa. vyapta-upa.
3 karalfa-anupalabdhi 3 hetv-asiddhi 1 karalfa-anup.
9 karalfa-anupa. ibid
2
(II, 40)
7 karalfa-viruddha- 3a tad-viruddha-nimi- 10 karana-viruddha- ibid 6
upa. ttasya-upalabdhi upa. (II, 41)
11 karana-virudha- 3b karana-viruddha- 11 karana-viruddha- ibid 14
karya-upa. karya-upa. karYa.upa. (II, 42)
15 karana-viruddha- 16 karanaviruddha- 10
vyapta-upa. vyapta-upa.
4 vyapaka-anupalabdhi 4a vyapaka-svabhava- 2 vyapaka-anup. 3 vyapaka-anup. ibid 3
asiddhi (II, 34)
8 vyapaka-viruddha- la vyapaka-viruddha 8 vyapaka-viruddha- ibid 7
upa. siddhi upa. (II, 39)
12 vyapaka-viruddha- 12 vyapakaviruddha- 15
karya-upa. karya-upa.
16 vyapaka-viruddha- 14 vyapakaviruddha- 11
vyapta-upa. vyapta-upa.
corresponds to No. 12 of TBh (d. jNA 190, 2), and this suggests that jnanasri kne w
more forms than PV, NB and NBT, and that it is the group of logicians headed by him who
first proposed the classification into 16 kinds. But I cannot produce further evidence for it.
Appendix II=n. 418. A similar description of the sakiira- and nirakiira-vijnanavada of
the Yogacarins appears in Bodhibhadra's commentary on JSS, Peking ed., 51, b3 ff. which is
translated into japanese by Yamaguchi (308) : rnal spyod pa ni rnam pa gnis te,
rnam pa dan bcas pa dan, rnam pa med de la rnam pa dan bcas pa ni slob dpon phyogs
kyi glan po la sogs pa dag gi pa ste, rnam pa gzan gyi dban du ston pas ji skad du:
nan gi ses no bo ni, phyi rol !tar nan (snan?) gan yin te, don yin zes bya ba la sags
pa ste rnam par ses tshogs drug tu smra rnam pa de med pa ni slop dpon
pa thogs med la sogs pa ste, de dag rnam pa kun tu brtags pa rab rib Can gyi skra sad la
sogs pa !tar smra bas, don ni don tu grub na, mi rtog ye ses med par de med
pas na sans rgyas nid, thob par pa ma yin no. de bzin du, mi rtog ye ses rgyu ba la,
don kun snan ba med phyir yan, don med khan du chud par bya, de med pas na rnam rig
med ces brjod cin, rnam par ses tshogs brgyad dan, kha cig cig pur smra ba ste. gcig
pu nid ni rnam pa dan bcas pa dag la yan kha cig go.
Tr. : Here the Yogacarins are of two kinds, (those who maintain that knowledge is]
always (endowed] with images (sakiira) and (those who maintain that knowledge in its
absolute state is] without images (nirakiira). Of these, sakiira is propounded by Dignaga
and his followers. They teach that the images of cognition belong to the dependent
nature (paratantrasvabhava) , as is said (in the v. 6 as follows]: "The
object of cognition is the same as the internal image which appears as if it were ex-
ternally existent..." They talk only of six kinds of cognitions. Nirakara is taught by
Acarya Arya Asanga and his followers. They maintain that the images of cognition
belong to the represented nature (parikalpitasvabhava) and are (as much false as] the
hair seen by one suffering from partial blindness. It is said (in Mahayanasamgraha, ed.
Lamotte, Chap. II, 14b. c=VIII, 20. c] : "If the object of cognition is established as an
external reality there would not be non-conceptual knowledge (nirvikalpakajnana); with-
out it Buddhahood cannot be attained". And again (Mahavanasamgraha, Chap. II, 14b. f=
VIII, 20. fJ: "Where non-conceptual knowledge occurs, all objects never appear; there-
fore one must understand the non-existence of the object. Since it is not existent, the
content of cognition is also not existent". They talk of eight kinds of cognition; but
some say there is only one kind (of cognition]. This theory of one kind (of cognition] is
maintained also by some of the Sakiiravadins.
In continuation to n. 148 above, I will give here a brief description of the development
of the sakiira- and nirakara-vada in Mahayana Buddhism. According to Ratnakarasanti
(see the quotation from his PrajnaParamitoPadesa below), the Madhyamikas as well as the
Yogacarins are each divided into two groups, one maintaining sakiiravada and the other
holding nirakaravada. But the most imoprtant development is that among the Yogacarins.
The Sautrantikas thought that what we perceive is not an external reality itself, the
existence of which can be known only by inference, but the impress or image which is
left by the external reality upon our consciousness. The Yogacarins advanced a step
farther and said that the external reality is not existent at all and that the world is none
other than our ideas which are the sole reality. Therefore, to the Yogacarins, the image
of cognition is the representation of our mind: and this necessarily implies that a cogni.
tion is always endowed with an image which is represented by our mind. Thus all the
Yogacarins must be sakaravadins so far as the cognition of common people is concerned.
/\. problem, howeVer, appears in regard to an emancipated person, who is supposed to

have acquired nirvikalpakajiiiina or non-conceptual, supermundane knowledge. Some
Yogacarins thought that knowledge of an emancipated person is free from the fetter of
cognitum and cognizer and accordingly is clear like a pure crystal without specks. And
they thought this clear, imageless knowledge is the essence of cognition, regarding images
as false, unreal specks born from our viisanii. This is the essential of the niriikiirajiiiina-
viida held by some of the Yogacarins. But others from the same school criticised this
theory saying that what is not real can be never manifested, since otherwise a sort of the
unfavourable doctrine of asatkhyiiti would follow. Every cognition, so long as it is know-
ledge, must have an image, and there is no harm in that an emancipated person's know-
ledge is with an image, if he is freed from conceptual thinking. This is the essential
point of the siikiirajniinaviida of the Yogacarins.
What I have depicted above is the fairly later aspect of the controversy regarding
siikiira and niriikiira, and must have been developed after Dharmakirti and reached its
final phase at the time of Ratnakarasanti and ]ilanasrimitra. ]ilanasrimitra, a siikiira-
viidin, owes much of his theory to Prajilakaragupta and DharmakirtL while RatnakarasantL
a niriikiiraviidin, seems to be akin to We are not sure of characteristics of the
controversy before Dharmakirti. In various places of his books, however, Yamaguchi says
that Dignaga, Dharmapala, DharmakirtL etc. represented the siikiiraviida, and GUl).amati,
Sthiramati. etc. the niriikiiraviida. His opinion seems to be mainly based on the above pass-
age of Bodhibhadra's and Hsiian-chuang's description of different theories of the Vijilanava-
dins in the Vijnaptimiitratiisiddhi with K'uei-chi's com. As well known, however, the in-
formation given by this Chinese source is not always parallel with what we know from
Sanskrit and Tibetan sources such as the writings of SthiramatL and it must be accepted
only with reserves. None the less, I think that the controversy ascribed to Dharmapala and
Sthiramati by the Chinese tradition is equivalent in principle to the controversy of siikiira
and niriikiira that is known from Sanskrit sources. As for the difference between Dharma-
pala and Sthiramati as informed of by Hsiian-chuang and his direct disciple, Frauwallner
gives the best survey.
Die PhiJosophie des Buddhismus, S. 396-397: Die folgende Ubersetzungsprobe behandelt
... die Lehre von den Teilen des Erkennens. Uber diesen Gegenstand herrschten nach den
Mitteilungen Hiuan-Tsangs die verschiedensten Ansichten. Teilweise hielt man an der
Auffassung Vasubandhus fest, nach der im Erkennen das Bild des Objektes erscheint. ohne
dass ausdrlicklich Teile unterschieden wiirden. Meist nahm man nach dem Vorgang
Dignagas drei Teile an. Das war auch die Ansicht Sthiramatis. Dharmapala fiigte
schliesslich noch einen vierten Teil hinzu. Der Gegensatz zwischen Sthiramati und Dha-
rmapala beruht aber auf diesem Gebiet weniger auf der Zahl der angenommenen Teile,
sondern auf folgendem. Nach Sthiramati ist nur der Bewusstseinsteil (svasatnvedana-bhiiga)
wirklich, der BiId- (griihya-) und Blickteil (griihaka-bhiiga) ist bloss Vorstellung. Nach
Dharmapala sind alle Teile wirklich. Diese Meinungsverschiedenheit hat ihre tieferen
Griinde. Sthiramati folgt namlich der Ansicht Maitreyanathas und Vasubandhus, nach der
jedes Erkennen Vorstellung ist. Infolgedessen gehort der Bild- und Blickteil jedes Erken-
nens dem vorgestellten Wesen an und ist unwirklich. Nur der
Bewusstseinsteil fallt ins Bereich des abhangigen Wesens svabhiivalJ) und ist
wirklich. Dharmapala greift dagegen den Gedanken Asangas auf. dass die Vorstellung
nur dem Denken zukommt, und fiihrt ihn, vielleicht im Anschluss an Dignaga, weiter aus.
Fur ihn umfasst das vorgestellte Wesen daher nur die Beschaffenheit, welche vom Denk-
erkennen (manovijniinam) und vom Denken den Gegenstanden der iibrigen Form-
en des Erkennens zugeschrieben wird. Der Bild- und Blickteil aller dieser Erkenntnis-
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formen zahlt jedoch zum abhangigen Wesen und ist wirklich. Fur Sthiramati ist somit
die ganze Erscheinungswelt blosse Vorstellung. Fur Dharmap:Ha kommt ihr Wirklichkeit
zu, nur handelt es sich nach seiner Lehre urn keine Aussenwelt, sondern bloss urn Er-
scheinungsformen des Erkennens. Auch in der Erlosungslehre wirkt sich diese Meinungs-
verschiedenheit aus, wobei sich wieder der Anschluss an Maitreyanatha und Asanga zeigt.
Fur Sthiramati verschwindet bei der Erlosung im Zusammenhang mit der Umgestaltung der
Grundlage jedes Erkennen, da es blosse Vorstellung ist, und nur die Soheit
bleibt bestehen. Nach Dharmapala erfahren samtliche Formen des Erkennens eine Umge-
staltung, bestehen aber auch beim Erlosten weiter.
