SOCIAL SCIENCE

STANDARD SEVEN
TERM I

[PfrSTORY
1, THE NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS
The history of every country is long and complex. Hence to understand history in a very easy and convenient manner, the historians have divided it into different periods such as the Ancient Period, the Medieval Period and the Modern Period.
The period of history, that you are about to learn is the Medieval period of Indian History. This period lies between the 8th and the 18th century A.D. and is classified as The Early Medieval period (8lh-12lh century A.O.) and the Later Medieval perio d (1S*1*"! 81h ce ntury) In the forthcoming chapters you will be learning about the historical events that took place during this period in both North and South India. This chapter deals with the Rajputs who belonged to the early medieval period.

- THE RAJPUTS

The populartheories are,

i) They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna (Chandra vamsa) or the Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula theory), ii) They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families, iii) They are foreigners.

There

were nearly 36 Rajput' clans. The major clans were

The Rajput Period

(647A.D- 1200 A.D.)

The Ancient Indian history came to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II. From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the hands of various Rajput dynasties.
Scholars have different theories about the origin of the Rajputs.

The Pratiharas of Avanti. ThePalas of Bengal. The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer The Tomars of Delhi The Rathors of Kanauj The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar The Chandellas of Bundelkhand The Paramaras of Malwa The Senas of Bengal The Solankis of Gujarat. j

Struggle for Supremacy During the Rajput period there were nearly 36 Rajput clans ruling over North India. Afew of them were the Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans, Tomars, Chandelas and Paramaras. There was no strong central

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authority. The Rajputs lacked unity and struggled with one another. They also neglected the frontiers of India and gave way for the Muslims to invade India at a later period. The Pratiharas 8th-! 1th Century A.D.

The Pratiharas were also known as Gurjara Pratiharas as they belonged to the Gurjara race. They ruled over northern and western India from the 8th to the 11th century A.D. Nagabhatta I (725-740.A.D.) was the founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as his capital. He defeated the Arabs of Sind. He also captured Kathiawar, Malwa, Gujarat and several parts of the Rajputana. Among his successors, Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II played a vital role in consolidating the empire. Mihirabhoja was the most powerful Pratihara king. During his period, the empire extended from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar. He was able to stop the Muslim invasion under Junaid of Sind. Mahendrapala (885908 A.D.) son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler. He extended his control over Magadha and north Bengal.
/

Pratiharas-A bulwark The Pratiharas stood as a bulwark of India's defence against the aggression of the Muslims from the days of Junaid of Sind (725.A.D.) to that of Mahmud of Ghazni.

Decline of the Pratiharas Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king. During his period the vast empire was reduced to Kanauj. The Pratihara power began to decline after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the kingdom in 1018 A.D. After the decline of the Prathiharas their feudatories Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas, Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers. The Palas (8th -12th CenturyA.D.) There was complete anarchy in Bengal between 750-760 A.D. The chieftains of Bengal selected Gopala as the King of Bengal and Bihar in order to put an end to anarchy. Gopala (765-769.A.D.) soon restored order and founded the Pala dynasty. Gopala extended his power over Magadha and the Pala dynasty ruled over northern and eastern India. Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.) the son of Gopala, succeeded him. He brought Kanauj, Bengal and Bihar under his control and became the master of Northern India after defeating the Pratiharas. He was a staunch Buddhist and founded several monasteries and the famous Vikramasila University. He also renovated the Nalanda University. Dharmapala's son Devapala (815-855 A.D.) who succeeded him kept the Pala territories intact. He also captured Assam and Orissa. His successors were weak. During (998the reign of 1038.A.D.) the Palas became powerful again.
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The Pala dynasty started declining after the death of Mahipala. The last Pala king was Govinda Pala. By the middle of the 12th century the Pala kingdom gave way to the rising power of the Senas. Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj The Pratiharas of Central India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan wanted to establish their supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile Gangetic Valley. Their Tripartite struggle lasted nearly 200 years and weakened all of them and enabled the Turks to overthrow them. TheTomars of Delhi The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas. They rose to power and founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D. In 1043 A.D., Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot. The Tomars became the feudatories of the Chauhans when Delhi was captured by them in middle of the 12th century. The Chauhans of Delhiand Ajmer The Chauhans who were the feudatories of the Pratiharas declared their independence in the 1101 century at Ajmer. In the early part of the 12th century they captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi from the Tomars. Thus they shifted their capital to Delhi. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Prithvtraj Chauhan.

Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.) There was a lot of confusion after the decline of the Pratiharas. Ultimately, the Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D. Jaichand
was the last great ruler of this dynasty. He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194A.D. by Muhammad ofGhori. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand The Chandellas of Bundelkhand established themselves in the 9th century. The Chandella Chief Yasovarman had his capital at Mahoba.

Kanderiya Mahadeva Temple

Kalinjar was their important fort. The Chandellas built a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho, the most famous being the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1050 A.D.). Qutb-ud-din Aibak defeated, Paramal the last Chandella ruler in 1203A.D.

The Guhllas or Slsodlyas of Mewar The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty with its capital at Chittor During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar, Ala-ud-din
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khilji invaded his territory and defeated him in 1307 A.D. Rana Ratan Singh's wife Queen Padmini performed Jauhar. The Sisodiya rulers - Rana Sangha and: Maharana Pratap gave a tough fight to the Mughal rulers of India.
The Paramaras of Malwa

The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Pratiharas. They asserted their independence in the 10th century and their capital was at Dhara. Raja Bhoja (1018-1069) was the most famous ruler of this period. He constructed a beautiful lake (More than 250 sq. miles) near Bhopal. He set up a college at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature. The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

Nature of the Rajputs

The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature. They believed in protecting the women and the weak. The women preferred death to dishonour. They were educated and were highly honoured in society. They took part in public life and wars. Child marriage and polygamy were in practice. Women performed Sati and Jauhar to protect themselves from the hands of the enemies and to avoid dishonour.

Government The Rajput government was feudal in character. Each kingdom was divided into a large number of Jagirs held by the Jagirdars. The Jagidars collected revenue from the allocated villages and gave a share of it to the king. They also offered military assistance to their kings. Contributionof the Rajputs The Rajputs have contributed remarkably to the development of language, literature, art and architecture of India. Language and Literature During the Rajput period, regional languages like Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali were well developed. The Bhakti saints and the folk singers played a major role in the development of regional
languages.

Lingaraja Temple

Religion The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism. They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism. It was during their period that the Bhakti Cult started.
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Some of the literary works of this period are Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Jayadeva's Gita Govindam and Somadeva's Kathasaritasagar. Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in which he refers to the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shinomani, a book on

North Indian Kingdoms

/ Naland
Chandellas

Paramarai

BundelkhaiVd

ionark

Arabian Sea

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

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astronomy. Rajasekhara was the court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala.

Bhubaneshwar, the Sun Temple at Konark and the Dilwara Temple at MountAbu are the fine specimens of temple architecture of the Rajputs.

Sun Temple - Konark

His best known works were Karpu ramanjari and Bala Ramayana.

Dilwara Temple

Art andArchitecture Mural paintings and Miniature paintings became popular during this period.

The Khajuraho temples attract tourists from India and abroad. The Palaces at Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts at Jaisalmar, Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine examples of Rajput architecture.

Udaipur Palace

The Khajuraho group of temples, the Lingaraja Temple at

End of the Rajput Power During the Rajput period there was no strong military power in India to keep the warring princes in check and to co-ordinate their activities against foreign invasions.This political situation enabled the Turks to establish their control over India.

Sati :Self-immolation of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. Jauhar: Amass suicide of women in order to escape defilement at the hands of foreign victors. The Rajput Literature - Gita Govindam: 'Song of the cowherd' Rajatarangini -'River of Kings', Kathasaritasagara - Ocean of tales'. Khajuraho temples: The Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandellas between the 10th and 12th centuries A.D.They are regarded as divine poetry on stone.These temples were actually lost as they were overrun by a nearbyjungle till the early ig"1century and were found .There are around 30 temples in the area in and around Bundelkhand.The exterior and the interior of these temples have very fine sculptures

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EXERCISE

I) Choose the correct answer. I.The Middle Period or the medieval period extended from the _ century. a) 8th -18th b) 1-8th c)18th -Present 2. The founder of the Pratihara dynasty was_ . a) Mahendrapala b) Mihirabhoja c) Nagabhatta I 3. Dharmapala founded the famous University at _ . a)Nalanda b)Taxila c)Vikramasila 4. The most important ruler of the Chauhan dynasty was Chauhan c)Prithviraj b)Mahipala a)Jayapala 5. The capital of the Paramaras was at_ . b)Malwa c)Dhara a) Delhi II) Fillin the blanks. 1. The Pratiharas were also known as_ . 2. Gopala extended his power over_ . 3. The Nalanda University was renovated by _ 4. Raja Bhoja constructed a beautiful lake near _ 5. Bhaskaracharya wrote SiddhantaShiromani, a book on_ . Ill) Matchthe following. 1. Khajuraho Temples - MountAbu 2. Chand Bardai - Chandellas 3. Rajasekara - Prithviraj Raso 4. Sun Temple - Karpuramanjari - Konark 5. Dilwara Temple IV) Answer the following questions briefly. 1. How is the Medieval Period of Indian History classified? 2. Name any four Rajput Clans which ruled over North India. 3. Write a note on the nature of the Rajputs. 4. What was the contribution of the Chandellas to temple architecture? 5. Who was the founder of Guhila dynasty? Where was its capital? V) Answer in detail. 1. Write a detailed account of the Pratiharas. 2. What were the contributions of the Rajputs in various fields?

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Formative Assessment

I. Rearrange the jumbled words:

1. Founder of the Guhila dynasty 2.Chandellachief 3. Last Pratihara king 4. Last Chandella ruler 5. Most famous Paramara ruler

-WABAPARAL - RYAANOSVAM -ALPAYAARJ -MPLARAA -JAHABAORJ

II. WHO AM I ? 1. I renovated the Nalanda University - Who am I? 2. I constructed a beautiful lake near Bhopal - Who am I? 3. I was the last great ruler of Rathor dynasty - Who am I? 4. I wrote the book Rajatarangini - Who am I? 5. I am the son of Mihira Bhoja - Who am I?

III. Cross Word:

1
6

7
2

Across: 1. The last Pala ruler. 2. The ruler who strengthened the Pala dynasty. 3. The Prathihara ruler who extended his kingdom upto the Magadha Empire. 4. The ruler who consolidated the Prathihara Empire. 5. The most powerful ruler of the Prathiharas. Down: 6. The founder of the Vikramasila University. 7. The son of Dharmapala. 8. The founder of the Pala dynasty.
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IV. Mind Mapping : Write a paragraph on the Prathiharas using the given hints.
Location period Race

>
Important rulers

Prathiharas
Invasions Decline reasons

Contributions

Group Activity: Write the names of all the rulers belonging to different clans on the board or on the flash cards. 2. Draw the following tabular column on the board. 3. Divide the class into groups and ask a child from each group to pick a name of the ruler, and fill it in the relevant column.
Prathiharas
Palas Tomars

Chauhans

Rathors

Chandelas

Guhilas

Paramaras

VI. Things to do: 1. Mark the following places on the outline map of India. Ajmer, Nalanda, Kanauj, Bundelkhand, Indraprastha. 2. Enact a skit on the theme - 'United we stand and divided we fall' keeping in mind the political conditions during the Rajput Period.

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2. THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN

The southern part of India is called the Deccan or the Dakshinapatha. The Deccan was separated from Northern India by the Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the Narmada and Tapti and the dense forests. Hence, the southern region was not affected much by the historical happenings in North India. The medieval period witnessed the rise of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. With the decline of the Chalukyas their feudatories namely the Hoysalas, Kakatiyas and Yadavas asserted their independence. This period also saw the extension of the Delhi Sultanate namely the Khiljis and the Tughluqs into South India. The Chalukyas (6th -12th century A.D.) The Chalukyas were a dominant power in the Deccan. Their period is divided as follows: the Early Western Chalukyas - 6,h-8,h century A.D., the Later Western Chalukyas 10th-12th century A.D. and the Eastern Chalukyas-7th-1 2th century.A.D.
Early Western Chalukyas (6th"# century A.D.)
The Chalukyas rose to power in Karnataka in the 6th century A.D. Their capital was Vatapi, (modern Badami)in the Bijapur district. The Chalukya power had a humble beginning under Jayasimha and Ramaraya. Pulakesin-I (543566.A.D) was the real founder of the
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Early Western Chalukyas. Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He defeated Gangas, Malavas and Gurjaras. He successfully opposed Harsha's attack in the north and defeated him in 637 A.D. In the south he was constantly struggling with the Pallavas. Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava King Mahendravarma I after which he crossed the Cauvery and made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. In 642.A.D., Narasimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom. Pulakesin II lost his life during the war.

