Failure Analysis Overview

Dave Van Dyke, P.E., MS

AWS CWI, ASME EMCF Lv II NDT: VT, PT, MT, UT

VGO, Inc. Engineers 10220 SW Nimbus, Ste K10 Portland, OR 97223 www.vgoinc.com

Who we are
VGO, Inc. Consulting Engineering firm
Mechanical & Electrical Forensic Engineers (since 1970)

Licensed Professional Engineers (PEs) Certified Welding Inspectors (CWIs) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) and instrumentation techs Work with number of consultants

Services We Provide
Forensics / Failure Analysis Test and Measurement
Design of experiments Data Acquisition Machine Design Analysis Inspections On-site investigations and inspections Laboratory analysis

Mechanical and Structural Assessments

Industries
Industrial / Manufacturing
Manufacturing equipment (presses, fixtures)

Consumer Products
Design improvement, validation

Civil Structures / Infrastructure

Structural stability Utilities (inspection, testing, failure analysis)

Insurance / Legal cases

Root cause, forensics

Tools of the Trade

Instrumentation
Strain gage, accelerometer, data acquisition

Inspection
NDT, weld inspection, cracking, corrosion

Analysis
Failure analysis, Fitness for purpose, Stress analysis, Finite Element Analysis (FEA), Metallurgical

Testing
Load testing, cycle testing, instrumented tests, impact test, tensile test

Failure Analysis
Vast topic, many failure modes and mechanisms, overlap, disputes Always exceptions Focus on:
Failure analysis process Some common failures

Highlight some interesting failures Primarily steel, but present in most materials

Definition: Failure Analysis

Objective investigation of material facts associated with a part or system failure Determine:
Timeline, chain of events Root-cause of incident / contributing factors Post incident fitness for purpose Repair options Mitigating future failures

What is failure?
Part and/or system no longer complies with design intent for part or system Subjective definition based on operation Not always structural
Leaking hydraulic seals Inappropriate stiffness in component Rate of corrosive decay/breakdown Part/system lifetime Operating/maintenance costs Aesthetics

Any design parameter

Contributing Factor Areas

Original Design Material Properties Manufacturing and processing Service Factors
Loading Environment

Repair Procedures
Weld Repair

Failure Analysis Process

Broad definition:
Collection of background data Formulate hypothesis (plural) Develop test methodologies Implement tests / collect data Review results, revise hypothesis End by budget (conflicts in articles)

ASM process to follow

Investigator Requirements
OBJECTIVENESS Visual Cues Verbal Cues Documentation
Names, dates, times, quantities, history

Questioning Attitude
Vagueness of English Opposing views of an incident

Broad background in failure mechanisms

Technological Tools
Photography and lighting Optical Microscopy up to 600X Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) over 10,000X Chemical Analysis
SEM/EDS Spark Emission Spectroscopy Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR)

Optical Microscopy (7)

Use polished and etched specimens Limited depth of field Shows individual grain structure

SEM Image (7)

Individual grains Large depth of field Vacuum chamber Charging

SEM-EDS (3)
Elements give distinct peaks, often primary and secondary

FTIR (4)
Measurement of frequencies that are absorbed by organic media

Technological Tools
Mechanical Testing
Hardness, micro-hardness, tensile, shear, physical testing

Stress Analysis / FEA

Magnitude, principal direction, sensitivity

Instrumentation
Strain Gages, accelerometers, thermocouples, ect.

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Mechanical Testing
Up to 100,000 lbf in the lab Over 1 million lbf in the field

Finite Element Analysis

Used to answer particular questions Stress, strain deflection, principal directions, mode shapes, thermal, impact, etc. 3500 ton forging press frame, cracking problems

Strain Gages
Attach to surface to measure surface strains Available in hundreds of configurations Used to calibrate FEA models, measure loads, dynamic Signal conditioning, error elimination, ground loops etc.

NDT Magnetic Particle (MT)

Pro
Quickly inspect large areas Part must be magnetic

Con
Limited depth of detection Interpretation required

Bridge trunion toolmark example

NDT Liquid Penetrant (PT)

Pro
Clearly evident surface breaks Can give limited information about depth Confirm other NDT indications Good contrast

Cons

Texas Shell and Tube example

Cant be used on porous surface Strict cleaning required Temperature limitations

MT with PT background
5 inch Vertical crack toe of SMAW multipass weld 3 inch MS plate Detected by MT PT background

NDT Ultrasonic (UT, PAUT)

Pro
Good for detecting subsurface cracking Quickly inspect shafts, plates, joints

Cons
Limitations on inspect-able areas Many discontinuities are shown Difficult to interpret results

Trojan Example, grain size Interstate Bridge, old steel, unknown geometry

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

American Society of Metals (ASM) outline Experts in each area Remain OBJECTIVE Important to be thorough, information will be lost Failure analysis becomes less reliable with less information