Frauwallner's opinion that the origine of Dharmapala's theory is traced back to Asanga
is different from the description of Bodhibhadra who ascribes the niriikiiraviida to the same
Asanga, if Dharmapala is accepted as a genuine siikiiraviidin. Apart from the controversy
of early Yogacarins, ]nanasrimitra and Ratnakirti represent the siikiiraviida while Ratna-
karasanti the niriikiiraviida in the latest stage of Indian Yogacara school- in this connection
it is interesting to remember that ]nanasri and Ratnakara held different opinions also on
bahir- and antar-vyiiptiviida, which may suggest opposition in general between these two
great scholars. Fortunately, the controversy between ]nanasri and Ratnakara is attested
by rich materials.
PPU, 161, a5-161. b4: de bas na chos thams cad sems tsam dan, rnam par ses pa tsam
dan, gsal ba tsam yin pas rnam par rig gzun ba phyi 1'01 gyi don yod pa ma yin pas,
rnam par rig pa rnams kyan ran bZin du yod pa ma yin teo gfiis ni yid kyi
mnon par brjod phyir chos thams cad kyi kun brtags ran bzin yin no. gan la brtags
se na, don med par yan kun tu brtags no bo fiid la mnon par zen bag chags las
skyes don du snan yan dag pa ma yin kun tu rtog yan dag pa ma yin
kun tu rtog pa de ni chos rnams kyi gzan gyi dban gi no bo fiid dan pa dan,
phyin ci log dan, log ses pa yan yin no. Itar gzun ba dan rnam pa
ni pa dan bslad dban zig gis snan bas brdsun phyir, yan dag pa ma
yin kun tu rtog pa de la de skad ces bya ste, ran bzin de ni yan dag pa ma yin
yan dag pa fiid gan yin ze na, gsal ba tsam mo. de fiid kyis na rnam pa de ni
mtshan ma dan, spros mtshan ma zes bya bar brjod de, dmigs pa yin
phyir 1'0. gfiis kyi mtshan zes kyan bya ste, gnis Itar snan phyir 1'0. spros
mtshan med (Read ma) thams cad rten las ye ses la par la, des
na de ni ma pa dan yan dag ye ses su yan dag brjod do. de fiid kyi phyir de
yan yons su grub no bo fiid yin teo
Tr.: Therefore, all things are the mere mind, the mere knowledge and the mere ill-
umination. An external reality which is said to be grasped by cognition is not exist-
ent; and accordingly the cognition is also not existent as having the nature of cognizer.
These two (i.e. cognitum and cognizer) are the expression (abhiliipa) of the thinking
(manas) and as such belong to the represented nature (parikalpitasvabhiiva) of things.
Where are they represented? (They are represented in) the wrong representation (abhu-
taparikalpa) which appears pretending to be external things and which is born from the
latent seeds of representation (viisanii) , which are attached to (constructing) represented
images where there are no (external) realities. This abhutaparikalpa is the dependent
nature (paratantrasvabhiiva) of things, and is false, perverted and erroneous knowledge.
For its aspects of cognitum and cognizer are both unreal, since they appear only because of
falsity (bhriinti) and confusion (viplava). This is why it is said that (the two are re-
presented) in the wrong representation. Their nature is not real. What then is reality?
The pure illumination (prakiisamiitra) alone is real. Thus, it is said, the images (iikiira)
-156-
Cof cognition) are marked by falsity (bhrantinimitta) , marked by manifoldness (prapaiica-
nimitta). It is because they are objects of false (cognition). They are also called twofold
form, because they appear as two (Le. cognitum and cognizer). All manifold marks
are destroyed when one gets supermundane knowledge (tokottarajniina). So this is rightly
called real knowledge. This is the very reason why it is the accomplished nature (parini-
pannasvabhiiva).
ibid. 167, b8-168, a3: snon po la sogs pa de gsal bzin pa yin yan gnod pa yod palJi
phyir brdsun pa yan gurb po. de brdsun par grub pas na delJi bdag nid de yan brdsun par
grub po. yan gsal ba de rigs pa ni IJkhrul pa dan bral bas mnon sum yin palJi phyir dnos
po nid du grub pa yin teo gan gi phyir gsal ba ni gsal ba nid kyis gnug malJi ran bzin yin
te, gan gi myon ba IJdi IJkhrul par IJjog palJi bslad pas bZag pa med palJi phyir ro. yan snon
po la sogs palJi ran bzin yin palJi phyir bslad pas byas par IJgyur la, de !tar gyur bas na de
myon ba yan IJkhrul par IJgyur ro. de bas na snon po la sogs pa la ni gnod pa IJjug palJi
skabs yod kyi gsal ba la ni ma yin no.
Tr.: (Represented images) such as a blue thing etc, though they are being manifested,
are proved to be unreal (alika) , since they are contradicted (by another cognition). Since
they are proved to be unreal, their substratum itself is proved to be unreal. However,
the consciousness of illumination (prakiisa) itself is directly intuited as free from falsity,
and accordingly is established as real. For illumination has as its inborn nature illuminat-
ing function, and cannot be approached by confusion (viplavopanita), so that the conscious-
ness of it might be false. On the other hand, blue is another thing (different from the
illumination itself), and can be approached by confusion; therefore, the knowledge of it
may be false. Thus, there may be occasions in which (the knowledge of) blue, etc. is
(negated) by another contradicting cognition, but it cannot happen in the case of the
illumination itself.
This passage of Ratnakara is cited as a by]nanasrimitra in ]NA 368, 6-10,
though the Tib. translation deviates from the Skt. from time to time: bhavatv iikiiriit}iim
biidhaniid alikatvam, prakiisamiitram tu sat yam iimniiyalJ, tadiitmavedanasya bhriintatviiyogena
prakiisasya prakiisa eva nijam rupam iti na tat tasya viplavopanitam, vena
tadvedanam bhrantilJ syiit. nilam tu rupiintaratviit viplavopanitam api syad iti syiit tadvedanam
bhrantilJ. tato'sti niliidau biidhakasydvatiiro na prakase. ...
PPU Peking ed., 168, a4ff.: rnal IJbyor sPyod pa pa dan, dbu ma pa ses pa rnam pa
dan bcas par smra ba kha cig na re, snon po dan gsal ba dag brdsun pa dan brdsun pa ma
yin par gyur na, chos IJgal ba fiid kyis na delJi bdag tu IJthad par mi IJgyur la, delJi bdag
fiid ma yin na yan snon po la sogs pa gsal bar mi IJgyur na snon po la sogs pa ni gsal ba
yin teo sgro (ma) btags palJi dnos por gyur palJi gsal ba las gzan ma yin palJi phyir snon
po la sogs pa ni sgro ma btags palJi dnos por gyur ba yin zes zer teo de dag gi ltar na gsal
ba thams cad phyin ci ma log palJi ran gi no bo myon balJi phyir, thams cad IJkhrul pa med
par IJgyur ro. des na sems can thams cad rtag tu grol bar IJgyur la, rtag tu yan dag par
rdsogs palJi sans rgyas fiid du IJgyur ro. ...
Tr.: Some of the siikiirajnanavadins of the Yogacara and the Madhyamika school say
as follows: "If (as the nirakiiravadin maintains, the image of cognition) such as blue is
unreal and the illumination (of cognition) is real, they, being incompatible entities, could
not be identical; and if (blue) would not be identical with the illumination, blue could not
be illuminated (i.e. could not become visible). But it is a fact that blue is seen. Then,
(Le. if they were identical) blue, etc. would not be imagined things, since it is not different
from the illumination which is not imaginary." (Answer) If it is as they say, all cognitions
-157-
would know the corret nature (of things); this would result in that there are no false
cognitions at all. Thus, all people would be always emancipated, Le. all would be per-
fectly enlightened ones....
This discussion continues longer, and the Sanskrit parallel to the portion of the an-
swer is found in JNA 387, 8-23 and RNA 129, 1-12: tathii hi sarvair eva prakiisair avi
paritiirthasvariipasatnvedaniid bhriinter atyantam syiit, tatas ca sadaiva
satnyaksambuddhii .... I refrain from quoting farther, though parallels may be in-
creased more, since this is not a place to enter into a detailed account of the controversy.
-158-
SANSKRIT INDEX
In the following Indices free numbers refer to pages; numbers in the roman numerals
preceded by n. refer to Notes of Introduction; numbers in the arabic numerals preceded
by and n. refer to Sections and Notes of Translation. Index 3 (Proper names) includes
names and epithets of: authors and titles of Sanskrit works, places, schools. and a few
Tibetan and Chinese persons and works.