Vikramaditya-I, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya-ll were the other important rulers of this dynasty. They had to struggle with the Pallavas and the Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga, founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire overthrew Kirtivarman-ll, the last of the Chalukya Kings of Badami. The Chalukyas were not very significant for well over two centuries. Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (10* -12th century A.D) The Chalukyas rose to power again at Kalyani during the second half of the 10th Century and continued to rule till the end of the 12th Century A.D. Tailapa II (973997 A.D) the founder of this dynasty brought the Rashtrakuta rule to an end. The important rulers of this dynasty were Someshwara-ll, Jayasimha-ll and Vikramaditya-VI.

Deccan Kingdoms

YADAVA|
Ellol
iTIYAS AKUTAS Waranaa

fathigumpha

)ian

Sea
Dwgrasamu

Bay of Bengal richi yMamallapuram

Indian Ocean

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Someswara IV was the last ruler of this dynasty. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (7u,-12lh century A.D)

The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kancheepuram.

Vishnu Vardhana, a brother of Pulakesin-ll, was the founder of the Eastern Chalukya Empire of Vengi. The Eastern Chalukyas outlived the main Badami dynasty by many generations. They had matrimonial alliance with the later Imperial Cholas.
One of their descendants namely Kulothunga Chola (10711122 A.D.) was enthroned as a Chola ruler. He merged the Chalukya kingdom with the Chola Empire and started the ChalukyaChola line of rulers.

Telugu literature developed during this period.

Temple at Aihole

Contributions of the Chalukyas The Chalukya kings were the followers of Hinduism. They also patronized Jainism. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin-ll who composed the Aihole Inscription was a Jain. The Chalukyas were great patrons of architecture. They had built around 70 Vishnu temples in Aihole. Hence Aihole has been called the 'Cradle of Indian Temple architecture". Other important temples of this period are the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal and the group of temples at Badami.
Pattadakal: It was a historical place known even to the ancient Greeks and Romans.There are as many as 10 temples at Pattadakal belonging to the Chalukya rulers. The Virupaksha temple: This temple was built by Lokamahadevi.the queen of Vikramaditya 11.In front of the Hall of the Priests or Antarala there is a pillared Mandapam or a meeting place for the people.

Pattadakal group of Temples

The Rashtrakutas (8th -10* century A.D.) The period of the Rashtrakuta ascendancy (753-975A.D.) constitutes perhaps the most brilliant chapter in the history of the Deccan. The Rashtrakutas were the descendants of the Rathors of the North. Kannada was the mother tongue of the Rashtrakutas.

The "Rashtrakutas" term means designated officers-incharge of territorial divisions called Rashtras. The members of the family were district officers underthe early Chalukyas of Badami.
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The greatness of the Rashtrakutas started with Dantidurga. He occupied Ellora in 742 AD and became a feudatory of Kirtivarman of Badami. He captured Maharastra, Gujarat and most of the districts of central and northern Madhya Pradesh. He subjugated the Cholas of Srisailam country (Kurnool) and then besieged Kanchi in 750 A.D. He entered into matrimonial alliance with Nandivarman II Pallavamalla of Kanchi and gave his daughter Reva in marriage to him. After strengthening his power, Dantidurga attacked his suzerain Kirtivarman-ll and proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan in 753 A.D. Rashtrakuta territory extended around Nasik in the Northern Deccan with Malkhed as its capital.
Dantidurga died in 756 A.D. and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I (756-775 A.D. ). He made Silharas as his feudatory. He also Govinda-ll invaded Gangavadi. (775- 780 A.D.), the son of Krishna I invaded the kingdom of Vengi and entered into alliances with the rulers of Gangavadi, Kanchi, Vengi and Malwa

power became invincible during his time.

Govinda-ll (792 -814 A.D.) was succeeded by his fourteen year old son Amoghavarsha-I (814880 A.D). His cousin Karka defeated Vijayaditya-ll of Vengi and the Ganga ruler Rajamalla-I. Krishna ! (936-968 A.D.) was the next famous ruler. He defeated the Cholas at Takkolam and captured Tanjore. He went as far as Rameshwaram. Karka-ll (972973.A.D.), the last ruler of the Rashtrakutas was defeated by Tailapa-ll, the Chalukya ruler of Kalyani. This marked the downfall of the Rashtrakutas. Significance of the Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakuta rulers inflicted severe defeats on many north Indian rulers and changed the whole course of the history of north India.They subjugated the Palas,Prati haras, Eastern Chalukyas,and Cholas and advanced as far as Rameswaram. Ellora:The Ellora caves were excavated during the reign of the Chalukyas and later by the Rashtrakuta Kings.Hindu .Buddhist and Jain deities are found in these cave temples. The Kailasanatha temple found here is the world' s largest temple hewn out of a single block of rock and is the most imposing.
Contributions
The Rashtrakutas were great patrons of art and architecture. Krishna-I built the magnificent
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Dhurva (780-792 A.D.) who succeeded Govinda-ll, was an able ruler. He annexed Malwa and made Chakrayudha of Kanauj to accept his overlordship. He defeated the Pallava ruler Dantivarman. The king of Ceylon also accepted his suzerainty. He defeated Vijayaditya-llof Vengi and supported Bhima, the half brother of Vijayaditya-ll. Thus the Rashtrakuta

Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The Elephanta caves near Mumbai were completed by the Rashtrakutas. Amoghavarsha was a great patron of literature. He wrote Marga in the Kannada language. His teacher Jinasena wrote Parsavaudaya, a biography of Parsava. The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th -14,h Century A.D.)

Turkish garrison. He fell a victim to the Sultans of Madurai in 1342 A.D. His son Ballala continued his struggle with the Muslims. With his death the Hoysala Kingdom came to end.

The Hoysalas were originally feudatories of the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Vinayaditya (1006 -1022 A.D.) carved out a petty principality of Mysore and ruled over it with Sosavir as his capital. Vishnuvardhana was the first distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya's family. He shifted his capital to Dwarasamudra. He captured GangavadifromKulothunga Chola. Gangavadi served as a buffer state between the Chalukyas and the Chola Empire. The next important ruler /ira Ballala-ll (11731220 A.D.) defeated Billama V of the Yadava Dynasty. He asserted the independence of the Hoysalas.

Contributions The Hoysalas paved the way for the rise of Mysore into a big Kingdom. The Hoysalas were great partons of art, architecture and literature. They constructed a number of temples at Dwarasamudra and Belur. Scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata were depicted in those temples. Hoysalas encouraged Karmada literature. Nayachandra, Kanti, Raghavanka and Nemichandra were the great writers of this period.
The Kakatiyas of Warangal (12,h -14th Century A.D.) The Kakatiyas were the feudatories of the Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Prola-ll (1110 -1158 A.D.) the Kakatiya ruler captured the territory between the Krishna and the Godavari from the Chalukyas and ruled over it with Hanumakonda as his capital. His son Prataparudra-I (11581196.A.D.) shifted the capital to Warangal. The next remarkable ruler was Ganapathi (11991261.A.D. ). He captured territories upto Kanchi from the Cholas. He invaded Kalinga and Western Andhra. Ganapati was succeeded (1261by his daughter Rudram 1291.A.D. ). Peace and prosperity prevailed in the country during her reign.
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Narasimhan-ll (1220-1235A.D.) lost the territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to Singhana, a Yadava ruler. But he defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya and restored Rajaraja-lll to the Chola throne and he erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.
Ballala I! (1291-1342 A.D) was the last great ruler of this dynasty. In 1310 A.D. he was defeated by Malik Kafur. He struggled hard against the

She abdicated the throne in favour of her grandson Prataparudhra-ll (1291-1326 A.D.). During his rule Malik Kafur invaded Warangal in 1309 A.D. After offering a stiff resistance, Prataparudra-ll yielded and paid him an immense booty. Ulugh Khan, the son of Ghiasud-din Tughluq captured Warangal in 1323 A.D. and sent Prataparudra II to Delhi. Mis successors continued their struggle with the rulers of the Tughluq dynasty. In 1327A.D. Mohammad-bin-Tughluq captured Warangal. Vinayakadeva the last nominal ruler of this dynasty was put to death by Muhammad Shah I, the Bahmani Sultan in 1362 A.D. After his death, the Kakatiya dynasty came to an end.
The famous Kohinoor Diamond which was unearthed in Kollur on the banks of the Krishna river belonged to the Kakatiyas._

THE YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI (12 -14* Century A.D.) The Yadavas of Devagiri claimed their descent from the epic hero Lord Krishna. They were known as Sevunas because they ruled over Sevuna, the region from
Nasik to Devagiri(Daulatabad). Their ancestors were the vassals of the Rashtrakutas and the Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.
BhjUama-V (1175-1190 A.D.) the

Contributions The Kakatiyas encouraged literature, art and architecture. The thousand Pillar temple at Hanumakonda stands as an everlasting contribution of the Kakatiyas.

Yadava ruler took advantage of the declining power of the LaterWestern Chalukyas of Kalyani, defeated Someswara-IV and declared his independence. He also came into conflict with Vira Balalla-ll (11731220A.D.), a Hoysala ruler. In the battle of Lakkundi, Bhillama V lost his life. Bhillama V was succeeded by his son Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.) He defeated Kalachuris, Gurjaras and Kakatiyas. Jaitrapala was succeeded by his son Singhana (1210-1247A.D.) who defeated Mahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler. Singhana was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. He defeated Vira Ballala-ll the Hoysala ruler and extended his dominion beyond the River Krishna. He invaded Gujarat many times and annexed Kolhapur which belonged to Silhara dynasty.

The Thousand Pffiar tempfe at Hanumakonda

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna (1247-1260 A. D). He was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D) who annexed north Konkan and put an end to the Silhara dynasty. He also
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defeated the Kakatiyas and the Hoysalas.

Contribution of theYadavas
was built during TheDevagiri the reign of the Yadavas. It was one of the strongest forts in India. The Delhi Sultans later added a Juma Masjid and Chand Minar inside it. The Yadavas also patronized the study of science and astronomy.

Ramachandra Deva (12711309 A.D.) was the last great ruler of this dynasty. Ala-ud-din-Khilji defeated him and made him as a vassal of the Delhi Sultanate. Sankara Deva (1309 - 1312 A.D.) the son and successor of Ramachandra Deva failed to pay his arrears. So, Malik Kafur defeated and killed him in 1312 A.D. Harapala, brother-in-law of Sankara Deva raised the flag against the Khiljis. Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-din Khilji defeated and killed Harapala. Thus the Yadava dynasty came to an end.

End of the Deccan Kingdoms The constant struggle among the rulers of the Deccan kingdoms weakened their rule. Further the attacks on them by the Sultans of Delhi ever since the rule of Ala-uddin Khilji led to their decline.

The Elephanta Caves : The Elephanta Caves were hewn out of rocks by the Rashtrakuta Kings. They are located on a small island near Mumbai.The Portuguese named it so as they discovered a huge elephant sculpture here. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and contains many sculptures of gods and goddesses.
EXERCISE

I) Choose the best answer. 1. The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the _
temple.

a) Kailasanatha

b) Brihadeeswara c) Hoysaleswara

2.The Rashtrakuta power became invincible during the time of

a) Dandidurga b) Govinda c) Dhurva

3. Vishnuvardhana the Hoysala ruler shifted his capital from Sosavir to

a) Dwarasamudra b)Warangal c)Devagiri

4.The Kakatiya dynasty came to an end with the death of

a)Prataparudra-ll b)Vinayakadeva c)Rudramba

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5. The most distinguished Yadhava ruler was _

a)Jaitrapala b)Singhana c) Krishna

II) Fill in the blanks. I.The greatest king of the Early Western Chalukyas was
2. Kulothunga Chola merged the Chalukyan Kingdom with the_ Empire.