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

1. Background
Location, name, P/N, description, manufacturer, fabricator Function of item Maintenance / cleaning history Operational history Operational documentation Normal stress orientations Extent of incident Precipitating events Drawings, photographs, reports, inspections Service deviations Opinions of related personnel

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

2. Visual Examination
Survey the entire region Macroscopically classify the fracture Estimate manner of loading Determine associated equipment Observe colors, contaminants, corrosion products, grinding marks, weld progression, other structures in region Base material quality, uniformity, coatings Document and record

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

3. Fractographic Examination
Often necessary to ascertain failure mode Identify microstructure Note fracture progression Note deformation Isolate contaminants Note colors Anomalies Distinguish post incident damage

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

4. Chemical Analysis
Base metal composition Contaminant composition Presence of coating on fracture surface Corrosion product composition

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

5. Mechanical Properties
Bulk material properties Anomalous material properties Hardness Ductility Tensile strength Corrosion susceptibility SCC susceptibility

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

6. Macroscopic Examination
Overall homogeneity Uniform cracking Any differences

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

7. Metallographic Examination
Section polish and etch

8. Microhardness
Traverse across crack, HAZ. Determine gradients Inclusions, metallographic phases

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

9. SEM analysis
Identify microscopic fracture modes Ductile dimpling, inter-granular, cleavage Presence of contamination on fracture surface

10. Microprobe
SEM-EDS of individual areas Graphite, carbides, precipitates

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

11. Residual Stresses and phases
X-Ray diffraction, strain gage methods

12. Simulation / Tests

FEA, stress analysis Testing Consistent with findings?

13. Summarize findings 14. Report and Distribute 15. Follow-up

ASM Failure Analysis (8)

16. Preserve Evidence
Package carefully DO NOT put fracture faces together Use desiccant Other experts, new information Sometimes destructive testing is required

Failure Mechanisms
Parts Fail for many reasons (Deficiency) Operational
Plastic deformation (permanent set, buckling) Excessive deflection (floors, beams, shafts) Excessive vibration (machine mounts) Acoustics issues

Fracture
Ductile, Brittle, Fatigue, Thin Lip

Failure Mechanisms
Corrosion
Thinning Stress Concentrators (risers) Corrosion Products

Wear
Thinning Wear Products

Welding

Synergistic Effects
All failures have components of multiple failure mechanisms associated Simultaneous presence, interacting Task is to determine the important ones from the auxiliary modes

Fracture Ductile (1)

Plastic deformation present prior to fracture (aluminum, mild steel) Preferred fracture mode Strength increases past yield

Fracture Ductile (10)

Fracture Ductile (2)

ANSI 304 SS 1000x Microvoids

Fracture Brittle
Typical of glass, cast iron, chalk, HSS, plane strain situations, low temperature Ductile to brittle transition temp Austenitic SS for cryogenics No or limited plastic deformation

Brittle Fracture (10)

Macro- verses Micro Macroscopic fracture features may differ from microscopic features Microscopically ductile features
Micro-void coalescence Associated energy

Microscopically brittle features

Cleavage of individual grains Intergranular

Brittle Fracture of Ships (10)

Fracture Inter-granular (4)

Fracture proceeds between the individual grain of the material Failure of grain boundary material

Inter-granular SEM (7)

Fracture Trans-granular (4)

Fracture proceeds through the individual grains of material Cleavage

Transgranular

Overload Fracture
Common
Abuse of device Inaccurate estimate of service loading Analysis errors Inappropriate material No account for rare / one-time loads Sometimes Fast Food engineering

Wind Induced Vibration

Tacoma Narrows AK Transmission Lines Measure f1, tension Dynamic only Overload? Design?

Ductile Overload
Macroscopic
Necking or plastic deformation Dull and fibrous fracture surface Shear lips Plastic distortion of grains Irregular trans-granular fracture Micro-voids elongation in direction of load Singular crack with limited/no branching

Optical Microscopic SEM Microscopic

Brittle Overload
Macroscopic
Little/no plastic deformation Shiny, course, crystalline fracture surface Chevrons Minimal deformation Inter-granular or trans-granular Cleavage or inter-granular Discontinuity or stress riser at origin

Optical Microscopic SEM Microscopic

Fracture Fatigue
Very common form of fracture Multi stage cracking phenomenon
Ph 1 Initiation (ratchet-marks) Ph 2 Propagation (beach marks and striations) Ph 3 Final Fracture (ductile/brittle overload)

Cycling component, plastic strains, tensile strains (can be produced by compressive load)

Macroscopic Fatigue (5)

Fatigue (Ph 1, 2, 3) Shear lip (planestress) What else can we tell (hypothesis)?
Material / state? Environment? Significance of stress-riser? Service history?