akfilais tad vyapadisyate n. 87a
ajiHitarthaprakaso va n. 8
atyantayogam eva ca n. 132
atha dharmit;li tasyaiva n. 156
'darsanan na na darsanat n. 270
adufil!akarat;larabdham n. 8
adrfil!arh kalpayed anyam n. 59
api sattvatal]. n. 282
anasrava margasatyam n. 366
pramat;labhyam n. 263
'nifil!ha tatrapi hi smr!il]. n. 104
smrtadivat n. 8
anuktav api pakfilasya n. 185
anuktir nyunatadita n. 185
Ca-)nupakhyodahrtir mata n. 204
anumanarh dvidha svartham n. 151
anumeye'tha tattulye n. 156
anuviddham iva jnanam n. 77
anyail]. pratyakfilasiddhatvam n. 324
apratyakfilopalambhasya n. 106, 115
apravrttil]. pramat;lanam n. 205
apravrttiphala'sati n. 205
aprasiddhopalambhasya n. 115
abhiprayanivedanat n. 16
abhiprayasarhvedane n. 187
abhutan api pasyanti n. 124
amukhye'py ekadesatvat n. 159
ayogarh yogam aparair n. 132
" .arthakriyasthitir n. 13
arthasya drfil!av iveti n. 340
n. 214
arthabhasarh pravartate n. 414
artho jnananvito vaibha- n. 148
avacyo'nugrhitatvan n. 156
avikalpam api jnanam n. 88
avinabhavaniyamo n. 270
avisarhvadanarh sabde n. 16
'vyatibhinnarthamatradrk n. 119
asaktasucanan napi n. 187
asambandhan na sakfilad dhi n. 187
asadhanailgabhutatvat n. 185
1. Verses
asadharat;lahetutvad n. 87a
asti hy alocanajnanam n. 70
asya ya'jaQ.arupata n. 101
aharh kat;lal]. sukhi gaural]. n. 325
aham ity api yaj jnanam n. 325
akarasahita buddhir n. 148
akasarh dvau nirodhau ca n. 366
atmanal]. parikalpitam n. 324
atmano na prakasakam n. 110
atmasunyam akartrkam n. 366
atmanam atmanaivatma n. 103
iti cet grahyatam vidul]. n. 74
ity ajnajnapanayaika- n. 204
idarh vastubalayatam n. 419
idanirhtanacittavat n. 378
iyam evatmasarhvittir n. 101
narthe vikalpanat n. 117
idrsam va prakasatvam n. 110
ucyate sadhyasiddhyartham n. 236
va n. 236
ekapratyavamarsartha- n. 345
ekasamagryadhinasya n. 191
ekasyanarhsarupasya n. 102
eka citravabhasini n. 419
ekanekaviyogena n. 412
ekanekasvabhavena n. 420
ekabhave'nyahanaye n. 315
eva tatra kriya mata n. 17
kal]. sambandho'navastha ca n. 40
katham bahyam tad ucyate n. 383
karta ced vyatirekasiddhividhura vyaptil].
katharh sidhyati n. 269
karma cittam avadhuya na dsti n. 364
karmajarh lokavaicitryam n. 364
karmajarh hi jagad uktam asefilam n. 364
kalpanapi svasarhvittav n. 117
kalpital]. karmakartradil]. n. 103
kas tarh kfilapayitum kfilamal]. n. 126
kamasokabhayonmada- n. 124
karyakarat;labhavad va n. 270
karyatvasya sambha-
-159-
vyate'tindriyal,1 n. 269
karyotpado'numlyate n. 214
kalayol,1 ca sadrsatmanal,1 n. 356
kim anyat tena mlyate n. 156
kimartharh nanumeyata n. 156
kecid dharmantararh meyam n. 156
kevalarh sarhvidarh svastham n. 148
kramotpattir viruddhyate n. 356
kriyaya ca sahodital,1 n. 132
kriyaya saha yatra nan n. 62
kriyakarakabhavena n. 102
kriyakaralfayor aikya- n. 143
kriya ca sadrsatmanal,1 n. 356
kriyayam akriyayarh ca n. 356
grhltagrahalfan n. 8
grahyagrahakanirmuktam n. 412
grahyagrahakavaidhuryad n. 412, 413
grahyadharmas tadarhsena n. 157
-grahyo'rtho na bahir matal,1 n. 148
carvakas tavad ekarh dvitayam api punar
bauddhavaisel?ikau dvau n. 27
cittam eva racayaty aticitram n. 364
citravabhasel?v n. 419
citre'pi n. 17
cetana tatkrtarh ca tat n. 364
cetana manasarh karma n. 364
-caurasvapnadyupaplutal,l n. 124
chede n. 132
jayate sa iti smrtil,1 n. 359
jnanam arthakriyasthitil,1 n. 13, 16
jnanam ity eva tat kutal,1 n. 116
jnanarh tu jnatatavasat n. 111
jnanarh natmanam rcchati n. 110
n. 74
jnanadyekarthasadhane n. 345
jnanantarelff'nubhave n. 104
jnanabhidhanasarhdeham n. 204
jneyasvarupasarhsiddhir n. 17
jvaradisamane kascit n. 345
tac charlrendriyatmavit n. 325
tajje vakkayakarmalfl n. 364
taj jnanarh tatra kalpana n. 117
tattyage' pi tada trlfadikam iti vyaktarh
n. 269
tat pakl?avacanarh vaktur n. 187
tatra prasiddhari1 tadyuktam n. 156
tatrakasam anavrtil,1 n. 366
tatradhyakl?am ato'khilam n. 117
tatrapurvarthavijnanam n. 8
n. 61
tatrarthadrf?lir vijnanam n. 98
tathatrapi n. 110
tatha na syat sa n. 104
tadarthal) n. 379
tada vislryamalfe'pi n. 422
taddvarelfa bhavaty atal,1 n. 88
tad ruparh nasti tattvatal,1 n. 421
tadvan kascit punar naiva n. 140
tadvisel?e tu caitasal,1 n. 98
tasmat tatradivijnanam n. 378
tasya nanubhavo'paral,1 n. 413
tasya n. 116
tasya saktir asaktir va n. 126
tasyatma villlayo matal,1 n. 324
tasyapi tulyacodyatvat n. 413
tasyarthanubhavatmakam n. 110
tasY2rtho'yarh pratiyate n. 132
tena narthantararh phalam n, 5, 146
tena prakasakatve'pi n. 110
tena hetur iha prokto n. 396
tel?arh tad bhavanamayam n. 119
trirupal lingato'rthadrk n. 151
trividharh capy asarhskrtam n. 366
tril?v anyatamarupasyaiva- n. 185
trairupyanupapattital,1 n. 102
drsya nendriyagocaral,1 n. 382
drsyo'tha vyatirekasiddhimanasa karta
samasrlyate n. 269
drl?la yatha n. 345
dvayor ekabhisambandhat n. 40
dharmabhedabhyupagamad n. 143
dharmamatre'tha dharmilfi n. 159
dharmilfarh gamayil?yati n. 156
dharmelfanyatra drsyate n. 156
... dhl pramal;1ata n. 21
dhumendhanavikaravat n. 191
na cajnate n. 106
na catmanubhavo'sty asya n. 110
na eZnyasya pramalfata n. 422
na c3sau lingasarhgatal,1 n. 156
na cet sarhvedyate nllam n. 383
na tu sarvasya vedakal,1 n. 369
na sakyam apabadhitum n. 58
na santi paramal;1aval,1 n. 409
na sann avayavl nama n. 409
na sambandhamatis tatha n. 40
na so'sti pratyayo loke n. 77
na svasarhvittir asya tu n. 102
nagrhitavisel?al;1a- n. 106
n. 106
nanatve 'pi na c2paral,1 n. 345
nanyo'nubhavyas tenasti n. 413
nanyo'nubhavyo buddhyfsti n. 413
namajatyadiyojana n. 67
narthatattvanibandhanam n. 16, 48
prasidhyati n. 106, 115
nf rthavittil,1 prasidhyati n. 115
nase karyatvasattvavat n. 236
-160-
n. 88
nityatvad acikitsyasya n. 126
nityam tam ahur vidvamso n. 125
nityam trayam asarhskrtam n. 366
nityasya n. 356
nitye tu manasi praptaq. n. 396
nipato vyatirecakaq. n. 132
nirbhagaJ:! pratibhasate n. 140
niscitam badhavarjitam n. 8
nihantiti nirucyate n. 103
tad api dhlraI).am n. 420
naivasti paramarthata!}. n. 423
tadarhsena n. 157
paramaIfoJ:! n. 405
paramartho na vidyate n. 103
pararupe viparyaya!}. n. 118
parartham iti varI).yate n. 185
n. 117
yadi taj jnanam n. 116
svarupam kas n. 116
paryudasaJ:! sa vijneyo n. 62
paramparyeIfa yujyate n. 187
partho dhanurdharo nilam n. 132
piIfgaJ:! syad anumatrakaI} n. 405
purato'vasthitan iva n. 124
purvapramitimatre hi n. 359
purvavijnanavat tatha n. 374
prakasakatvam bahye'rthe n. 110
pratijnadivaco'py anyaiJ:! n. 185
pratijnanupayoginI n. 185
pratibhasadharmaJ:! sthaulyam n. 400
pratibhaso niralambaI} n. 409
sa vijneya!}. n. 62
ca kasyacit n. 28
anumaIfarh ca n. 22, 128
kalpanapogham n. 66, 85
anutpattiI} n. 61
sidhyati n. 66
pratyabhijna'tireldIfI n. 359
pratyaya yaugapadyata!}. n. 396
prathamam nirvikalpakam n. 70
pramaIfataJ:! phalarh nanyat n. 5
pramaIfapancakarh ya:tra n. 61
pramaIfam avisarhvadi- n. 6, 16
n. 59
pramaIfam na phalat param n. 5
pramaI).am phalam eva sat n. 5, 146
pramaI).am lokasammatam n. 8
pramaIfantarasadbhavaI} n. 28
pramaIfabhava ucyate n. 61
pramaIfe... n. 22
pramaI).etarasamanya- n. 28
pramaIfe n. 128
pravfttes tatpradhanatvad n. 21
prasango dvayasambandhad n. 315
tu n. 62
prag uktarh yoginam jnanam n. 119
pramaI).yarh tatra sabdasya n. 16, 48
prahu!}. prabhakara!}. pancakam api ca vayam
te'pi vedantivijna!}. n. 27
phalarh parisamaptimat n. 17
baddhamuktadibhedo'pi n. 423
balamiikadivijnana- n. 70
bahyo na vidyate hy artho n. 414
bljasyasattvadarsanat n. 282
buddhav apratibhasanat n. 340
-buddhir vartate n. 106
bodhayanyat pratiyate n. 110
n. 396
bhaktarh syad arthavedanam n. 401
bhaga eva ca bhasante n. 140
bhava yena nirupyante n. 421
bhasarvajnas ca samkhyas tritayam udaya-
nadyas vadanti n. 27
bhinnakalarh katham grahyam n. 74, 148
bhujalantargatasyapi n. 282
bhuyodarsanagamya hi n. 259
bhuyo'vayavasamanya- n. 58
bhede'pi niyataI} kecit n. 345
bhedo hi navabhaty eva n. 423
manyante madhyamaJ:! puna!}. n. 148
n. 374
manasarh dirtharagadi- n. 90
muktis tu sunyatadntes n. 379
yaJ:! pramaIfam asav n. 369
yaI} sabdanugamad rte n. 77
yaI} svabhavo na nasyati n. 125
yatas caitro dhanurdharaI} n. 132
yatrartho nanyatha bhavet n. 59
yatrottarapadena nan n. 62