3. The descendants of the Rathors of the North were the _ . 4. Krishna I builtthe _ temple at Ellora.
5. Ballala III was the lastgreat ruler of _ dynasty.
Ill) Matchthe following.

1. Pulakesin I 2. Virupaksha Temple

3. Hoysalas
4. Kakatiyas
5. Yadavas

Devagiri
Dwara samudra

Warangal Early Western Chalukyas

Pattadakal

IV) Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What separated Deccan from North India? 2. Why do we say that the Chalukyas were great patrons of architecture? 3. Write a short note on Dhurva, the Rashtrakuta ruler?

4. What do you know about the architecture of the Hoysala period?

5. What led to the end of Deccan Kingdom?

V)Answerthe following in detail.

1. Given an account of the early western Chalukyas.

2. Give a detailed account of Dantidurga, the Rastrakuta ruler?

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Formative Assessment
I.

Test your memory arid fill in the blanks. 1. The capital of the early western Chalukyas 2. Founder of the Rashtrakuta empire 3. The court poet of Pulakesin II 4. The Cradle of Indian temple Architecture 5. One of the strongest forts of Yadavas

_ at _ p

D_n_id_r_a. Ra _ iki i. e. A_h D_va_i_i fort.

__

II. Prepare an album on Art, Architecture and paintings belonging to the Deccan

Kingdoms.
III. Conduct a debate on "Our Dynasty is the best". Dividethe class into groups as Chalukyas / Rashtrakutas / Hoysalas / Kakatiyas / Yadavas. Two students from each group can participate and claim that their dynasty is the best.

IV. Prepare a poster: Prepare a poster on any one of the Deccan rulerswhom you think isthe best.
V. Group activity: Know more about the topic 1. Write the name of the Ruler/ Book / Author/ monument on small strips of paper. Fold and keep it in a container. 2. Ask a child from each group to come forward, pick a chit and say a few words about the topic.

VI. Things to do: On the outline map of India mark the following places. Vatapi, Vengi, Kalyani, Dwarasamudra, Malkhed.Aihole, Ellora, Warangal.

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3. THE SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

The ancient Tamizhagam was divided into three political units under the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas. Their period of existence is known as the Sangam Age. The Kalabhras who rose to power during this period ruled nearly for three centuries from 300-600 A.D. In this chapter we will study in detail about the Later Pallava dynasty, Imperial Cholas and the Pandyas.

THE PALLAVAS Political History

There is a controversy overtheorigin of the Pallavas. Some of the views are-they were of Persian origin or the feudatories of the Satavahanas or the natives of Tondaimandalam. There were two branches of Pallavas namely, the early and later Pallavas. LATER PALLAVAS (570-903A.D.)

MAHENDRAVARMAN-I (600 -630 A.D.) Mahendravarman-I was the son of Simhavishnu. Conflicts arose between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas during this period. He lost the northern parts of the Pallava Kingdom to Pulakesin II. Though a follower of Jainism, he embraced Saivism due to Saint Appar's influence. He was a versatile scholar. He took up the titles like Chitrakarapuli and Vichitra Chitta for his excellence in building, painting and music. He constructed the cities of Mahendramangalam and Mahendravadi.
NARASIMHAVARMAN-I (630-668 A.D.)

Simhavishnu was the first ruler of the later Pallava dynasty. He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam with his capital at Kanchi. Heseized the regions of the Cholas. His kingdom extended from Andhra Kingdom, Vishnukundin up to the river Cauvery. He assumed the title 'Avanisimha' or the "Lion of the Earth'.

Narasimhavarman-I was the first son of Mahendravarman I. He was known as Mamalla which means a great wrestler. He assumed the title Vatapi Kondan for destroying the Chalukya capital Vatapi. He sent two expeditions to Ceylon, to restore his friend Manavarman to the throne of Ceylon. During his period Hieun Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. Narasimhavarman was a great builder. The monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram stand testimony to his architectural skill.

O Hieun Tsang: Hieun Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. According to him Kanchi was about 6 miles in circumference. There were more than one hundred Buddhist monasteries and many Jain temples here. Kanchi was the greatest centre of education in the south. O Vatsyayana was a pandit of Kanchi. Dharmapala went from Kanchi to Nalanda. Dandithe author of "Dandi alangaram" a poetfrom North India lived in Kanchi.

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RAJASIMHA OR NARASIMHAVARMAN- II (691-728A.D.)

Narasimhavarman II, the son of Parameswaran I was one of the most famous rulers of the Pallavas. His reign was marked by peace and prosperity. He built several fine temples including the Kailasanatha

Parameswaran-ll (728-73 1A. D. ),the son of Narasimhavarman - II came to power in 728 A.D. He was defeated by the Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya-ll. Hedied in a battle with the Gangas. The Simhavishnu line of rule came to an end with the death of Parameswaram-ll as his son did not succeed him.

i
Kailasanatha Temple-Kanchi

A Pallava Coin

temple at Kanchi, the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Talagirisvara temple at Panamalai. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin, author of Dandialankaram (Sanskrit Grammar work) spent many years in his court. Trade relations was established even with China.
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Nandivarman-ll Pallavamalla (731-796 A.D.) was the son of Simhavishnu's brother Hiranyavarman. He was chosen by the Pallava ministers, the members of ghatika (college of learning) and the common peopie to succeed Parameswaran-ll. Nandivarman II was a worshipper of Vishnu. He built the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchi. The great Vaishnava Saint Thirumangai Alwar was his contemporary. Decline of the Pallavas The successors of Nandi varman -II were not very strong and powerful. They had to face Pandya aggressions. The last Pallava ruler Aparajitha (885-903 A.D.) was defeated by Aditya-I , a Chola ruler. The Pallava rule at Tondaimandalam thus came to an end with his downfall. Administration of the Pallavas The Pallavas had a well organized system of administration. The Pallava region was divided into four divisions namely the Rashtras or Mandalams, Vishayas or Kottams, Nadus and Urs. The King was the head of the Central administration.

He was assisted by Ministers and Secretaries. There were civil and criminal courts. The village was the lowest unit of administration. The Uravai or the village Assemblies were in charge of the village Administration. Various variyams played an important role in taking care of the needs in the villages. There were 20 variams like the Erivariyam, Thottavariyam, and Kovilvariam etc. Variyams were Executive committees. _
J

seen in four styles. The first style was the Rock cut temple which was introduced by Mahendravarman I. This style of temples were
excavated at places like Mahendravadi, Mammandur, Dalavanur, Thiruchirappali, Siyamangalam, Thirukazhukundram, etc. The second style is represented by the Monolithic rathas and mandapas found at Mamaliapuram. The third style is the structural temple in the Rajasimha style. Eg. Kailsanatha temple at Kanchi, the Shore temple at Mamaliapuram, etc. The last style is also the Structural temples continued by the later Pallavas.Eg. Vaikundaperumal temple, the Muktheeswara temple, etc. The Pallava rulers also paid considerable attention to the fine arts like music and painting. Mahendravarman assumed the title of Sankirtanajati for his mastery in music. Exquisite paintings of the Pallavas are found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. The Chotas The Cholas were an antique ruling family. References to the Cholas are made in the Mahabharata, the inscriptions of Asoka and the works of Megasthenese and Ptolemy.
Cholas ruled Tiruchi and Tanjore region. Their capital was Uraiyur. Tiger was their emblem. Their greatest ruler Karikala built Kallanai across the river Cauvery near Trichy.
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Contributions of the Pallavas

Literature The Pallavas were great patrons Mahendravamnan-l of learning. wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana and Bhagavadviugam. Bharavi wrote Kiratharjunyam. Avantl Sundari Kathasana was written by Dandin. The works of Alwars and Nayanmars belong to this period. Nandi Kaiambhagam and Perundevanar's Bharatavenba were the other books which belonged to this period. Pallava art andarchitecture The Pallava rulers began the Dravidian style of temple architecture. Its development can be

Durina the Sanoam Aqe, the "w'

3

' '

Monolithic Rathas- Mamaliapuram

The Chola rule declined as they became feudatories of the rulers of Uraiyur. Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas The Cholas who emerged to power in the middle of the ninth century were known as later Cholas or Imperial Cholas. They were called as Imperial Cholas because their kingdom extended to a major portion of south India, Srilanka and Kadaram (including Sumatra and Malaya). Vijayalaya (850-871 A.D) laid the foundation for the rise of later Cholas. Aditya I (871-907 A.D) son of Vijayalaya became the ruler of Tondaimandalam as well as He defeated Cholamandalam. Gangas and Kongu country. Parantaka-I, son of Aditya-I defeated the Pandya ruler and took up the title-Maduraikondan. He was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna-Ill in the battle of Takkolam. Parantaka died in 955 A.D. r > Successors of Parantaka-I
1. Gandaraditya
2.Arinjaya

Raja raja-I (985-1014 A.D.)

Rajaraja-I was the most powerful ruler of the Chola Empire. He was a great conqueror. He defeated the Cheras, Pandyas and the Chalukyas. He defeated Mahinda-V of Ceylon and built a Siva temple at Anuradhapuram. He even conquered Maldives. Thus the power of Cholas extended beyond South India. Rajaraja I defeated the Chera ruler Bhaskaravarman at Kanthalursaalai (Trivandrum) and Sathyasraya, ruler of Kalyani and restored the throne of Vengi to Sakthivarman. He gave his daughter in marriage to Vimaladitya, brother of Sakthivarman. He captured Gangavadi, Adigaipadi, Nolambadi, in the Mysore region and Raichur Doab.
Rajaraja-I assumed the titles Mummudi Chola, Jayamkondan and Sivapadasekara. He was a follower of Saivism. Devaram was collected and codified only during his period. He constructed the Brahadeeswara Temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He diedin1014A.D. Varipotthagam The Varipotthagam was a book containing all revenue records. During Rajaraja's reign a revenue survey was undertaken in 1001 A.D. by Senathipati Kuravan, a revenue officer.

949 -957 A.D. 956- 957 A.D. 956 -973 A.D. 956-966 A.D. 965-985 A.D.
>

3. Parantaka-II
4. Aditya
5. Uttama Chola
v

QThe later Cholas were well-

__

versed in maintaining and auditing of accounts. QFree hospitals called 'Aathular salai' were setup at Thanjavur and many more _places.

Rajendran-I (1012-1044A.D.) Rajendran further expanded and consolidated the empire.

225

He captured Idaidurainadu (Raichur Doab), Vanavasi (Kadamba capital), Kollipakkai (areas in Hyderabad) andMannai Kadakkam (Malkhed).

Ammangadevi, the daughter of Rajendra-I and Rajaraja of Vengi started the Chalukya Chola line of rulers. He united Vengi Kingdom with the Chola Empire. Kulottunga-I defeated the western Chalukyas. He also captured Kalinga. During his reign Srilanka declared its independence. He had very close relationship with Srivijaya and sent trade missions to their land in 1077A.D.

Brahadeeswana Temple - Tsnjore

He conquered the whole of Ceylon (llamandalam). He also defeated the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Western Chalukyas. Rajendran - 1 defeated Mahipala, ruler of Bengal and in memory of his expedition, hefounded the city 'Gangaikonda Cholapuram'. His greatest achievement was his conquest of Srivijaya, Kadaram and the places betweenthe Nicobar Islandsand the Malaya Peninsula. He earned the titles Gangaikondan, Panditha Cholan and Kadaram Kondan. The Chola Empire reached its zenith of glory under Rajendra I.

Kulottunga-I was a great administrator. He measured the lands and regulated land revenue. As he removedexcise duties he was called as 'Sungam Thavirtha Cholan'. He patronized great literary scholars like Jeyamkontfan, Ottakkuthar, Pugazhendi and

Kambar. Disintegration of the Cholas

The Chola Empire began to disintegrate due to the rise of feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya Empire. Rajendra-I11 (1246-1279 A.D.) was the last Chola ruler. The Chola Kingdom was annexed to the Pandya Empire with the defeat of Rajendra-lll by Jatavarman Sundarapandya-ll.