Fatigue Striations (6)

Individual crack propagation steps Beach marks are made up of varying striation configurations

Chevron Marks (10)

Not only fatigue related Give crack propagation direction Point back to initiation site

Preventing Fatigue
Remain below endurance limit (steels) Be aware of factors
Stress risers

Inclusions Weld defects

Anisotropic materials Low occurrence loads Residual stresses Impart residual / applied compressive stresses
Tie-rod Peening

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Tensile stress, susceptible material, appropriate agent Chlorides, ammonia, Demo: Austenitic SS in NaCl-H2O Brass SCC on trap primer valves

SCC

SCC

SCC

Incorrect Material Properties

Not as specified by design, substitution, free machining, cheaper, stainless Material does not meet spec China outsourcing, A36 isnt always

Welding Failures
GTAW (TIG), SMAW (Stick), GMAW/FCAW (MIG) Ductile Fracture, Brittle Fracture, Fatigue Geometry: Undercut, overlap, underfill Lack of Penn, Lack of fusion, inclusions porosity HAZ microstructure / ductility

Welding Failures
Solidification Cracking (Hot Cracking) Fish Eyes Hydrogen Embrittlement (Cold Cracking) Lamellar Tearing

Welding Failures
Lincoln, Miller, Hobart produce high quality welding wires and electrodes
Killing agents (Al, Ti, Si in steel) High Alloy content Designed for solidification with good properties

Most problems occur in HAZ of base Improper welding procedure / technique

Cleaning and Prep Preheat / Interpass / Post weld heat treat rod selection and joint configuration

Welding Problems Causes

HAZ gradients, rate of cooling determines
Microstructure constituents Hardness Grain size

Inclusions, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, porosity, produce stress risers Large residual tensile stresses Amazing that welding and airplanes work

Porosity and Slag (8)

Rounded features HAZ typically more important, toes

Lack of Penetration (8)

Weld is good Stress concentration HAZ hardness

Undercut (8)
Incomplete penetration Undercut Underfill Joint design

Lamellar Tearing (9)

Hydrogen cracking
AKA cold cracking Delayed, hours to days Seen in welding Also seen in Plated products (Cadium, chromium, black oxide) with improper thermal treatment Migration of elemental hydrogen to grain boundaries at room temperature
Glycerin demonstration

Hydrogen
H2 Sources:
Acids, electroplating, corrosion byproduct, water, oils, etc.

Highly soluble in molten steel, significant drop with declining temp More of a concern in HSS Can cause brittle fracture at low stresses Loss of ductility

Hydrogen
Helps drive carbon equivalent requirements for welding alloy steels XX18 SMAW electrodes, requirements for sealing and rod ovens XX10 SMAW high hydrogen rods for root pass Post weld thermal treatment helps remove excess hydrogen, relieve high stresses, lower hardness

Hydrogen cracking Fracture

Inter-granular or trans-granular, changes along length Inter-granular with higher strength Complex fractography based on crystalline structure

Cold Cracking Bolts (8)

Hydrogen embrittlement SHCS, FHCS, Gr 8 bolts, self-tapping screws, springs, plated parts

Hot Cracking
AKA Solidification cracking Centerline cracking in welds Similar to shrinkage voids in castings Joint restraint Can be simulated by external stress
Devletian et al.

Aluminum welding, 4043 rod

Corrosion Related
Generalized/Uniform Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Inter-granular Corrosion Pitting and Crevice Corrosion Selective Leaching Hydrogen Damage/Embrittlement Liquid Metal Embrittlement (Hg, Cd, Pb, Zn) Biological Corrosion

High Temp Failures

Thin lip Thick lip Creep Grain growth

Wear Failures
Abrasive Wear Fretting Rolling Contact Fatigue
Bearings Roads, potholes

Spalling, welding Corrosive Wear Erosive Wear Cavitation Erosion

Examples:
Bronze SCC on Columbia Dam Re-occurring cracking 3500 ton press Weld repair of 4140 shafting Welding of 12L14, sulfide inclusions Weld quality inspection of water tank SCC criminal case Switzerland/Netherlands

Summary
Remain OBJECTIVE Be aware of various failure mechanisms Design to ACTUAL loads, not estimates Analyze stress concentrations Know your material Design for ductile fracture

Questions?
Any Questions? Please feel free to contact me to ask.

References
(1) http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/sscurve.gif (2) http://mot.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/mse150/Fracture/Ductile/ductile.htm (3) http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/SEM/Manual99.pdf (4) http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms/scc.htm (5) http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/mem_mf8.htm (6) http://www.asminternational.org/pdf/spotlights/jfap0502p011.pdf (7) http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/stresscor.htm (8) ASM Handbook volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention (9) http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_3/jk47.html (10) http://www.ae.utexas.edu/courses/ase324_huang/Lecture15.pdf