yatha'dahad apavakaJ:! n. 204
yatha balair vikalpyate n. 414
yatha cintyante n. 419
yada tu na vikalpasya n. 422
yadi sarhvedyate nIlam n. 383
yady ekatvarh na yujyate n. 419
yad vadanti vipascitaJ:! n. 419
yasmad ekam anekam ca n. 421
ya svabhavena samsthita n. 126
yogacarasya sammata n. 148
yoginarh gurunirdesa- n. 119
-yogo jatyantarasya tat n. 58
yogyatayam ayogasya n. 132
yo'rtho buddhau prakasate n. 16, 48
ragiIfo hlnasangatvat n. 374
ruparh na vidyate n. 421
rupade rasato gatiJ:! n. 191
rupadau n. 110
-161--
lingarh dharme prasiddharh cet n. 156
lingasyavyabhicaratal}. n. 156
lingasyavyabhicaras tu n. 156
vaktrvyaparavililayo n. 16, 48
vasturupe na jayate n. 61
vastusattavabodhartham n. 61
vastvabhinnam itililyate n. 143
vasanalu!hitarh cittam n. 414
vikalpotpattisaktimat n. 88
vijnanatvadihetubhyal}. n. 378
vijnanarh jaQarupebhyo n. 101
vijnanarh paramarthasat n. 412
vijnanarh paramarthikam n. 420
vijnanarh vanyavastuni n. 61
vijnanasyapi sunyata n. 412
vidhutakalpanajalam n. 119
vindhyadrirandhradurvader n. 282
viyogad gaganabjavat n. 420
-virodha iti cet asat n. 143
vivaklilato'prayoge'pi n. 132
vislryante tatha tatha n. 419
n. 132
vise!?yabuddhir i!?!eha n. 106
vise!?ye buddhil}.... n. 106
vililayantarasarhcaras n. 104
vililayasattvatas tatra n. 204
vililayi pratililidhyate n. 204
vyavacchinatti dharmasya n. 132
vyavacchedaphalarh vakyam n. 132
vyavastha drsyate yatha n. 110
vyasto hetor anasrayal}. n. 263
vyaprtarh c3rthasarhvittau n. 110
vyaptil}. samanyadharmayor n. 259
vyapto hetul}.... n. 157
vyavrttam upajayate n. 101
saktyabhavat tu natmani n. 110
sabdarthagrahi yad yatra n. 117
sabdenavyaprtaklilasya n. 340
tv abhidadhire
sambhavaitihyayogat n. 27
lila!kena yugapad yogat n. 405
samanadesatvat n. 405
lilalil!hI sruyeta tadvati n. 156
bahu manyate n. 148
samskrtarh sarvam n. 366
sa evayam itiyarh tu n. 359
sa c6pagama i!?yate n. 263
sati prakasakatve ca n. 110
sattvalokam atha bhajanalokam n. 364
-sadrsam mugdhavastujam n. 70
sadbhavo nastita'sati n. 157
sarhdigdhe hetuvacanad n. 263
tatha tatha n. 140
samanadharavedanat n. 325
samudayarthasadhyatvad n. 159
sambandharh kecid icchanti n. 156
sambandhe'pi dvayarh nasti n. 156
sambandho yadi taddvayol}. n. 40
sarojam iti va yatha n. 132
sarvarh sabdena bhasate n. 77
sarvatra samadarsinam n. 423
sarvasmin ko'paradhyatu n. 422
sarvadrlil!is ca sarhdigdha n. 282
savyaparapratitatvat n. 146
n. 214
saha pratyekam eva va n. 345
sa ca tasyatmabhutaiva n. 5, 146
sa ca nalf pratyayotpattil}. n. 379
va n. 61
sadrsyasya ca vastutvam n. 58
sadhyatvam upacaryate n. 159
sa nairatmyadrgasrayal}. n. 379
sabhyupayasya vedakal}. n. 369
samagryapeklilayanyasya n. 132
sa yuktarthopapadika n. 187
sarthapattir udahrta n. 59
siddhatvad n. 156
siddher apratibandhatal}. n. 185
siddho'tyantarh ca n. 132
saiva tavat katharh buddhir n. 419
sautrantikena pratyaklila- n. 148
-sthiter anyadhiyo gatel}. n. 28
spa!?!am evavabhasate n. 119
svapnanubhavasarhnibhal}. n. 409
svabhaval}. kevalo'tha va n. 236
svabhavad va niyamakat n. 270
svabhavenendriyadivat n. 345
svayam saiva prakasate n. 413
svaruparh ca na sabdarthas n. 117
svarupasyavikalpatvat n. 117
svarupe sarvam abhrantam n. 118
svasarhvittir akalpika n. 90
svasarhvedyo hy aharhkaras n. 324
svakarajnanajanaka n. 382
svadrlil!ir n. 282
svopadanabalodbhavam n. 378
svopadeyodayaklilamam n. 374
hetutvam eva yuktijfia n. 74
hetudharmanumanena n. 191
hetuna yal}. n. 214
heyopadeyatattvasya n. 369
heyopadeyavastuni n. 21
-162-
2. Technical Terms
akartrka n. 275, 366
akramikaryakaritva n. 309
n. 309, 357
n. 106
acikitsya n. 126
atidesa n. 49
atidesavakyarthasmarat:la 4.3
atidesasmarat:la n. 54
atiprasanga 5, 7.2, 25, 31.1: n. 260, 274,
275
atyantayogavyavaccheda n. 132
adarsanamatra 20.2.2: n. 282, 288
20.2.3: n. 288
adhikarat:la 29, 6.3.1
adhyak!,jla n. 117
adhyavasaya 2.2, 6.3.1, 7.1.3, 16.2, 26;
n. 12, 88, 123, 137, 339
adhyavaseya 7.1.1; n. 133, 135
anadhigatarthagantr n. 8
anavastha 4.2; n. 40
anavasthaprasanga n. 55
anakaravadin n. 148
anadivitathavasana 32
anirbhasajnanavada n. 148
24
n. 8, 104
anupalabdhi 11, 29; n. 62, 184, 198, 202,
204, 205
anupalabdhiprayoga n. 253
anupalabdher vaidharmyavan prayoga!:
19.1
anupalabdher sadharmyavan prayoga!: 19
anupalambha 4.1; n. 201, 259
anubhavasiddha 6.3.1
anumana 3, 9; n. 110
anumeya 9.1, 10; n. 153, 154, 156, 157,
159, 162, 185
anumeye'stita n. 159
anuyayin 27
anekavyaktisamaveta 27
anaikantika (-ta,-tva) 10.2.4, 20.1, 20.2.5,
23, 25, 25.2; n. 258, 290, 350. 368, 372
anaikantikahetu n. 316
antarjalpa 5, 13.1
antarvyapti n. 301, 418 (p. 156)
antyadas[lprapta 13.5
andhabadhiradyabhavacodya n. 92
anyathanupapatti 27
anyayogavyavaccheda 7.1; n. 132, 133,
162, 169
anyavyavrtti 26
anyavyavrttimatra n. 333, 335
anyapoq.ha n. 338
anyapoha n. 338
vidhi!: n. 335
anyopaladhi n. 62, 204
anvaya 4.2, 10.1, 10.3, 14, 21; n. 280,
300
anvayaprayoga 10.3
apiirvagocara 1, 2.5; n. 4, 8
apoha 26, 27; n. 106, 132, 197. 333, 334,
335, 338
apohana 26
vidhi!: 26
apratibaddhasamarthya 13.5; n. 214, 218,
222, 227
apratisamkhyanirodha n. 366
n. 106, 115
aprasiddhopalambha n. 115
abhava 4, 4.5. 13.1; n. 27, 61, 65, 181.
203, 205
abhavavyavahara 13.1 ; n. 201, 204, 205,
211
n. 236
abhipraya n. 187
abhilapa n. 418 (p. 156)
abhilapasamsargayogya n. 67
abhiitaparikalpa n. 418 (p. 156)
abheda 16.2
abhyasa 29.2
abhyupaya n. 369
abhranta 5, 5.1; n. 66, 85, 118
ayogavyavaccheda 7.1; n. 132, 133, 162,
169
arthakriya n. 3, 15, 16, 345
arthakriyakaritva 24.1; n. 309, 310
arthakriyasamarthya n. 309
arthakriyasthiti 2.3; n. 13
arthadharma 27
arthamatragrahin n. 98
arthavisellladarsana n. 98
n. 75
arthasariipya n. 145, 148
arthapatti 4, 4.4, 26; n. 59, 60
arthabhasa n. 414
arhaccaramacitta 29.2
alika n. 418 (p. 157)
alaukikapratyakllla n. 259
avakasaprada 31.2
avayava n. 186
-163-
avayavidravya 7.2
avayavin 19, 31.1, 31.3; n. 409
avikalpa n. 88
avikalpatva n. 117
avidya 6.3.1, 16.2, 32.1; n. 137
avinabhava 9.1; n. 248
avinabhavaniyama n. 270
avisarhvadaka, -tva 1, 2.2, 4.2; n. 6, 85
avisarhvadana n. 13, 16
avisarhvadi n. 16
avisarhvadi jnanam n. 6
avyagrasamagrika 31.1
n. 236
avyabhicara n. 156
avyavaharitva 6.1
a!?!adhanupalabdhi n. 212
asarhskrta n. 366
asajjnanasabdavyavahara n. 204
asatkhyati n. 418 (p. 155)
asattva 10.2.1, 10.2.3, 10.2.5
asadvyavaharayogyatva 13.2, 13.5
asadvyavaharavi!?aya n. 250
asapak!?a n. 165, 171, 172
asamavyapti n. 169
asadharaI).a 10, 23; n. 129
asadharaI).akaraI).a 6
asadharaI).ahetu n. 87a, 162
asadharaI).anaikantika 23; n. 162, 301
asiddha 10, 20.1, 25, 25.2, 27, 29, 29.1;
n. 58, 258, 304
asiddhahetu n. 316
asiddhi n. 313, 368, 372
asiddho hetul}. n. 32
aharhkara 31.1; n. 324
aharhkarajnana 31.1
ahampratyaya 25.1
akara 32.1; n. 425
akarasahita buddhil}. n. 148
akasa 31.1; n. 257, 366
akasakesa n. 410
agama S6.1, 29.2
atman 6.3.1, 25.1, 28.3, 30, 31.1; n. 321,
324, 345, 357
atmasarhvitti n. 101
atmasarhvedana n. 96
atmiya 6.3.1
a tmopacara n. 326
apas 31.1
aptatva 4.2.1
aptopadesa n. 44, 54
alocanajnana 5; n. 70
asrayaparavrtti n. 418 (p. 156)
asrayasiddhahetu 25.1
asrayasiddhi n. 319
indriya 3; 35, 87a, 259, 345
indriyagocara 31; n. 382
indriyajnana 6; n. 87a, 90
indriyapratyak!?a n. 137, 259, 289
indriyavijnana n. 88, 92
isvara 20.1; n. 355
udaharaI).a n. 186
upakaraI).a n. 294
upakaryopakarakatva 8.2
upakaryopakarakabhava 6.2
u pagama n. 263
upacara 9, 14; n. 152
upanaya 11.2; n. 186
upabhoga n. 294
upabhogayatana 25.1; n. 326
upamana 4, 4.3; n. 49, 52, 54, 55, 58
upalak!?aI).a n. 212
upalabdhamanadharmatva n. 202
upalabdhi 29; n. 205
upalabdhilak!?aI).aprapta 13, 13.3; n. 198,
200, 213, 250, 253, 259, 351
upalabhyamanadharmatva n. 202
upadana 6.1, 31; n. 294
upadanakaraI).a n. 192
upadanadyabhijnatva 20.2.5
upadanabhijnakartr n. 258
upadhi 20.2.1; n. 236, 270, 271, 274
upadhibheda n. 241
upadhibhedapek!?a n. 236
upadhirahita n. 259
upadhiviraha n. 259
ubhayasiddha n. 160, 330
u!?magata n. 119
urdhva n. 137
urdhvatalak!?aI).a 7.1.2
ekajnanasarhsarga n. 199
ekajnanasarilsargipadarthopalambha 13
ekajnanasamsargivastuno jnanam 4.5; n.