Immediate successors of
Rajenrfra-J

Rajadhiraja I Rajendra II Rajamahendra Virarajendra Adirajendra

1018- 1054A.D. 1056- 1064A.D. 1060- 1063A.D. 1063-1070 A.D. 1067- 1070A.D.

Kulottunga-I (1071- 1122A.D.) Kulottunga-I who was born to

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Chola The Cholas set up a highly efficient system of administration. The empire was divided into provinces called Mandalams. The Mandalams were further divided into Kottams, Districts called Nadu or Valanadu and Villages called Urs. The Utharamerur inscription of

Parantaka-I gives a detailed account of the village administration. Each village had a VillageAssembly called UrorSabha, which looked after the administration of the village.

The members of the village Assembly were elected by the Kudavolai System. The names of the eligible persons were written on palm leaves and put into a pot. A boy or a girl would pick up thirty names. The chosen persons were declared elected.
There were Variyams such as Samvatsara Variyam, Eri variyam, Thotta variyam, Pancha variyam, Pon variyam and Puravuvari variyam to carry out the different functions of the village. It's members were called as Variyaperumakkal. The number of Variyams and it's members varied from village to village.

Socio-Economic Conditions There were many castes and sub-castes in the Chola society. The practice of Sati and Devadasi system were prevalent. The women were in the habit of saving money called 'Sirupadu'. The weaving industry and metal works were developed. Guilds were prevalent. Commercial contacts were established with China, Sumatra, Java andArabia. Religion and Education The Chola kings were patrons of Saivism . They were tolerant towards other religions likeVaishnavism and Buddhism. Temples and Matts were
227

the centres of learning. Details about these learning centres are found in the inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubuvanam. Literature The development of Tamil literature reached its zenith during the Chola period. The two master pieces of this age are the Ramayana composed by Kambar and the Periyapuranam or Thiruttondarpuranam by Sekizhar. Seevaka Chinthamani was written by Thiruthaka Devar. Nambiandar Nambi compiled Panniruthirumurai, a saivite work. Nalayiradivyaprabhandam a Vishnavite work was compiled by Nathamuni. Muvarula, Kulothunga Pillai Tamil, Thakayagaparani were written byOttakkuthar. Jeyamkondar wrote Kalingathuparani. Commentators like llampuranar, Nachinarkiniyar and Parimelazhagar belonged to this period. Art andArchitecture The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas. The chief feature of the Chola Temples is the Vimana. More than seventy temples are found in the regions between the Lower Krishna and the Gulf of Mannar. Thiruchirappalli, Srirangam, Tanjore, Kumbakonam, Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai, Trivandrum, Suchindram and Udipi are the chief centers of Chola art. The Chola temples built at an early stage were known for their simplicity. Example: Vijayalaya Choleswaram temple at Narttamalai and Aivar koil temple at kodumbalur.

Gradually the temples became imposing. The finest more examples are the Brahadeeswara Temple at Tanjore and Siva temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The height of the Vimana of the Brahadeeswara temple rises to nearly 216 ft. over the Garbagraha. It has 13 tiers. The Subramanya temple at Tanjore, Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram and the Kampahareswara or Thirubhuvaneswara temple at Thirubhuvanam in Tanjore which were built later were more graceful and less imposing.
O World Heritage sites: The Brahadeeswara temple at Tanjore, Siva temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram have been declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO.

The Cholas are also well known for their bronze images. The Nataraja idol in the Nageswara Temple at Kumbakonam is the largest and the finest . The bronze idol of Arthanareeswarar is another important specimen of the Chola period.
Paintings The Cholas are known for their paintings as well as fine murals (paintings done directly on walls). The paintings of the Chola period are found at Tanjore, Thirumayam, Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple and NarttamalaiVishnu Temple.

Sculptures

Portraits, icons and decorative sculptures are the main features of Chola sculptures. The portraits are full of grace and beauty. The icons of Rajaraja-I are remarkable. The

Music and Dance Music developed into a fine art underthe Cholas. This development provided the basis for the later day Carnatic Music. Bharatanatyam as a fine art also developed during this period. Impact of Imperial Cholas The Imperial Cholas who ruled from 850 A.D. to 1279A.D. played a significant role in the Tamil country for about 430 years. They have made an impressive impact on Polity, Tamil literature, Temple architecture, music and dance. They were the only imperial power who founded an overseas empire and spread the glories of the Tamil culture far and wide.
World Heritage Day:The World Heritage Day

Nataraja - Bronze Idol

sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, eight armed Durga in the Shiva and Vishnu temples are a few examples of Chola sculptures.
228

is celebrated every year on 18"* April.This day is intended to make people aware or their social and cultural Heritage.lt also instills the value to care and preserve all the heritage sites.

Important places of the Pallava period

w
s

Vat

Pullalur

Kanchipuram Siyamangalam# Mamallapuram

jMylapore

Tellarti
Palanimalai#
Arabian Sea

Trichy

Bay of Bengal

Tan

Ceylon
Indian Ocean

229

Important places of the Chola period

Kalyani

Utharamerur
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal

Kanchi

gi Konda Cholapuram

Indian Ocean

Ceylon

230

The Pandya Empire The Pandyas occupied the region comprising of the modern districts of Madurai and Tirunelvelli, part of Trichy and sometimes even parts of Tranvancore. We come to know of the Pandyas from the writings of Magasthenese, Pliny, the ancient Tamil literary works and the accounts of Hiuen-T-sang and Marco-polo.The history of the Pandyas can be divided as the Early Pandyas, First Pandya Empire and Second Pandya Empire.
The early Pandyas The Early Pandyas belonged to the Sangam Age. A remarkable feature of this period was the maintenance of a flourishing Tamil Literary Academy or Sangam at Madurai. The capital of the Pandyas was Madurai and their emblem was fish. With the rise of the kalabhras, the Sangam Age declined.

The Pandya empire extended to Tanjore, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore and Salem. Decline of the First Pandya Empire The successors of Srimara Srivallabha had to face the onslaught of the Pallavas and the Cholas. In the 10th and the 11th centuries the Pandyas made several attempts to revive their past glory. The opposition from the Pallavas and the Cholas let to the decline of the First Pandya Empire. The Second Pandya Empire

From the 13th century onwards the Pandyas progressively detached themselves from the Chola rule and reasserted their independence. In the civil war which broke out between Vikrama Pandya and Virapandya, Vikrama Pandya captured power with the support of Kulothunga-lll the Chola Emperor.

First Pandya Empire The Pandya king Kadungon restored the position of the Pandyas in the last quarter of the 6lh Century.A.D. by overthrowing the Kalabharas. The dynasty founded by him is generally referred to as the First Pandya Kingdom (550950.A.D.) The most important rulers of this period were Arikesari Maravarman, Ranadhiran, Maravarman Rajasimha-I, Varaguna-I and Srimara Srivallabha.

Jatavarman Kulasekara-I (11901216 A.D.) succeeded his father Vikrama Pandya. He ruled over Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. He appointed his brother, Maravarman Sundara Pandya as his successor. Maravarman Sundara Pandya-I (1216-1238 A.D.) defeated Kulottunga Chola-lll in 1219 A.D. As the Hoysalas came to the support of the Cholas, he restoredthe throne to the Chola ruler Rajaraja-lll and assumed the title 'Sonadu Valangiaruliya Sundara Pandya'.

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Maravarman Sundara Pandya-ll (1238-1253 A.D.) recovered from the Chola ruler Rajendra-lll some of the territories which he had lost earlier. Sundara Jatavarman Pandya-I (1253-1268 A.D.) succeeded Maravarman Sundara Pandya-ll. He extended the empire from Nellore and Cuddappah districts in the North to Cape Comorin in the South. Hetook up the titles Emmandalamum Kondaruliya Maharajathiraja, Sri Paramesvaran and Ponveintha Perumal.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I's son Maravarman Kulasekaran-I (1268-1308 A.D.) enlarged his kingdom. He invaded Ceylon and captured Kollam in the Chera land. He assumed the title Kollam Konda Pandya. The power of the Pandyas started declining after him.

resulted in the complete decline of the Pandya Empire Administration The Pandya Empire was called as Pandya Mandalam. The Mandalam was divided into Valanadu and further into Urs. The King was assisted by the Ariyans (Ministers) and the Army Chief. Special officers were appointed to collect taxes and maintain accounts.

Local self Government Village administration was looked after by five Variyams, namelyAranilaya Variyam, Neernilai Variyam, Nanaya Variyam, Varithandal Variyam and Needhi Variyam.
Occupation Agriculture and Trade were the main occupations of the people. The agriculturists were called as Boomiputirar. Many slaves were employed to carry on different tasks. The Pandyas were famous for pearl diving. The pearls of the Pandya empire were famous all over the world. The famous ports of the Pandyas were Korkai and Thondi. Literature Manickavasagar's composed Thiruvasagam, Andal's composed Thiruppavai, Nammalvar's composed Thiruppallandu, Villiputhurar wrote Mahabharatha, Adhiveerarama Pandya wrote Naidadham, Srikaviraya wrote books namely Seyur Murugan ula and Rathingiri ula. Thus the Pandyas contributed greatly to the progress of literature.
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Decline of the Pandyas A war of succession broke out between Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya, the sons of Maravarman Kulasekaran-I. With the help of Alaud-din Khilji's commander Malik Kafur, Sundara Pandya ascended the throne. The Tughluqs who succeeded the Khiljis, extended their hold over South India and declared the Pandya empire as a part of the Tughluq Empire. The decline of Tughluq power led to the establishment of the Sultans of Madurai which ultimately

Important places of the Pandya period

Arabian Sea

TrichjfcMadurai

arijore

Bay of Bengal

Thewkasi
[orkai

Kanyakumari
Ceylon
Indian Ocean

\D

Art and Architecture The Pandya contribution to art and architecture is noteworthy. The special features of the Pandya temple architecture are the Gopuras, Prakaras, Vimanas, Garbagrahas and Gateways. The Pandya period marked a reawakening in the field of rock-cut temples. More than 50 rock cut temples were excavated in the Pandya Kingdom at several places like Kunnakudi, Anaimalai, Sithannavasal, Thiruparan kundram.Kalugumalai, Malaiyadikurichi.Thiruchirappalli, etc., Structural temples were constructed by the Pandya rulers at Kovilpatty, Tiruppathur, Madurai,
233

Srivilliputhur and other places. Kulasekara Pandya built arthamandapa, manimandapa and sannati in every temple of his empire. Public meetings, social gatherings, religious keerthans, recitals and Katha-Nataka were held in the sabha mandapas of temples.

Sculptures
The Pandya sculptures are beautiful and ornamental. The sculptures of Somaskandar, Durga, Ganapathy, Narasimha and Nataraja are good specimens of this period.

Many sculptures are also found atKalugumalai, Thiruparankundram, Thirumalaipuram, Narttamalai and Kunnakudi.

Paintings
Among the fine arts, painting was greatly developed by the Pandyas. The mural paintings of Srimaran Srivallabha Pandya of the first Pandya period are seen in the Sithannavasal cave temples. The

paintings of lotus, bathing elephants and playing fish are noteworthy.

The Pandya rulers have thus left a unique and everlasting impact on the Tamil society and South Indian history.
Uttaramerur inscriptions: It laid down the qualifications for those who wished to become a member of the Sabha. He must be honest, a land owner from which land revenue is collected, in the age group 35 and 70 years, having a knowledge of the Vedas and well versed in administrative matters. Members of the village if found guilty were punished severely. They could not take part in the elections.

Sithanftavasal Cave Temple

The lost wax technique: The lost wax technique was used by the Chola craftsmen to make bronze statues.First the image was made in wax.Then it was covered in clay and allowed to dry.A tiny hole was made in the clay cover. Next.it was heated and the molten wax was drained out through the hole.Bronze (an alloy of copper and metal)was melted and poured into the clay through the hole.Once the metal was coated and solidified the clay cover was carefully removed andthe image was cleaned and polished.

EXERCISE
I) Choose the correct answer.