65
ekavakyata n. 62
ekasamagripratibandha n. 289
ekasamagryadhinatva n. 191
eva 10, 10.1, 10.2.2, 10.2.3, 10.2.5; n. 132,
162, 164, 169
aitihya n. 27
aupadhikasambandha n. 271
kadacitkaryakaritva 13.5; n. 229
kartr 2.1, 4.3
kartrdharmapakllla 13.2; n. 202
karmakartr n. 103
karmakartrbhava 6.2, 13
karmaja, -tva n. 290, 364
13.2; n. 202
karman 2.1, 7.2, 28.3, 30, 31.1; n. 290
-164-
kalpana 5, 32.1; n. 67, 75, 117, 119
kalpanajnana 5
kalpanapoc;lha, -tva 6.3; n. 66, 85
kadacitkakaryotpada 11.3
karat;la 16.3.3
karat;laviruddhakaryopalabdhi 13.5; n. 212,
223
karat;laviruddhavyaptopalabdhi 13.5; n.
212, 228
karat;laviruddhopalabdhi 13.5; n. 212, 219
karat;lanupalabdhi 13.5; n. 204, 212, 215
karat;le n. 152
karitra n. 276
karya 11, 20.1
karyakarat;labhava n. 248, 270, 305, 368
karyatva 20.2.3; n. 258, 262, 269, 275,
290
karyalinga n. 45, 60
karyaviruddhakaryopalabdhi 13.5; n. 212,
222
karyaviruddhavyaptopalabdhi 13.5 ; n. 212,
227
karyaviruddhopalabdhi 13.5; n. 212, 218
karyahetu 11.3; n. 29, 191, 350, 372
karyahetoq. prayogaq. n. 247, 249
karyahetoq. sadharmyavan prayogaq. 18
karyanupalabdhi 13.5; n. 212, 214
kala 31.1, 8.3
kevala 236
krama 28.1
kramayaugapadya 22; n. 309
kramikaryakaritva n. 309
kramet;la karyakarat;lam n. 357
kramotpatti n. 356
kriya 8; n. 17, 62
kriyakarakabhava n. 102
16.1
n. 235, 372
6.3, 16; n. 309, 310, 357, 366,
372
2.2, 17, 22; n. 235, 309
n. 119
4.2.1
n. 294
gamaka 11.3
gut;la 7.2, 31.1
grh1tagrahat;la n. 8
grhItagrahitva, -ta n. 91, 92
gocara 1
grahat;la n. 360
grahakabhaga n. 418 (p. 155)
grahya 7.1.1, 7.1.3; n. 133, 134, 135
grahyagrahaka 32
grahyagrahakanirmukta n. 412
grahyagrahakavaidhurya n. 412, 413
grahyadharma n. 157
grahyabhaga n. 418 (p. 155)
grahyavaseya n. 133
6.2; n. 95
caturaryasatya 6.3; n. 368
citta 6.2; n. 98, 374, 414
cittacaitta n. 96, 114
cittaikagrata 6.3
citravabhasin n. 419
cetana 321
cetana n. 290, 364
cetas n. 259
cetogut;la n. 368
caitasa n. 98
caitta 6.2; n. 98
jac;la 6.2, 31
jac;larupa 4.5; n. 65, 101
janyajanakabhava n. 99
jati 27; n. 58
jatiprasadhakam anumanam n. 350
dharmi n. 159
n. 159
jlvaccharlra n. 307
jlvatman n. 324
jnatata 6.2; n. 106, 111
jnanajanakatva 4.5
jnanamatra 4.5
jnanarupa n. 65
n. 74
jnanabhidhanapravrtti n. 205
jnapaka 11
tattulya n. 157
tatphalabhoktr 25.1
tadarhsa n. 157
tadutpatti 4.2, 20.2.1, 20.2.3; n. 32, 35
tadutpattipratibandha n. 60
tadutpattisambandha 20.2.1
tad viruddhanimittasyopalabdhiq. n. 212
tarka n. 313
tadatmatadutpattisambandha n. 284
tadatmya 4.2, 20.2.1, 20.2.3; n. 32, 35
n.
285
tinanta n. 62
tiryak n. 137
samanyam 7.1.2
6.3.1
tejas 31.1
trirupa n. 183
trirupalinga 9; n. 151, 152, 153
trirupalingakhyana n. 152, 300
trirupat;li lingani 11
11.3, 22, 29;
-165-
165, 185. 263, 264
154, 157, 159
10, 11.1, 11.2, 14,
n. 368
trividhabhavarasi n. 268
trairupya n. 102, 188
trairupyabhava n. 312
dis 31.1
dul].kha-samudaya-nirodha-marga 6.3
25; n. 316, 319
drsya 13, 27
drsyasarira 20.2
drsyanupalambha 4.3.1, 20.2; n. 29, 58,
65, 201. 264, 268
drsyavinirbhagavartin n. 289
11.2, 20.2.1
10.1, 15, 22
desakalakaraniyata 7; n. 331
desakalasvabhavaniyama n. 276
n. 65, 209, 271
desakalavasthaniyata n. 339
dravyasrayin 31.1
n. 21
6.3.1
dharma 7; n. 159, 355
dharmadharmisamudaya n. 154
dharmi n. 159
dharmadharma n. 294
dharmin 3, 9, 9.1, 10, 20, 25.1; n. 159
dharmyasiddhi n. 320
dhi n. 21
nan n. 62, 202
nantariyaka 27, 350
nastita'sati n. 157
nigamana 11.2; n. 186
nigrahasthana 20.2.3; n. 287, 288
nipata n. 132
nimi ttakaraI).a n. 355
niranuyojyanuyoga 20.2.3; n. 287, 288
nirakara n. 148, 418 (p. 154-5)
nirakarajnanavada n. 418 (p. 154-5)
nirakarajnanavadinal]. yogacariI).al]. 32.1
nirakaravada 32.1
nirakaravadin n. 148, 418 (p. 157)
nirakaraviji1anavada n. 418 (p. 154)
niratmaka 6.3
nirodha n. 366
nirvaI).a n. 376
nirvikalpaka n. 70, 118
nirvikalpakajnana n. 418 (p. 154-5)
nirvikalpakarh jnanam 2.5
n. 236
svabhavahetol]. prayogal].