I.ThePallavas under_ overthrew the Kalabhras and established their supremacy over Thondaimandalam.

a) Simha Vishnu a)Vatapikondan a) Rajendra I

b) Mahendravarman I
b)Jayankondan b)Karikala Chola

c) Narasimhavarman II c)Kadaramkondan c)Rajaraja Chola

2. Narasimhavarman I assumed the title

_.

3. The Kallanai across river Cauvery was built by _ .

4. Parantaka I, the son of Aditya Idefeated the Pandya ruler and took up the title _ . a) Madurai Kondan b) Mudikondan c)KadaramKondan
5. The Pandya Empire was called Pandya
a)Mandalam b)Valanadu

_.

c)Uravai

6. Andal composed _ . a)Devaram b)Thiruppavai

234

c)Ramayanam

.11) Fill in the blanks.

1.During the period of Narasimhavarman-I Kanchipuram. 2. Monolithic Rathas are found at_ .

_ was called Sungam Thavirtha Cholan. 4. The Chola kings were patrons of _ . 5. Thiruvasagam was composed by _ .
6.The paintings of Srivallabha Pandya are seen in the _ temples.

3.
1. Uravai
6. Katyayana

__

visited

cave

Ill) Matchthe following.

2. Shore Temple

- Sanskrit Grammarian - Ramayana

- Village Assembly 3. Kambar 4. Brihadeeswara Temple - Greek writer

5. Megasthenese

- Tanjore - Mamallapuram

IV) Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Write a short note on the origin of the Pallavas. 2. Write a note on the administrative divisions of the Pallavas.

3. Mention the sources of information about the Cholas. 4. Which are the chief centres of the Chola art and architecture?
5. What do you know about Jatavarman Kulasekara Pandya I?
6. Name a few occupations of the Pandyas.

V) Answer in detail.

1. Discuss the contributions of the Pallavas to art, architecture and fine arts. 2. Explain in detail about the Chola administration.
3. Give an account of the Pandya contribution to temple architecture.

235

Formative Assessment

I. Play and Learn:

One group of students can take the name of each king. The other group can take up the titles. Now the rulers can acquire their titles. (The name / title can be written on strips of paper)
Rulers (Group - 1 )

Titles (Group - 2)
Mamalla Madurai Kondan Mummudi Chola Kadaram Kondan Avanisimha Ponveintha Perumal. Kollam Konda Pandya. Sungam Thavirtha Cholan.

Simha Vishnu Narasimha Varma Parantaka Raja Raja I Rajendra I Kulothunga I Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan Maravarmari Kulasekaran I

II. Design a newspaper dating back to the rule of Pallava / Chola / Pandya.

Headlines Local news Neighbouring Kingdoms Entertainment

Newspaper Format

Literary activities Short story Administration Sports

111. Find the Author of the given work

Sekizhar

Bharavi Andal

Dandi
Jeyamkondar

Ottakkuthar

Books 1. Dandi alankaram 2. Kiratharjunyam 3. Periyapuranam 4. Thiruppavai 5. Kalingathuparani 6. Muvar Ula

Authors

_ _ _ _ _
_

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IV. Design an invitation card: Subject: Raja Raja I assumed the title 'Mummudi Chola' Details to be included in the card. 1. Date of the function. 2. Venue. 3. Chief Guest. 4. Programme. 5. Felicitation.

V. Things to do: 1. Mark the following places on the outline map of India. Mamallapuram, Tiruchirapalli, Kanchipuram, Tarijore and Madurai.
2. Collect pictures and prepare an album on the art and architecture of the South Indian Kingdoms.

3. Request your school authorities to take you on a study tour to a historical site connected with Pallavs or Cholas or Pandyas.

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SOCIAL SCIENCE
STANDARD SEVEN

TERM II

135

HISTORY

L
1. ARAB AND TURKISH INVASIONS

The rise and growth of Islam has been regarded as one of the most important events in World history. Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D) was the founder of Islam. Islam grew up in the deserts of Arabia. Its first converts were the Arabs. The Arabs made Islam a powerful force in the politics of Asia. The Persians strengthened Islam and the Turks extended it both towards the West and the East and made Islam as one of the foremost religions of the World. Arab conquest of Sind and Multan 712 A.D. Commercial contacts prevailed between India and Arabia for a long time. There were many causes for the conquest of Sind. The Arabs were attracted by the rich ports of Sind and so they wanted to extend their political and religious control over it. They were angry with the ruler of Sind who failed to check the pirates who plundered them . Muhammad-bin-Qasim was sent by Al-Hajjajj the Governor of Iraq with the permission of Caliph Walid to conquer Sind. He marched against Dahir the ruler of Sind, defeated him in the Battle of Rewar and captured Sind. He also captured Multan. He got so much of wealth from Multan that he called Multan The City of Gold.'.

Iqtas or districts. Arab military officers were appointed as heads of the Iqtas. Local Hindu officers were allowed to administer the sub divisions of the districts. The Arabs imposed Jizya on non- muslims.

End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim Caliph Sulaiman, succeeded Caliph Walid after his death. He was an arch enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq. He dismissed Muharrimad-bin Qasim as he was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj. He sent him as a prisoner to Mesopotamia and tortured him to death.
Sind and Multan remained as part of the Caliph's empire for more than 150 years. Their power gradually declined.

Effects of Arab Conquest The conquest of Sind sowed the seeds for the coming of Islam into India. The Arabs learnt the art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and architecture from our land. Indian Philosophy, numerals and astronomy were taken to Europe by the Arabs.
N ' Qasim and his Defence Forces Muhammad-bin-Qasim had an

Administrative System Muhammad-bin-Qasim divided Sind and Multan into a number of

army of 25,000 troops including 6000 Syrian horses, 6000 Camels, 3000 Bactrian Camels, an artillery force of 2000 men with five catapults and advanced guards. v

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Turkish Invasion The Expansion of Turks into India

returned toGhazrii with enormous wealth.

The Turks got the upper hand over the Caliphs of Baghdad in the 8th and 9th centuries. They were more aggressive than the Arabs. They completed the work begun by the Arabs and extended their dominion beyond Sind and Multan into India. Heroic Defence of Women Rani Bai, the wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defence within the Fort of Rewar. When their attempt failed they performed Jauhar to save their chastity and escape from the hands of the invaders. Indian impact Brahma Siddhanta, a Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic. Arabic works mention the names of Indian scientists like Bhala, Manaka and Sindbad. Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer in a hospital at Baghdad. Manaka, a physician cured a serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid. / v Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud's important expedition in Hindustan was against the Somnath temple in 1025 A.D. which was situated on the coast of Kathiawar.As the ruler of Kathiawar, Raja Bhima Dev, and his followers fled from the place, he easily plundered the temple and returned to Ghazni with a rich booty which exceeded twenty lakh dinars. Estimate of Mahmud of Ghazni Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the greatest Muslim rulers of Asia. He was a great patron of art and letters and he patronised scholars like Firdausi and Alberuni. *\ cSir Henry Elliot in his book "The History of India" refers to the seventeen expeditions of Muhammad of Ghazni. He says that after every expedition Muhammad returned to Ghazni with countless wealth and enormous booty beyond all calculations.
V

_ __

End of Ghazni's rule in India Mahmud's successors were weak. So Ala-ud-din Husain of Ghori invaded Ghazni, plundered and burnt it. By 1186 A.D. the power of the House of Ghazni declined and that of Ghori rose up. Muhammad of Ghori Muhammad was the third important Muslim invader of Hindustan. He became the ruler of Ghori, a mountainous region situated between Ghazni and Herat.
137

Sabuktigin the ruler of Ghazni was succeeded by Ismail. He was dethroned in 998 A.D. by his brother, the famous Mahmud of Ghazni. He invaded India in 1000 A.D. He was the first Turkish invader. Mahmud defeated Jaipala, the ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, Fateh Daud of Multan and Anandpala of Nagarkot. He also crushed theChandelas.the rulers of Mathura, Kanauj and Gwalior. After each expedition he

_
Hence, he was popularly known as Muhammad of Ghori.

His invasions As an ambitious and enterprising ruler, he started his attacks on India in 1176 A.D. He captured Multan and Uch. He subjugated lower Sind in 1182 A.D. In 1185A.D., he invaded Punjab and captured the Fortress of Sialkot. In 1186 A.D. he besieged Lahore.

First Battle of Tarain (1191A.D.) In 1189 A.D. Muhammad of Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda and advanced into the kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan, the Rajput ruler. Prithviraj marched against him with a large force and defeated Muhammad of Ghori in the Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D. Prithviraj also recovered Bhatinda, which was earlier occupied by MahmudofGhazni. Second Battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.) Muhammad of Ghori reenforced himself and marched against Prithviraj for the second time in 1192 A.D. He gave a crushing defeat to the combined forces of the Rajput rulers under Prithviraj at Tarain. Prithviraj was imprisoned and later put to death. The Second Battle of Tarain marked the beginning of the Turkish rule in the heart of Hindustan for the first time in Indian history. Muhammad of Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his commander.

Tactics of Muhammad Muhammad divided his army into five divisions. Four armies were sent to attack the Rajput army on all sides. The fifth army was kept in reserve.The Rajputs fought with great gallantry.When they became exhausted, the fifth army was sent. They attacked with vigour and defeated the Rajputs. Rajput Uprisings Between 1193 and 1198 A.D. there were many Rajput uprisings. Qutb-ud-din Aibak put them down and brought many of their territories under his control. Delhi was made the capital of Muhammad of Ghori's territory in India. Battle of Chandwar (1194A.D.) Muhammad of Ghori marched against Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauj who was having a vast part of Indian Territory under his control. In the Battle of Chandwar, Jaichand was struck in the eye by an arrow and he was killed by Muhammad of Ghori. The victory at Chandwar helped Muhammad of Ghori to extend further into India. Conquest of Bengal and Bihar Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, one of the commanders of Muhammad of Ghori, destroyed Vikramasila and Nalanda Universities in 1202-1203A.D. He also captured Nadia in Bengal and parts of Bihar.

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Death of Muhammad of Ghori

An Estimate

Muhammad of Ghori went back to Ghazrii in order to check his Central Asian enemies. While he was engaged in evening prayer, he was assassinated on 25th March 1206 A.D., by some Shia rebels and Khokhars.

Muhammad of Ghori was considered to be the real founder of the Turkish Empire in India because of his various conquests and annexations of the Rajput territory in North India.

EXERCISE
I) Choose the best answer. 1. Muhammad-bin-Qasim was sent to conquer _ . a)Sind b) Delhi c) Ghori 2. Mahmud of Ghazni defeated _ the ruler of Hindu Shahi dynasty. c) Rajya Pal a) Jaichand b) Jaipala 3. Somnath temple was plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni in
a) 1025A.D. b)1027A.D. c)1001A.D.

4. In the First Battle of Tarain Muhammad of Ghori was defeated by

a)Sabuktigin

b)Ghiyasuddin

c) Prithiviraj

5. The Commander of Muhammad of Ghori was _ . a) Qutb-ud-dinAibak b)Balban c)Nasir-ud-din

II) Fill in the blanks. 1. Prophet Muhammad was the founder of _ .

2. Muhammad-bin-Qasim invaded Sind in _ A.D.
3. In the Second Battle of Tarain Muhammad of Ghori killed _
4. Muhammad-bin-BaktiyarKhilji captured Nadia in _ .

5. Muhammad of Ghori was considered to be the real founder of a _ Empire in India.

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Ill) Match the following. 1. Al-Hajjaj 2. Multan

3. Sabuktigin 4. Somnath Temple
5. Firdausi

City of Gold
Governor of Iraq

Kathiawar Scholar
RulerofGhazni

IV) Answer the following questions briefly. 1. Write a note on the administrative system of Arabs in Sind? 2. Who dismissed Muhammad-bin- Qasim and Why? 3. Who were the rulers defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni? 4. What were the regions invaded and captured by Muhammad of Ghori? 5. Why was the Battle of Chandwar important in the history of India?

V) Answer in detail. 1. Write in detail about theArab conquest of Sind and Multan and its effects on India. 2. Give an account of the First and Second Battle of Tarain.

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT _ _

1. Group Discussion:
Divide the class into groups. Ask each group to discuss the topic. "The Arabs made Islam - a powerful force in the politics of Asia". Then a child from each group can come forward to share what they discussed.

2. Find more:
Read about Qasim and his defence forces and the tactics of Muhammad of Ghori given in your lesson. Find out details of the present day defence forces of India.

i. ii.

Army

Navy

iii. Air force

iv. Training centers

3. Oratorical competition:
Imagine yourself to be Muhammad of Ghori. Your soldiers have lost hope after their defeat in the First battle of Tarain at the hands of Prithviraj Chauhan. How would you instill confidence in them to fight again?

The pupil who is motivated best wins 4. Debate: Which of the conquests - Arab or Turkish had a lasting impact on medieval History.
5. Prepare charts:
The class can be divided into groups. Each group can prepare a chart on the following topics.

i. Indian impact on theArabs ii. Administration iii. Astronomy iv. Music v. Art andArchitecture

6. Things to do:

Collect information about the foreigners who invaded India during medieval period.
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2. SULTANATE OF DELHI
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Sultanate period. During this period the Mamaluk, Khilji,Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled over India. With the death of Muhammad of Ghori, his commander Qutb-ud-dinAibak came to power and founded the Mamaluk dynasty. MAMALUK DYNASTY Qutb-ud-dinAibak (1206-1210A.D.) The rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the commander of Muhammad of Ghori marked the beginning of the Mamaluk rule and the establishment of Sultanate period in India. He assumed sovereign powers on 24th June 1206 A.D. He did not issue coins or read the khutba in his name. He was the founder of the Turkish dominion in India.
t

put down his enemies and firmly established his hold over India.

The term Mamaluk was the Quranic term for a slave. Task of Saving his Empire

>

Qutb-ud-din's immediate tasks were to prevent Ala-ud-din Muhammad, the Shah of Khwarizm from occupying Ghazni and Delhi. to prevent the Rajputs from recovering their principalities. to put down Ali Mardan Khan ofBengal, Qubacha andYalduz.

In order to save his infant Turkish Empire, he made many matrimonial alliances and shifted his capital to Lahore. He successfully

An Estimate Qutb-ud-din Aibak was a pious Muslim. His administration was purely based on his military strength. Local administration was entrusted to native officers. He built Quwat-ul-lslam mosque at Ajmer and Dhai Dinka Jhonpara mosque at Delhi. He started the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi. He patronized Hassan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir. He was called as Lakh Baksh or Giver of Lakhs for his generosity. He died in November 1210A.D. after he fell from his horsewhile playing polo. Iltutmish (1211 -1236 A.D.) Iltutmish was born in the llbari tribe of Central Asia.As a boy he was sold as a slave to Qutb-ud-dinAibak. Aibak made him as his son-in-law. He killed Aram Shah, the son of Aibak and became king in 1211A.D. Conquest of Iltutmish Iltutmish was surrounded by enemies on all sides. He put them down and strengthened his position. As Yalduz considered himself to be the successor of Muhammad of Ghori, Iltutmish defeated him and put him to death. He drove out Nasirud-din Qubacha, the ruler of Uch and Multanfrom Punjab in 1217 A.D. He captured Bhakkar, where Qubacha took shelter. Bengal was also brought under his control.

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MAMALUK DYNASTY

Lahore

Devagiri

Arabian sea

Bay of Bengal

Dwarasamudra

Mamaluk Dynasty |

Mai

Indian Ocean

Srilanka

143

Iltutmish put down the revolt of the Khilji Maliks of Bengal in 1230 A.D. Iltutmish refused to give shelter to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the Shah of Khwarizm who was attacked by Mongols. This pleased Chengiz Khan and so he did not invade India. In this way Iltutmish saved Delhi from Mongol invasion. In Rajputana, Iltutmish recaptured Ranthambore and Mandor. He defeated Udai Singh, the ruler of Jalor and made him a feudatory. Thangiri, Ajmer, Sambha, Nagur, Kalinjar and Gwalior were captured by him. Iltutmish re-established his authority over Badaun, Kanauj, Benaras and Katchar-the doab region between the Ganga and the Yamuna.

Administration Iltutmish set up Iqtas under Iqtadars. The army was maintained by 'A Corps of Forty' or Chahalgan. He was the first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage. Estimate Iltutmish was a successful general and administrator. He completed the work of Aibak. He built up the Turkish Kingdom in
North India.

Coins of iltutmish The silver tanka of Iltutmish weighed 175 mgs and had an Arabic inscription on it. Iltutmish
also introduced copper Jital.

Qufb Minar

Qutb Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Baktiyar kakiwho died in Delhi. The construction started by Aibak was completed by Iltutmish

Sultana Raziah (1236-1240 A.D.) Raziah was the first woman ruler of Sultanate period. She defeated and killed Firoz Shah who ascended the throne after the death of Iltutmish. She successfully restored the prestige of the Turkish Kingdom in India. Her rule ended in 1240A.D. because of a conspiracy by the Turkish nobles. The successors of Raziah were weak and hence Balban rose to power in 1265A.D.
Successors of Raziah
BahramShah 1240-1242A.D. 1242-1246A.D. Alaud-dinMasid Nasir-ud-din Mahmud 1246 -1264A.D. Balban 1265-1287 A.D.

End of Iftutmish Iltutmish undertook an expedition against Bamiyan.He nominated his daughter Raziah as his successor before his death. He fell ill and died in 1236AD.

Balban (1265-1207 A.D.) Balban an llbari Turk became the ruler in 1265A.D. after the death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud.
144

He believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship. He introduced a form of salutation to the king by kissing his feet in the court.
S

According to Lanepoole, "Balban, a slave, water carrier, huntsman, general, statesman and Sultan-is one of the most striking figures among the notable men in Jhe long line of Kings of Delhi".

Internal policies Balban curtailed and destroyed the 'Corps of Forty' by giving them severe punishments and promoting juniors to important positions. He introduced a well organised spy system. A separate military department called Diwan-i-arz was established. Many military posts were set up at Bhojapur, Patiali, Kampil and Jalali.Balban suppressed Tughril Khan, who declared his independence and recovered Bengal.
x-*
>

Divine right Theory The ruler was considered as a representative of God on earth.
An Estimate of Balban
Balban was a great patron of learning. He patronized Amir Khusrau who is called as the 'Parrot of India' and Amir Hasan. Balban was the most successful ruler among the slave kings.
End of Balban

Balban was shocked when his

son Mahmud was killed during an encounter with the Mongols. He never recovered from the sorrow and died in 1287A.D. End of the Mamaluk Dynasty Balban was succeeded by Kaiqubad his grandson who was very incompetent. The nobles made Kayumar, the infant son of Kaiqubad as ruler. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the commander of Balban became the regent of the infant king. He killed Kaiqubad and Kayumar and became the ruler of Delhi. Thus Mamaluk Dynasty was brought to an end and the Khilji Dynasty was founded. KHILJI DYNASTY Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.) In 1290 A.D. Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji ascended the throne of Delhi. He followed the policy of peace after he became the ruler. He wanted to rule without bloodshed. Hence, he was called as Clemency Jalal-uddin. Domestic Policies Jalal-ud-din suppressed a revolt by Malik Chhajju at Kara. He appointed his nephew and son-inlawAla-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara. Theft and robbery became common during his reign. Though a number of thugs and robbers were arrested, Jala-ud-din forgave them and even set them free in Bengal. He arrested and killed Sidi Maula, a religious leader who tried to seize the throne.

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Mongol Invasion

Jalal-ud-din defeated and arrested the Mongols who tried to advance upto Sunam in 1292 A.D. He pardoned them as they sued for peace. A few of the Mongols stayed back in India after the invasion. End of Jalal-ud-din Jalal-ud-din's policy of peace was not liked by the young Khiljis. Ala-ud-din Khilji the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din treacherously murdered him and came to power after his return from Devagiri. Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316A.D.) Ala-ud-din Khilji ascended the throne in 1296 A.D. He consolidated his hold over North India and invaded South India also. Conquests in the North
Ala-ud-din Khilji sent a strong army under his generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat and they succeeded in doing so. Ranthamborewas captured and its ruler Hamir Deva was killed. Chittor, Malwa, Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi, Marwar and Jalor were also captured.

Malik Kafur helped Sundara Pandya against his rival Vira Pandya. He reached as far as Rameswaram and built a mosque there. The kingdoms of the south accepted the overlordship of Ala-uddin khilji and agreed to pay tribute to him.

Conquest in the South

Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Sultan who invaded South India. He sent his most trustworthy general, Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south. Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava ruler of Devagiri, Prataprudra-ll of Warangal and Vira Ballala-lll, the Hoysala ruler were defeated and made vassals of Delhi.

The Mongol Invasion Ala-ud-din successfully repelled the Mongol invasion more than a dozen times. He renovated the existing forts and outposts. He constructed new forts and strongly garrisoned them to strengthen his frontiers. Domestic Policies of Ala-ud-din Khilji Ala-ud-din believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship. He introduced four ordinances to prevent frequent rebellions. He confiscated religious endowments and free grants of lands, reorganized the spy system, prohibited social parties and use of wine. A permanent standing army was organized by Ala-ud-din. He introduced the system of branding of horses and descriptive roll of individual soldiers to prevent corruption.
The prices of essential commodities were fixed which was less than the usual market rates. Black marketing was strictly prohibited. Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash. He posted several horsemen and clerks in new posts. The postal system was good
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Empire of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Lahore

Delhi

Arabian sea

Devagiri

Warangal

Bay of Bengal

Maqurai

Indian Ocean

Srilanka

] Ala-ud-din Khilji's Kingdom

147

during his period. He followed a harsh policy towards the Hindus. Jizya, grazing tax and house tax were imposed on them.
r

Marketing System

Officers like Diwan-i-riyasat and Shahana-i-mandi were appointed to regularize the market. All merchants were required to register themselves in the office of the Shahana-i-Mandi and sell their goods at fixed rates.

An Estimate Ala-ud-din was the first to raise a standing army, to regularize the markets and to capture regions south of the Vindhyas. He built Alai Darwaza, fort of Siri and the Palace of a thousand pillars. He was undoubtedly a great conqueror and a noble administrator. He was a man of determination. End of the Dynasty Ala-ud-din died in 1316A.D. Due to weak successors like Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.) and Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.), the Khilji dynasty came to an end. Finally in 1320 A.D. a group of nobles led by Ghazi Malik, the Governor of Punjab, invaded Delhi and captured the throne. Ghazi Malik assumed the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and founded a new line of rulers at Delhi known as the Tughluq Dynasty.

TUGHLUQ DYNASTY Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq (1320-1325 A.D.) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty. From a humble origin he ascended the throne by his ability and hardwork in 1320A.D. Domestic and Foreign Policies Ghiyas-ud-din restored order in his empire. Lot of importance was given to agriculture, irrigation, judicial, police and postal arrangements. Warangal, Utkala or Orissa and Bengal were brought under his control. He captured and imprisoned the Mongol leaders who invaded North India.
End of his rule While attending a reception for his victories at Bengal the pavilion on which he stood gave way and Ghiyas-ud-din was crushed to death in 1325 A.D. The crown prince Junakhan succeeded him.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.)
Prince Junakhan took up the title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325 A.D. when he ascended the throne. He stood for political and administrative unity of India. He captured Warangal in 1327A.D. Domestic Policies

Mohammed-bin-Tughlug raised the taxes in the Doab region to fill up his empty treasury. To avoid heavy taxes the people ran away to the forests. As cultivation was neglected severe famines occurred. He realized his mistake and sanctioned
148

Empire of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
N
A

Multc

Delhi #Mathura
Kanauj Gwalior

Banaras

Devagiri

Arabian sea

Bay of Bengal

| Rajputana

Extent of Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq's Empire

Indian Ocean
sriianka

149

loans and dug canals to overcome famine but it was too late. Mongols were often invading the Indian frontiers. Inorder to protect his capital, he transferred his capital from Delhi to Devagiri. He ordered both the government officials and the common people to shift to Devagiri. The people faced untold miseries. Due to practical difficulties he ordered them to return back to Delhi. Copper currency system was introduced by the Sultan. The official machinery was not appointed to mint coins. So, people started minting coins in huge numbers. The value of coins fell so low that the Sultan withdrew the copper token currency.