16.3
nirvedhabhagiya n. 119
nivrttimatra 26
nivrttirupo'bhaval]. n. 65
nivrttivadin n. 338
nivrttyapohavadin 26
niscitam 10
niscitakartrka 20.1
niscitakartrnivrtti 20.1
32
nairatmyadrs- n. 379
nyayavadin n. 100
nyunata n. 185, 316
10.1; n. 159,
pakliladharma n. 132,
ta,-tva
20.2.5; n. 157, 293
paksadharmin n. 154
22
pancaskandha 6.3
padartha 4.2, 7.2; n. 112, 139
paracitta n. 47, 289
paratantrasvabhava n. 418 (p. 154-156)
paratal]. pramaI).yam 2.4; n. 19
paramaI).u 31.1, 31.3; n. 257, 294, 400,
402. 405, 406, 409, 424
paramartha n. 54, 103, 289, 423
paramarthatas 8, 8.3
paramarthasat n. 412
paralokapratililedha n. 29
paramarsa 5
pararthanumana 9, 14; n. 152, 185
parikalpitasvabhava n. 418 (p. 154-6)
paricchedakatva 2.6, 4.5
parinililpannasvabhava n. 418 (p. 157)
9, 13.5; n. 104, 116
6.2; n. 117
paryudasapratililedha n. 62, 132, 202
paryudasavrtti 4.5, 13; n. 62, 65, 201,
202
sadrsyam 4.3.1; n. 58
purvavrddhal]. 10.3; n. 181
prthivl 31.1
n. 119
prakasa 6.2, 31; n. 114, 418 (p. 157)
prakasatva n. 110, 118
prakasamatra n. 418 (p. 156-7)
pratijna 11.2; n. 185, 186, 188
pratibandha n. 32, 60, 260
pratibhasa 7.2, 26, 32; n. 32, 75, 409
pratibhasadharma 31.3; n. 400
n. 62
n. 201
pratisedhahetu n. 208
pratisedhavadin n. 338
pratisarhkhyanirodha n. 366
pratitaprapaI).a 2.2
pratyaklila 3, 4.1, 28.2
-166-
259
manasapratyaktla 3, 20.1; n. 19, 259, 324
manasarh karma n. 364
margasatya n. 366
mithyajnana n. 85
mukta 6.3.1; n. 423
mukti n. 148, 379
mukhyaropita n. 326
mugdhavastuja n. 70
murti 33
yugapajjnananutpatti n. 390
yoga 6.3
yogavibhaga n. 165
yogijnana 2.4, 6, 6.3, 6.3.1; n. 19, 93,
119, 124
yogin 6.3; n. 119
3; n. 119
yogyata 4.2; n. 35
rajas 13.1
raga 6.3.1
rUQhi 3, 6.1
linga 3, 11; n. 58, 154, 156, 158, 183,
buddhimatpurvaka, -tva n. 258, 290
buddhimanmatrapiirvakatva n. 290
buddhimatrasvabhava n. 148
buddhyakara 26; n. 333
boddhrtva 2.6
phala 4.3, 8
bhavaparampara 29.2; n. 374
bhakta 25.1; n. 401
bhavanaprakarlila n. 119
bhavanaprakarlilaparyanta 6.3; n. 124
bhavarasi n. 257
bhinnavisetla1?-a n. 236, 242, 244
bhinnavisetla1?-asya 16.3.2
bhutarthabhavana n. 119
bhuyodarsana n. 259
bhuyodarsananibandhana n. 259
bhuyodarsanasahaya 20.1; n. 259
bhedavasaya n. 137
bhedaviselila 27; n. 345, 346
bhoktr n. 321
bhogayatana n. 323
bhranta n. 118
bhrantarh jnanam 5.1
bhranti n. 83, 418 (p. 157)
manas 31.1; n. 259,345,390, 418 (p. 155-6)
manaskara n. 345
manovijnana n. 90, 92, 95, 418 (p. 155)
n. 374
mara1?-acitta n. 374
mahattva n. 240
mana 3
n. 350
18, 22: n. 131, 248,
257, 289, 305, 368
pratyabhijna 16.2, 28.2; n. 359
pratyabhijnana n. 345
pratyaya 16.3.3; n. 77
pratyatmavedyatva 29; n. 368
prapanca n. 418 (p. 157)
prama1?-a 1, 2, 2.1, 4.1, 8, 8.2, 20.2.1
prama1?-ata n. 21
prama1?-apancakabhava n. 61
prama1?-aphala 8.2 ; n. 5, 99, 143, 145, 146
pramatr n. 34
pramiti 8; n. 49
prameyatva 20.2, 20.2.3
16.3.3; n. 236
svabhavasya
16.3.3
prayoga 10.3; n. 32, 185, 212, 232, 233
karta n. 294
prayojya 2.1
pravrtti 7
pravrttinimitta 3
prasanga 22, 24, 24.1, 24.2, 24.3: n. 32,
65, 226, 302, 309, 310, 315
prasangaviparyaya 22, 24, 24.1, 302, 309,
310
prasangasadhana n. 226
prasangakhyarh sadhanam n. 312
prasanganumana n. 313
26; n. 62, 132, 181,
202
prasajyarupa 26
4.5
prasajyavrtti 4.5, 13; n. 65
prasanjana 24
prasiddhakartrka n. 257
prasiddhacetanakartrka n. 257
praka!ya 6.2; n. 112, 113
prapakatva n. 9
prapa1?-ayogya n. 9
prama1?-ikalokayatra 20.2.1; n. 273, 283
prama1?-ya n. 39, 47
bahirartha n. 32
bahirbhava n. 424
bahirvyapti 22; n. 302, 418 (p. 156)
badhaka 2.4, 20.2.1; n. 418 (p. 157), 424
badhakarh prama1?-am n. 260
bahyartha n. 289
bahyarthavadin n. 289
bahya- artha- 31 ; n. 110, 148, 339
buddhimat 20.1; n. 264, 268, 289, 294
buddhimatkartrka 20.1; n. 257
buddhimatkartrpurvaka n. 258
manasa 6, 6.1, 25.1; n. 89, 90, 93, 94,
-167-
390
lingin 3
lUnapunarjatakusakesadi 16.2
lokesa n. vi
lokottarajnana n. 418 (p. 157)
laukikagradharma n. 119
vastudharma n. 400
vastusadhana n. 208
vakyabheda n. 62
vayu 31.1
vasana n. 414, 418 (p. 156)
vikalpa 6.3.1, 7.1.1, 26; n. 65, 68, 342,
422
vikal pana n. 117
vikalpajanakatva n. 88
vikalpapratyaya 8; n. 144
vikalpabuddhi n. 196
vikalpotpattisaktimat n. 88
vijativyavrtta n. 333
vijnanavada n. 419
vijnanatmakaparama1}.u n. 425
vidhi 26; n. 62, 334, 335
n. 341, 342
vidhivadin 26; 338
10.1, 10.2, 10.2.1, 10.2.2, 10.2.4,
10.3, 20.2, 20.2.2, 20.2.3, 22, 23, 25
10.2.5; n. 179
viparyaya n. 118, 309
viparyayabadhakaprama1}.a n. 301, 302, 304,
310
viparyaye badhakaprama1}.a- n. 260
viparyasa 1, 6.3.1
viplava n. 418 (p. 156)
viplavopanita n. 418 (p. 157)
vibhutva n. 290
vibhrama n. 80
vimarsa n. 283
viruddha 20.2.5, 20.1; n. 167, 258, 368
viruddhakaryasiddhi n. 212
viruddhavidhi n. 212
viruddhavyaptopalabdhi 28.2; n. 212
viruddhavyaptopalabdhiprasanga n. 226
viruddhasiddhi n. 212
viruddhahetu 10.2.1; n. 316
virodha n. 99, 167, 372
27
n. 350
6.3.1, 7.2, 31.1
4.3.1, 27; n. 106, 241, 350
n. 132
n. 58, 350
n. 273, 274, 283
n. 283
4.3.1; n. 106
1, 4.3, 7.1, 11.3, 26
n. 104
vedyavedakabhava 6.2
vaidharmyaprayoga 10.3, 18.1
vaidharmyavat 15; n. 232, 300
vaidharmyavataJ:: prayogaJ:: n. 253
vaidharmyavatprayoga n. 246
vyakti 27
n. 236
vyatireka 4.2, 10.2, 10.3, 14, 20.2.1,
20.2.2, 21, 31; n. 269, 282, 300
vyatirekaprayoga 10.3, 17
vyatirekasiddhi n. 268, 288
vyatirecaka n. 132
vyabhicara 20.2.1; n. 258, 259, 264, 268,
271, 272, 285
20.2
vyavaccheda n. 132, 169
vyavacchedaphala n. 132
vyavasthapaka n. 144
vyavasthapanahetu n. 144
vyavasthapya n. 144
vyavasthapyavyavasthapakabhava 6.2; n.
99
vyavahara 6.1, 13.1, 26; n. 88, 196, 205
n. 289
vyapaka n. 309, 343
vyapakaviruddhakaryopalabdhi 13.5; n.
212, 225
vyapakaviruddhavyaptopalabdhi 13.5; n.
212, 229
vyapakaviruddhasiddhi n. 212
vyapakaviruddhopalabdhi 13.5 ; n. 212, 220
vyapakasvabhavasiddhi n. 212
vyapakanupalabdhi 24.1, 33; n. 32, 204,
212, 216, 309, 311
vyapm 25.1
vyapta 4.3, 10.1; n. 157
vyapti 7.1, 11.1, 11.2, 17, 20, 20.1, 20.2,
20.2.1, 20.2.2, 20.2.4, 20.2.5, 22, 23, 24,
24.1, 24.3, 25.2, 26, 29, 29.2, 31.1
7.1.2
vyapya 11; n. 309
vyavrtti 8, 12, 16.3.1; n. 240
vyavrttikrta 8.3
Vyavrttyantaravyavaccheda 16.3.1
vyutpatti n. 333
vyutpattinimitta 3
vyoman 20.1
sanka n. 285
sankapisaci n. 270
sabda 5 ; n. 15, 16, 27, 32, 35, 44, 48,
54, 77, 78, 117, 187, 340
sabdasakti 4.2
-168-
sabdanugama n. 77, 79
sabdartha n. 37
sarira n. 323, 326
sabda 4; n. 16
sabdya n. 75
suddha n. 236, 241
suddhasya svabhavahetol}. prayogal}. n. 238
sunya 6.3
sunyata n. 412
n. 148, 379
srotrajnana 2.3
!?atpadartha n. 138
!?aQarhsata 32; n. 405
(of anupalabdhi) n. 212
sarhvrtisatya n. 289
sarhsaya n. 18, 273, 274, 283, 372
sarhsara n. 376
sarhskara n. 259, 372
sarhskrta 16; n. 366
sarhketa 4.2; n. 39, 43
6.3.1
sattva 10, 10.1, 17, 22; n. 309, 310
20.2.3
sarhtana 6.1; n. 12, 135, 137
sarhtanantara n. 192
sarhtanantaranumana n. 289
sarhdigdhakartrka n. 257
sarhdigdhacetanakartrka n. 257
-tva 10.2.4,
20.2, 20.2.3, 23; n. 268, 288
sarhdigdhasadhyadharma 25
sarhdigdhasiddha 10; n. 161
sarhdeha 1
sanirbhasajnanavada n. 148
n. 345
10.1, 10.2.1, 10.3, 20.1, 20.2.2,
29, 29.1, 31.1; n. 164, 165, 169, 172, 180,
188, 258, 270, 368
samanantarapratyaya 6.1, 31; n. 90
samavyapti n. 169
samavaya 7.2, 31.1
samakhya 4.3; n. 56
samakhyasambandha 4.3; n. 54, 55
samadhi 6.3
samaropa 6.3; n. 152
sampradana n. 294
sambandha 4.2, 11.2; n. 37, 40, 54, 55,
131, 156, 187, 259, 271, 276, 281, 309
sambandhin n. 55
sambhava n. 27
samyagjnana 1; n. 3, 4, 6, 22, 85
sarvajna, ta, tva 29.1, 30; n. 290, 295,
296, 369
sarvasarvajna 30; n. 369
sarvopasarhMira- pramalfa- 20.2
sarvopasarhharavati vyaptil}. 20.1, 26; n.
368
savikalpaka n. 118
savikalpakarh jnanam 2.5
n. 236
16.3.1
sahakarikarat;la 11.3; n. 192, 355
sahakarin 6.1, 27; n. 90
sahopalambha n. 111
sarhvrta n. 8
sarhvyavaharikapramat;la 6
sakara 8.1; n. 415, 418 (p. 154-5)
sakarajnana 8.1
sakarajnanajanaka n. 382
sakarajnanavada n. 418 (p. 155)
sakarajnanavadin 32.1; 418 (p. 157)
sakaravada 32.1 ; n. 148, 385, 418 (p. 155)
sakaravadin 33; n. 148, 418 (p. 154, 156)
sakaravijnanavada n. 418 (p. 154)
sakaravijnanavadi yogacari n. 304
sak!?atkari- jnana- 28.2; n. 372
3
sadrsya n. 143, 232
sadrsyavisi!?!al}. pit;lQal}. 4.3.1; n. 58
sadhaka 2.4, 20.2.1
sadhana 11, 20, 22; n. 143, 159, 290
sadhanadharma n. 154
7.1.2; n. 137
sadhanavakya 11.2, 15, 20
sadhanavyapaka n. 271
sadhanabhava 20
sadharmyaprayoga 10.3
sadharmyavat 15; n. 232, 300
sadharmyavatprayoga n. 246
sadharmyavat sadhanavakyam 15
sadharat;la n. 179, 284
sadharalfahetu 10.1
sadharat;lanaikantika, ta 20.2, 23, 268
sadharat;lanaikantiko hetul}. n. 262
sadhya 10.2.2, 20, 22; n. 143, 264, 268,
290
sadhyadharma 10.2.2, 25; n. 154, 193, 165
sadhyadharmin 15, 22; n. 154, 232, 293
sadhyaviparyayabadhakapramaJ;la 22,24.1;
n. 309
sadhyaviparyaye badhakapramat;lasadbhavat
20.1
sadhyavyapakatva n. 271
sadhyasadhanabhava n. 99
sadhyahina n. 290
sadhyad anyal}. 10.3
sadhyabhava 20
sadhyabhavamatra 10.3
-169-
sadhyena saha viruddhal}. 10.3
samanya 7.1, 7.1.3, 7.2, 24.2, 26, 27,
31.1; n. 28, 58, 128, 131, 133, 137, 293,
289, 343, 345, 346, 351
sarupya 8; n. 52, 144
sarupyajnana 4.3; n. 49, 54
siddhasadhana 27; n. 133, 294, 290, 350
siddhasadhanata 20.2.5
subanta n. 62
sopadhikasambandha n. 271
skhaladvrtti 25.1; n. 326
sthUla n. 400, 424
sthaulya 31.3; n. 400
sphu!apratibhasa n. 367, 368
sphu!abha n. 124, 368
sphupbhava n. 368
smaraI].a n. 118, 360
smaraI].agrahaI].a n. 361
smrti 28.2; n. 104, 273
smrtyupasthana n. 119
svatal}. pramaI].yam 2.4; n. 19
svatantraprayoga n. 310
svatantranumana n. 313
n. 185
svaprakasa 6.2; n. 99
svabhava 11, 13.2, 13.5, 27, 33; n. 43,
125, 126, 184, 193, 194, 236, 270, 305,
419
svabhavapratibandha n. 60
n. 236
svabhavaviruddhakaryopalabdhi n. 212, 221
svabhavaviruddhavyaptopalabdhi 13.5; n.
226
svabhavaviruddhopalabdhi 13.5; n. 212,
217
svabhavahetu 17, 22; n. 60, 236, 246, 374
svabhavanupalabdhi 13.5, 27; n. 203, 212,
213, 351
svabhavanupalambha 13.5; n. 204
svabhavahetuprasailga n. 309
svabhavahetor vaidharmyavan prayogal}.
17
svabhavahetol}. prayogal}. n. 246
svabhavahetol}. sadharmyavan prayogal}.
16
svabhavo hetul}. n. 29, 368
svarupa 2.3, 16.1; n. 294
svarupasiddha 25, 25.2
7, 7.1, 7.1.3, 25.2, 26; n. 128,
129, 133, 339, 341, 342
svasamvitti n. 90, 102, 117
svasamvedana 2.4, 3, 6, 6.2, 27; n. 19,
97, 99, 289
svasamvedanabhaga n. 418 (p.155)
svasamvedya n. 324
svabhavika 20.2.1; n. 33
svabhavikasambandha 20.2.1; n. 259, 270,
271, 275, 276
svabhavikal}. sambandhal}. 20.2.1; n. 259,
274
svartha n. 151
svartham anumanam 9
svarthanumana n. 152
hetu 10.1, 10.2.1, 10.2.2, 10.2.3, 11, 11.2.
20.2.5, 25, 29
n. 288
n. 288
hetudharma n. 191
hetvabhasa n. 301
heyopadeyatattva n. 369
3. Proper Names
Atisa 7-10; n. xiii; n. 212
Anantavirya 6
Antarvyaptisamarthana n. 235, 301
15; n. 413
Apohaprakara!].a n. 333
Apohasiddhi n. 333
Abhidharmakosa 15; n. 21, 98, 119, 364, 366
n. 366
Arca!a 15; n. 62, 212, 226, 235
Alamkarakara 6.2, 25.1
Avalokitavrata n. 62
AviddhakarJ)a n. 255
Asailga n. 418 (p. 154-6)
Acarya C= Dharmakirti) 5.1
Atmatattvaviveka 8, 9, 15; n. xix, xx; n.
333
Aryadeva 5, 15
n. 418 (p. 154)
-Vrtti n. 406
Isvaradusana n. 255
Isvaravactadhikara n. 255
4; n. 255, 258,
290
Isvarasena n. 202
Udayana 8-11, 15; n. xix, xx, xxiii; n.
99, 271, 333
Uddyotakara 16; n. 156, 255, 324, 326, 353
11; n. xxv
KaI].akavarman 16
Kamalaslla 16; n. 19, 187, 188, 235, 255,
333
KarI].akagomin 15; n. 235
-170-
Karyakarat;labhavasiddhi n. 132, 305
Kasikakara n. 259
KiraJ].avali: n. xix
K'uei-chi n. 418 (p. 155)
KumarilabhaHa 2; 6.2, 28.2; n. 61, 92,
202, 259, 342
Kesavamisra 1
n. 11, 235, 302, 309,
333
n. 235, 302
Gut;lamati 418 (p. 155)
GUJ].aratna 5, 16; n. 413
Gautama 16
CakracuQamaJ].i 4.5; n. 64
Candrakirti 16
Carvaka 2; 4, 4.1; n. 27-29
Citradvaitasiddhi n. xx
Jagaddalanivasi n. viii
Jagaddhala, Jagadd(h)ala-vihara, Jagattala
6, 11; n. v, vi, viii, xxv; 33; n. 2
Jayanta, -bhaHa 8; n. xvi
Jinendrabuddhi 17; n. 159, 181
Jaina I, 3, 5; n. 148
1
JnanasrL -mitra 1-5, 7-10; n. xi, xiii,
xix, xx; 20.2; n. 107, 124, 132, 212,
235, 255, 260, 269, 302, 305, 333, 338,
418 (p. 155-7), 419
Jnanasrimitranibandhavali 15; n. xii. xiv, xx;
n. 107, 115, 124, 131-133, 137, 212, 235,
255, 257, 258, 260, 263, 264, 269, 333,
334, 338,340, 342, 418 (p. 157-8), 419
JiHinasarasamuccaya 5, 15; n. 366, 381,
382, 418 (p. 154), 420
Jnanasarasamuccayanibandhana 6, 15
Tattvasamgraha 16; n. 19, 21, 28, 29, 85,
88, 101, 102, 104, 108, 110, 115, 148,
185, 187, 188, 191, 235, 255, 321, 324,
325, 328, 333, 338, 345, 352, 355, 359,
374, 375, 376, 378, 396, 397, 406
Tattvasamgrahapanjika 16; n. 19, 77, 85,
88, 104, 108. 115, 148, 187, 188, 191, 235,
255. 324-326. 328. 333, 338. 351-353,
355. 359, 374. 376
by Kesavamisra 1
Tarkarahasyadipika 5. 16; n. ii; n. 98,
132. 148, 413
Tarkasopana 1. 4, 16; n. 9, 21, 23. 25,
27. 69. 77, 78, 104, 114, 140. 148, 152,
165. 185, 202, 212-223, 225-229, 236
Tatparyatikakara n. xiv
Taranatha n. xiii. xxiv; 16
Trilocana 2.5; 6.2, 20.2.1; n. 107, 131,
133.255, 259. 270. 271. 275
Danasila 11
Digambara-Jaina 10
Dignaga 4. 5. 12. 16; n. 54, 85. 156. 157,
159, 181, 185, 338. 406. 418 (p. 154-5)
Dipamkarasrljnana 7; n. xiii
Durveka, -misra 4. 15; n. ix; n. 212, 226,
235, 240
Deb-ther snan-po 15
Dharmakirti 1-5, 16; 1. 2.3. 5, 6.2, 6.3,1,
7.2, 8, 12, 13.2, 25, 26, 27, 28.1, 30,
31.3. 32, 33; n. 28, 40, 85, 106, 115,
132, 140. 145, 157. 159, 181, 185. 191,
204, 209, 212, 226. 235, 236, 255. 305,
307, 333. 338. 340. 369. 418 (p. 155)
Dharmapala n. 418 (p. 155-6)
Dharmottara I, 4. 15; 31.3; n. 11, 23,
85, 132, 142. 169, 179. 195, 226. 236,
240, 305, 307. 333
Dharmottarapradipa 15; n. 148. 165, 212,
226, 400
Narasimha n. 255
Naropa n. xiii
Nalikera 4.2
Naiyayika 1; 4, 4.3, 7.2, 20.1. 20.2.3,
24.1, 25.1, 31.2; n. 31, 108, 255. 259,
270. 271, 304, 313, 321, 324, 344
n. xxiii
Nyayakat;lika 16; n. 290, 293. 294
Nyayakusumanjali n. xix
Nyayakasa 16; n. 112, 324, 343. 397
Nyayaparamesvara 26. 7.2
n. xix
Nyayabindu I, 4, 15; n. 3, 22, 67, 80, 86,
90. 96, 119, 128. 145. 146, 151-3, 158,
160, 161, 163. 164. 166, 168. 170-173,
177-179. 181, 183-186, 194, 195. 198,
200. 208. 209, 211-223, 225-229, 231,
232, 236, 238. 240, 241, 243, 244. 246-
250. 253, 300. 307. 316, 320, 330
Nyayabindupka 1. 4. 15; n. 6, 7, 11, 12,
23-26. 67, 80, 85. 87a, 88. 98, 99, 119,
129, 134. 135. 143, 144, 152. 162, 163,
174, 175. 178-180. 182. 184, 195, 200.