An Estimate The domestic policies of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq were good but his operative measures ended in a failure. His character of taking hasty decisions and inoperative policies were responsible for the
decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

Firoz Tughluq (1351-1388 A.D.) Firoz Tughluq, the son of the younger brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq ascended the throne in 1351A.D.

Coins of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq

Mohammed-bin-Tughluq raised an army of 3,70,000 men in order to conquer Tranoxiana, Khurasan and Iraq. He disbanded them after realizing that it was not possible. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq's policy of giving huge presents to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader, to avoid a Mongol invasion was a great burden on his exchequer.

Administrative Reforms Firoz Tughluq introduced a lot of reforms which were beneficial to the people. He cancelled all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughluq. He increased the salary of the revenue officers. Unlawful and unjust cesses were abolished. He collected four important taxes such as Kharaj-1/10 of the produce of the land, Khams-1/5 of the warbooty, Jizya-Poll Tax and Zakat-Tax on muslims for specific religious purposes. He gave importance to public works. He excavated many irrigation canals, constructed 50 dams, 150 wells and 100 bridges. He built the towns like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar. Firoz prohibited all kinds of mutilations and torture. The Koranic laws were followed. He imposed Jizya on the Brahmans. An Employment Bureau,
Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat) and hospitals (Dar-ul-shafa) were established.
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Diwan-i-lstibqaq was established to give financial help to the poor. Liberal grants were given to scholars and religious institutions.

Foreign Policy In 1353A.D. and 1359A.D. Firoz besieged Bengal. He captured Jainagar and destroyed the Jagannath Temple at Puri. He made the rulers of Nagarkot and Tatta to pay tributes.

An Estimate Firoz proved his greatness by his benevolent reforms and contributed to the material prosperity of his people. The Sultan himself wrote his autobiography called Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi. He patronized the scholar Zia-ud-din Barani. During his period a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts were translated into Persian. Kutab- Feroz Shahi was a book which dealt with Physics. LaterTughluqs Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughluq were the successors of Firoz. They were not very strong and powerful. By the end of the fourteenth century, most of the provinces under them became independent. Punjab and Delhi alone remained in the hands of the Tughluqs. The Sultans of the Tughluq Dynasty however, continued to rule upto 1414 A.D. It was during their period that the invasion of Timur took place.

Timur's invasion (1398A.D.) The ruler of Samarqand, Timur was attracted by the fabulous wealth of Hindustan. He invaded India during the period of Nasir Mahmud Tughluq. He crossed the river Indus and reached Delhi. The Sultan and his Prime Minister Mallu Iqbal opposed Timur. Timur defeated them and occupied Delhi in 1398 A.D. Timur inflicted untold miseries on the people by plundering and massacring them. His invasion led to the decline of the Tughluq Dynasty. THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 A.D.) The Sayyid dynasty rose to prominence in Delhi with the decline of the Tughluq dynasty. Khizr Khan( 14 14- 142 1 A.D.) the Governor of Multan took advantage of the chaotic conditions in India after Timur's invasion occupied the throne of Delhi in 1414 A.D. and founded the Sayyid dynasty . Khizr Khan, the founder did not assume any royal title. Though he brought Punjab, Dilapur and parts of Surat under his control, he lost Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh, Bengal and Deccan. He died in 1421 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.) He suppressed the Khokhars and the local chiefs of the Doab region. His reign is notable for the fact that for the first time Hindu nobles were appointed in the court of Delhi. He built a city called "Mubarakbad" on the banks of the river Jamuna. He was murdered in 1434A.D.
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Mubarak's nephew, Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.) succeeded him. He put down the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore. For the help rendered by Bahlol Lodi he was conferred with the title Khan-iKhanan. Muhammad Shah died in 1445AD.

Muhammad Shah was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Shah(1445-1457 A.D.). He was a very feeble ruler. Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore occupied Delhi in 1457 A.D. and allowed Ala-ud-din Shah to retire to Badaun where he died in 1478 A.D. The Sayyid Dynasty came to an end in 1457.A.D. LODI DYNASTY Bahlol Lodi {1451-1489 A, D.) The Lodi Dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodi. It was the last of the ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period. He was a shrewd politician who clearly realized his limitations. He always took steps to satisfy his nobles. He conquered Mewat, Samthal, Sakit, Etawa and Gwalior. Hediedin 1489A.D. Bahlol Lodi did not take his seat on the throne but sat on the carpet in front of the throne along with his nobles in order to get their recognition and support.

Punjab to Bihar. He built the city of Agra which became an important administrative and cultural center of the Lodi's. He organized an efficient spy system. He improved agriculture and industry. During his period several Sanskrit books dealing with mathematics, medicine, astronomy and yoga were translated into Persian.

Ibrahim Lodi Tomb

Bahlol's son Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.) ascended the throne under the title of Sikandar Shah. He extended his empire from

He enjoyed "Shehnai "music. A reputed work on music titled "Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi was prepared during his reign. He was an orthodox Muslim and put serious restrictions on the Hindus. He was the greatest ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He died in 1517A.D. End of Lodi Dynasty Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526 A.D.) succeeded Sikandhar Lodi. He was an uncompromising and intolerant ruler. Ibrahim Lodi humiliated many of his nobles and killed some of them cruely. Dilwar khanLodi the son of Daulat khan Lodi was treatedcruely by Ibrahim Lodi. In order to take revenge on him, Daulat khan Lodi invited Babur the ruler of Kabul to
152

invade India. Babur accepted his invitation, invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A. D. The Lodi dynasty came to an end with the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi. Administration under the Delhi Sultanate The Sultanate of Delhi which extended from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D., for a period of about 320 years, was a Theocratic as well as a Military State. Administration was based on Islamic laws.
(

Governors. Iqtas were divided into smaller units called Shiqqs, Parganas and the Villages. The head of the Shiqq was called Shiqqdar. Important officials of the Pargana were the Amil or Munsif, the treasurer and the quanungo.
LocalAdministration The village was the smallest unit of administration. Local hereditary officers and the Panchayats in each village carried out the village administration. The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc. The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration.
Revenue Administration

Ministers to Sultan Wazir Prime Minister and Finance Minister. Diwani-I-Risalt ForeignAffairs Minister. Sadr-us-Suddar Minister of Islamic Law. Diwan-l-lnsha Correspondence Minister. Diwan-I-Ariz Defence or War Minister. Qazi-ul-quzar Ministerof Justice. >

Land revenue was the main source of income. So, a lot of importance was given to agriculture and irrigation. Trade tax, House tax, Horse tax, Mines tax, etc. were some of the taxes collected during the Sultanate period.

Central Administration The Sultan was the head of the empire. He enjoyed vast powers. There were six ministers to assist him. Many officials were also appointed to take care of the administration. ProvincialAdministration The empire was divided into several Iqtas. Iqtas were administered by Iqtadars or

JudicialAdministration The Sultan was the highest judicial authority. Qazi-ul-quzar was the Chief Judicial officer. There was a Quazi in every town. Usually severe punishments were given to the criminals. Military Administration The Sultan was the Commander of the army. The four divisions of the army were the Royal army, Provincial or Governor's army, Feudal army and War Time army.

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Social life of the Sultanate period

The important characteristic of the society was the division of people on the basis of their nationality as foreign Muslims, Indian Muslims and Hindus. Economic conditions of the people

Siri the new town in Delhi, Dargah of Hazrat Nizam - ud - din Aulia and the Alai Darwaza belonged to Khilji period.

The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry. Textile industry was the primary industry. Sugar industry, paper industry, metal work, stone cutting, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works were the other industries of this period.
/"

Textiles Indian textiles was in great demand in foreign countries. Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics. Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties were produced in large quantities. The clothes were studded with gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stones.

"N

The rulers of Tughluq period did not give importance to ornamentation. Their buildings were solid and strong. Some buildings bear mark of Hindu features. The palace and the tomb of Ghiyas - ud - din Tughluq, Adalabad Fort built by Muhammad-bin Tughluq and the cities of Tughluqabad and Jahanpanah stand testimony to the architectural skill of the Tughluq period. The Lodi Garden and Moti Masjid in New Delhi and the tomb of Sikandar Lodi are some examples of Lodiarchitecture.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE DELHI SULTANATE Art andArchitecture Delhi Sultans had a genius for architecture. There was a blend of Indian and Islamic styles. The three well developed styles were -Delhi or Imperial Style, Provincial Style and Hindu architectural style. Qutubminar, Quwat-ul-lslam mosque, the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad and Balban were built by the Mamaluk rulers.

Literature The Delhi Sultans were great patrons of learning. Great scholars namely Alberuni, Amir Khusrau andZia-ul-Barani adorned their court. Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic. A lot of vernacular literature was also produced during this period. Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period.

'scholars

of

sultanate

PERIOD Alberuni an Arabic and Persian Scholar served under Mahmud of Ghazni. He learnt and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic. He was impressed by the Upanishadsand BhagavatGita. In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he;

154

referred to the socio-economic conditions of India. Amir Khusrau was a great Persian poet. He is said to have written four lakh couplets. He was a great singer and was given the title 'Parrot of India'. He used a lot of Hindiwords in hisworks.
y

Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate

The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period. The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid and Lodi rulers led to the crumbling of the Delhi Sultanate.The first to break free from Delhi in the South were the rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom.
Khandesh, Bengal, Sind, Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jauripur, Kashmir, Assam and Orissa also asserted their independence.

Impact of Turkish Conquest

The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields.

1)lt paved the way for a centralized political organization. 2)lt restored contacts with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.
3)A permanent army was established.

4)Trade developed due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency. 5)Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in administration.

Further the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. by Babur ended the Lodi dynasty and brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India. The Delhi Sultanate which began in 1206 A.D. and lasted for about 300 years came to an end with the establishment of Mughal rule in India in 1526A.D.

EXERCISE

I) Choose the correct answer. 1. The Mamaluk rule was founded by _ . a)Balban b) lltutmish c)Qutb-ud-dinAibak 2.The first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage was
a) lltutmish b)AmirKhusrau c) Amir Hasan

3. The poet known as the "Parrot of India" was _

a) AlBeruni a) Khizr Khan

b)Kaiqubad

c) Amir Khusrau

4. The founder of the Sayyid Dynasty was _ .

b) Muhhamad Shah c) Daulat khan Lodi
155

5. Babur the ruler of Kabul was invited by _ to invade India.

a)BahlulLodi II) Fillin the blanks. b) Ibrahim Lodi c) Daulatkhan Lodi

1. Quwat-ul- Islam mosque atAjmer was built by _ . 2. The first woman ruler of the Sultanate period was 3. The founder oftheTughluq dynasty was _ 4. Bahlol Lodi occupied the throne of Delhi in _ 5. Sikhandar Shah Lodi enjoyed _ music.
Ill) Matchthe following. 1. Qutb-ud-dinAibak
2. Balban
3. Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji
4. Prince Juna khan

Divine RightTheory

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq
Ruler of Samarqand Lakh Bak or Giver of Lakhs

5. Timur

Policy of Peace

IV) Answer the following questions briefly. 1. Howdid Qutb-ud-dinAibak save his infantTurkish Empire? 2. How was Balban able to destroy the "Corps of Forty"? 3. Write a short note on Ala-ud din Khilji's army. 4. What were the public works introduced by FirozTughluq?
5. Give a short account of Timurs invasion.

V) Answer in detail. 1. How did IItutmish put down his enemies and strengthen his position? 2.Describe in detail the conquests of Ala-ud-din Khilji in North and South India. 3. Give an account of the domestic policies of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq. 4. Write in detail about the administration of the Delhi Sultanate.

156

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT _ _

1. Narrate in class:

The class should be divided into groups. A representative from each group should pose as Qutb-ud-din Aibak and narrate how the Turkish rule was established by him/her in India.
2. Find out:

Find more on the Divine RightTheory of Kingship - the countries and the kings who followed it.
3. Enact:
i.

The achievements of Ala-ud-din Khilji, a man of determination who made his dynasty strong. (Or)

ii. The benevolent reforms and greatness of FirozTughlaq.