201, 203. 205, 209. 214. 232, 236, 238,
240, 241, 243. 244, 248, 300, 316
NyayabindupkatippaJ].i 16; n. 88. 92, 95
15; n. 49. 54. 59, 323
Nyayamanjari 8; n. 107
NyayamaJ].idipika 5
Nyayamukha n. 181, 185
Nyayavadin 13.4
Nyayavarttika 16; n. 49
Nyayavarttikatatparyapka 8, 10. 16; n.
49. 54, 156. 255. 257-259. 271, 273-276
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NyayavarttikaHitparyaparisuddhi n. xix;
n. 99
16; n. 28, 106,
140, 413
n. 148, 259
Nyayasucjnibandha 9, 10
Nyayasutra 16; n. 44, 49, 59, 255, 270,
283, 287, 323, 390
Pag-sam Jon-zang n. xxiv
Asoka n. 351
n. 139
3, 16; n. 137
n. 23, 165
Parthasarathimisra 16
Pala 6, 7, 11
n. 255
n. 27
Prajiiakaragupta 1, 2, 16; 6.2, 25.1, 31,
33; n. 17, 255, 418 (p. 155)
Prajiiakaramati 15; n. 255
Prajiiaparamitopadesa 8, 16; n. 418 (p. 154,
156)
Prajiiapradjpa n. 62
Prabhacandra 16; n. 137
Prama1J.avarttika 4, 16; n. 5, 6, 8, 13, 15,
16, 19, 21, 48, 66, 74, 104, 117, 119,
124, 125, 126, 132, 135, 143, 146, 187,
191, 202, 204, 205, 209, 212, 214, 226,
235, 326, 255, 263, 270, 315, 340, 345,
356, 369, 379, 413, 419, 421
16 ;
6.2, 31, 33; n. 8, 9, 15, 17, 22, 90,
103, 104, 116, 117, 118, 128, 159, 202,
204, 234, 325, 383, 422, 423
16; n. 4, 19, 106, 151,
202, 204
15; n. 204, 205,
235, 236, 209, 212
15
16; n. 28, 74, 115, 132
-Tjka 16; n. 132
12, 16; n. 5, 8, 22, 66,
67, 87a, 90, 104, 117, 119, 146, 156, 157,
159, 181, 185
-Vrtti 16; n. 128, 159, 181, 185
2; n. 28
16; n. 28, 106,
137
Prameyaratnamala 5
Prasastamati n. 255
Prasannapada (MUlamadhyamakakarikavrtti)
16; n. 98
Prabhakara 4; n. 27
Bahyarthaparjkl?a n. 406
Bodhicaryavatara 15; n. 255, 355
-Paiijika 15; n. 255, 352, 355
Bodhibhadra 5, 6, 15; n. ix; n. 366, 418
(p. 154-6)
Bauddha n. 27, 258
n. viii
Bhagjratha n. xxiii
Bhagaputra-Jayamisra 15; n. 106
Bhartrhari 17; 5
BhaHa-Mjmamsaka 4; n. 112
Bhavaviveka 3; n. 62
Bhavivikta n. 324
Bhasarvajiia n. 27
Madhyamakalamkara (karika) 33; n. 426
-Vrtti n. 426
Manorathanandin 2, 16; n. ix; n. 236
6, 7, 16; n. x; n. 374
Mahabodhi n. viii
Mahayana n. 376, 418 (p. 154)
Mahayanasamgraha n. 418 (p. 154)
3, 16; n. 137
Madhava, Sayana-Madhava 5, 16; n. 413
Madhyamika 3, 5; 33; n. 62, 148, 376,
418 (p. 154, 157), 419
Manapala n. viii
Manameyodaya 15; n. 27
Mjmamsaka 4.3.1, 6.2; n. 8, 27, 31, 62,
104, 108, 148, 259
Mjmamsanyayaprakasa n. 62
Mjmamsabhal?ya 15; 6.2; n. 59, 110
Mjmamsaslokavarttika 16; 6.2 ; n. 58, 59,
61, 70, 106, 108, 110, 111, 202, 259, 359
-Kasika 16; n. 106, 111, 259
-Tjka (Sarkarika) 15
Muktakalasa n. 235
MUlamathuranathj Ta vyakhya
n. 112
Maitreyanatha n. 418 (p. 155-6)
Yasovijaya 1
Yogacarin, Yogacara 5; 31.3, 32, 32.1, 33;
n. 148, 406, 418 (p. 154-7)
Ratnakjrti 2, 3, 5, 7-10; n. ix, xiii. xix,
xx; n. 8, 28, 29, 49, 64, 107, 132, 133,
137, 255, 259, 269-271, 274, 276, 283, 289,
290, 294, 302, 304, 309, 333, 338, 369: 418.
(p. 156)
Ratnakjrtinibandhavall 16; n. xii, xv, xvii,
xviii; n. 8, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 37, 39,
43, 47, 52, D4, 55, 58, 60, 61, 65, 131-
133, 137, 234, 235, 257-259, 262-264, 268-
276, 282-285, 288-290, 293-296, 304, 309,
333-335, 337-342, 350, 368, 369, 372, 418
(p. 158)
Ratnakarasanti 4, 5, 7. 16; n. xi, xiii; n.
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235, 301, 302, 418 (p. 154-7)
Ramacarita 16; n. vi, viii; n. 2
Ramapala 7; n. viii, ix
Ramavati n. viii
Rgyal tshab n. 226
Rtog-geJ::i skad 11
Lak!llat;lamala 9; n. xix
Lak!llat;lavali 9, 10; n. xix
Lankavatarasutra n. 414
Lokayata n. 375
Lokesa n. 2
Varendra, Varendri 6, 7, 11; n. vi, viii;
n. 2
Vasudrarak!lli ta 16
Vasubandhu 15; 32; n. 418 (p. 155)
Vakyapadiya 17; n. 28, 77
Vacaspati, -misra 5, 8-10, 16; n. xvi;
20.2.3; n. 49, 107, 156, 255, 258, 259, 270,
271, 273, 274-276, 283, 294
Vatsyayana 16
Vadirajasuri 16; n. 413
Varttikasaptaslokivyakhyana n. 255
Virhsatika (Viji'iaptimatratasiddhi) 17; n.
405, 406
Vikramasila, -Vihara 7, 11; n. xiii
(Viji'iaptimatrata-) Siddhi 16; n.
418 (p. 155)
Viji'ianavadin 33; n. 148, 289
Vittoka n. 255
Vidyakarasanti 1, 4, 16; n. ix; n. 69, 212
Vinitadeva n. 85
Vibhuticandra 11
Visalamalavati 17; n. 159
Vedanta n. xvi; n. 27, 148
Vaibha!llika 5; 28.3, 30, 31.2, 31.3; n. 21,
148, 365
Vaiyakarat;la 4; n. 27, 28
Vaise!llika 7.2, 31.2, 31.3; n. 27, 270, 321,
324
Vai!llt;lava 11
Vyaptinirt;laya n. 259
Sankaramisra n. xx; n. 338
Sankaravarman 8
Sankarasvamin n. 255
Sa4darsanasamuccaya 16
Sabara 15; n. 111
Sabdarthapariksa n. 333
Sakyasribhadra 11
Santideva 15; n. 255
Santirak!llita 2, 5, 16; 6.2, 33; n. 29, 85,
118, 235, 255, 333, 338, 418 (p. 155), 426
Sastra n. 340
Sastradipika 16; n. 110
Srihar!lla 10; n. xxiii
Srihira n. xxiii
Sarhtanantaradu!llat;la n. 289
Sandhyakaranandin 16
Saptabhangitarangit:li n. 132
Sambandhaparik!lla 2, 16; n. 40
Sarvajffasiddhi 8; n. 369
Sarvadarsanasarhgraha 5,16; n. 28, 29, 148,
385, 413
Sakarasiddhisastra 8; n. 419
SaIhkhya 4; n. 27, 76, 148, 204
Samanyadu!llat;ladikprasarita n. 351
Sucaritamisra 16; n. ix; n. 259
Subha!llitaratnakosa 16; n. vii, viii, xiii
Sumpa Khan-po n. xxiv
Sena 11
Saugata n. 260
Sautrantika 1, 5; 16, 31, 31.3; n. 99, 148,
289, 385, 418 (p. 154)
Sthirabhavaparik!lla n. 235
Sthiramati 418 (p. 155-6)
Syadvadamai'ijari 6, 7, 16; n. x; n. 235,
374, 382, 383
Haribhadra 16
Hetubindu 4, 15; n. 199, 201, 202, 212, 226,
235
-Tika 15; n. 62, 140, 192, 202, 204, 205,
212, 226
-Tikaloka n. 235
Hetumukha n. 157
Hemacandra 15; n. 413
Hsiian-chuang, Hiuan-Tsang 16; n. 418 (p.
155)
ERRATA
Read sarnyagjiiana instead of smhyag- in p. 23, l. 12 ; n. 3, 4, 6, 22, 85.
Read purato' vasthitan instead of -'vasthatan in n. 124 (I. 2).
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