4. Prepare:
Prepare an album (or) a power point presentation on the Art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Learn Urdu words:

Persons Father Mother Brother Sister Teacher Pencil Pen Notebook Paper Ink

Things

6. Things to do:

Mark the following on the outline map of India .

i.

Extent of Muhammad - bin - Tughluq's Empire. ii. Places: Multan, Mathura, Kanauj, Gwalior, Delhi, Banaras.

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SOCIAL SCIENCE
STANDARD SEVEN TERM III
TEXTBOOK TEAM
Chairpersons

History & Civics

Dr. Bharathi Manoharan,
Associate professor, LadyWillington Teachers College, Triplicane, Chennai - 600 005.

Geography & Economics

Dr.P. Arul,
Associate Professor, Government Arts College, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District

Reviewers
Dr. Thanappan,
Associate professor, Presidency College, Chennai -600 005.

Dr.B. Gobu,
Assistant Professor, Government Arts College, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District.

Tmt.S. Karpagavalli,
Head Mistress, Government High School Sooradimangalam, Kancheepuram.

Thiru. S. Vadivel,
Assistant Professor, Government Arts College, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District

Authors
Thiru J. Arul George Peter, Thiru.P. Shanmugam,
PG Assistant, Govt Hr. Sec. School, Kangeyam, Tiruppur District - 638701 .

Lecturer
DIET, Munanjipatti, Tirunelveli District.

Tmt.Usha Narayanan,
PG.Assistant, J.G.H.V.Mat.Hr.Sec. School, W.Mambalam. Chennai - 600033.

Thiru.V. Suresh kumar,

B.T. Assistant, SBOA Mat. Hr . Sec .School, Annanagar West Ext, Chennai - 101.

Thiru. R.Vijayan,
PGAssistant, Govt. Girls Hr. Sec. School, Ami, Thiruvannamalai District.

Thiru.M. Saravanan,
BT Assistant, Govt Hr.Sec.School, Thirucherai, Thanjavur District - 612 605.

Mrs. Hannah Nirmala,

PG Assistant, St.John's Mat. Hr. Sec. School, Baba Nagar, Villivakkam, Chennai-49.

Tmt.S. Pushpalatha,
PG. Asst. Ecomonics, Kamala Subramanian Mat. Hr . Sec School, Thanjavur - 613 005

Laser Typeset, Layout, Illustrations M.Vijayasarathy, T. Raghu

160

J HISTORY L

1.THE VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANl KINGDOMS

Rise of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms A large number of provincial governors and feudatories, both in North and South India declared their Independence with the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate after the reign of Muhammed-BinTughluq. Bengal and Multan were the first to break away from Delhi. Gujarat, Malwa, Mewar, Marwarand Kashmir also became independent. Further to this, Vijayanagar and the Bahmani kingdoms rose to prominence in the Deccan and South India. The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672 A.D.) Harihara and Bukka served under the Hoysala King Vira Ballala III. The founded the city of Vijayanagar on the southern banks of Tungabhadra in 1336 A.D. with the help of Saint Vidaranya and his brother Sayana when the Hoysalas were put down by Muhammad-binTughluq. Their capital was Hampi. Vijayanagar empire was ruled by four important dynasties namely the Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu. Harihara I became the ruler in 1336 A.D. He captured Mysore and Madurai. He was succeeded by Bukka-I in 1356 A.D. His empire extended from the region south of the river Tungabhadra upto Rameswaram. The important rulers
161

of Vijayanagar Empire were Hariha ra -J I, Deva raya- 1 , Deva raya- J I and Krishnadeva Raya.

KRISHNADEVA RAYA (1509-1529 A.D.)

Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire.

jr

Krishnadeva Raya

According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, "Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be".

CONQUESTS Krishnadeva Raya was a great warrior. He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D.,Raichur in 1512A.D.,Orissa and Warangal in 1523 A.D. and a large part of the Deccan. His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to the river Cauvery in the south and the

Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Contributions Krishnadevaraya was an able administrator. He constructed large tanks and canals for irrigation purposes. He improved the naval power as he understood the importance of overseas trade. He maintained friendly relationship with the Portuguese and Arab traders and increased the revenue of his
government.

Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar. A group of eight scholars called Ashtadiggajas adorned his court. He was a patron of art and architecture. He built beautiful temples and palaces. The Vijaya nagar Empire reached its zenith of glory during Krishnadeva Raya's period. The Ashtadiggajas Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Thimmana, Tenali Rama, Bhattu Murthy, Puna Vira Bhadra, Dhurjathy, Mallana and Panaji Surana. v s

The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire Administration The Vijayanagar rulers had a well organized administrative system. The king was the fountain head of all powers in the state. There was a Council of Ministers to assist the King in the work of administration. The Empire was divided into six Provinces. Each Province was under a Governor called Naik. The Provinces were divided into districts which were further divided into smaller units namely Villages. The Village Assembly carried on the administration of the villages through its hereditary officers like accountants, the weightsmen, watchmen and officers incharge of forced labour. The Central administration maintained contact with the villages through an officer called Mahanayakacharya. The Army
The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephantry. The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.

BATTLE OFTALIKOTA (1565 A.D.) The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak. During the rule of Ramaraya, the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared war on Vijayanagar. In the battle of Talikota in 1565 A.D. Ramaraya was defeated. He and his people were mercilessly killed. Vijayanagar was plundered and left in ruins.

RevenueAdministration Land revenue was the main source of income. The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the fertility of the soil. Great attention was paid to agriculture and the construction of dams and canals. Judicial Administration The king was the supreme judge. The civil cases were decided
162

on the basis of Hindu Law. Severe punishments were inflicted on the guilty. Fines were collected from those who violated the law.

Position of Women Women occupied a high position and took an active part in political, social and literary life of the empire. They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and fine arts. Some of them received education of high order. Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers. Social life We get a clear picture of the life of the Vijayanagar people from the writings of the foreign travellers. The society was well organized. Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent. The kings allowed freedom of religion. Economic conditions The empire of Vijayanagar was very rich and prosperous. The agricultural production was increased by their irrigational policies. Numerous industries such as Textiles, mining, metallurgy and perfumery existed. They had commercial relations with the islands in the Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal. The chief articles exported were
spices, cereals, cotton, silk, opium, indigo, sea pearls, saffron, ginger, sugar, coconuts, etc. The articles
163

imported were horses, elephants, copper, coal, mercury, China silk and velvets. Goa, Diu, Cochin and Quilon were the important ports through which active trade was carried on the Western sea coast of India.

Contribution to Architecture and Literature The rulers of Vijayanagar were great patrons of art and learning. The Hazara Ramasami temple and Vittalaswamy temple are fine examples of this period. The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece. Many scholars were patronized by the Vijayanagar rulers. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literature were developed. Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas. Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in telugu. His Sanskrit works were Usha Parinayam and Jambavathi Kalyanam.
Decline of the Empire The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent. Taking advantage of their weakness the provincial governors became independent. The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda annexed some areas of Vijayanagar. The Nayaks became free in the south. Thus by 1614 A.D. Vijayanagar dynasty declined.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1526 A.D.) The Bahmani kingdom was the most powerful Muslim kingdom that

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

Ahanv
Bidar"r
J

Waranaal

J
Bay of Bengal

Arabian sea
(Mysore

yellore

Indian Ocean

rilanka

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

164

rose to prominence in the Deccan in 1347 A.D. and lasted till 1526 A.D. Political History The founder of this dynasty was Hasan Gangu Bahmani. He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri. He established the independent Bahmani kingdom in 1347 A.D. He captured the entire territories from Mahur in north-east to Telangana in the south. He defeated the Hindu ruler of Warangal and annexed Kolhapur, Goa, Mandu and Malwa. Thus his kingdom stretched from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal and included the whole of Deccan upto the river Krishna with its capital atGulbarga. Muhammad Shah-I (13581377.A.D.), the next ruler was an able general and administrator. He defeated Bukka-I the ruler of Vijayanagar and Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal. Muhammad Shah-ll (13781397.A.D.) ascended the throne in 1378 A.D. He was peace loving and hence he developed friendly relations with his neighbours. He built many mosques, madarasas(a place of learning) and hospitals. On the death of Muhammad Shah-ll, Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.) became the ruler. He was a great general. He defeated Deva Raya I, the Vijayanagar ruler. He recruited a number of Hindus in his services. Towards the end of his rule, he lost the northern and southern

provinces of his kingdom to Vijayanagar.

(1422-1435 A.D.) succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani. He was a cruel and merciless ruler. He conquered the kingdom of Warangal and changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. He died in 1435A.D.

Muhammad Shah-Ill (14631482 A.D.) was another notable Bahmarii ruler. He became the Sultan at the age of nine in 1463A.D. Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler. Under his able guidance the Bahmani kingdom became very powerful. Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Sangameshwar, Orissa and Vijayanagar. During this period the Bahmani kingdom stretched from one sea shore to the other and from the river Tapti to the riverTungabhadra.

> Muhammad Gawan He was a very wise scholar and able administrator. He improved the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education, reformed the revenue system, disciplined the army and eleminated corruption. Muhammad Gawan fell a victim to the jealousy of Deccan muslims. He was falsely accused by them and so was persecuted and sentenced to death in 1481 by Muhammad Shah III.

165

The Five Muslim Dynasties Muhammad Shah-Ill died in 1482. His successors were weak and the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms namely Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar, Golconda and Bidar. Administration The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration. The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs. Each Taraf was under a Governor called Tarafdar or Amir. The Governors were powerful and supplied the king with men and equipments during times of war.

Contribution to Education, Art and Architecture The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education. They encouraged Arabic and Persian learning. Urdu also flourished during this period. Numerous mosques, madarasas and libraries were built. The most famous monuments of the Sultans were the Juma masjid at Gulbarga, the Golconda fort, the Golgumbaz at Bijapur and the Madarasas of Muhammad Gawan.

''Golgumbaz

Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery. This is so, because when one whispers in one corner, a lingering echo is heard in the opposite corner.

Decline of Bahmani Kingdom There were many causes for the downfall of the Bahmani kingdom. The constant wars between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers, inefficient and weak successors of Muhammad Shah III and rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles were a few causes for the downfall of the Bahmani kingdom.

EXERCISE
I) Choose the correct answer. 1.The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in the year _ . a) 1337A.D. b)1336A.D. c)1338A.D. 2.The brothers Harihara and Bukka served under the Hoysala King
a) Vira Ballala-lll a) Harihara b)Narasimhan-ll c)Billiama-VI b) Bukka c) Krishnadeva Raya

3. The most famous king of the Vijayanagar empire was _ .

4. The Muslim kingdom that rose to prominence in the Deccan in 1347 A.D. was the _ kingdom.
a) Slave b) Vijayanagar c) Bahmani

166

5. Muhammed Gawan was the Regent of

a) Muhammad Shah-Ill b) Hasan Gangu c) Ahmad Shah

II) Fillin the blanks. 1.A group of eight scholars called _ adorned the court of Krishnadeva Raya. 2. The Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory during the period of
3. Ramaraya was defeated and killed in the Battle of. 4. The Bahmani Kingdom was founded by _
5. The Bahmani Sultans encouraged Arabic and_ learning.

Ill) Matchthe following. 1.Vijayanagar

2. Battle of Talikota

- Bijapur

- Ushaparinayam 3. Krishnadeva Raya - Gulbarga 4. Juma Masjid - Southern bank of Tungabhadra 5. Golgumbaz - 1565A.D.
IV) Answer the following questions briefly. 1. When was the Vijayanagar kingdom founded and by whom?
2. Who were the important rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire?
3. Write a short note on the Battle of Talikota.
4. When and by whom was the Bahmani kingdom founded?

5. Name the five Muslim kingdoms that arose in Deccan at the end of Bahmani rule.

V) Answer in detail. 1. Discuss in detail about the glories of the Vijayanagar Empire. 2. Give an account of the political history of the Bahmani Kingdom.

167

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT _

1. Make a comparison: Compare the village administration of the Vijayanagar Empire with the present day village administration system of Tamilnadu.
2. BestTalent Show: Narrate a story to prove the intelligence of Tenali Rama, one of the Ashtadiggajas.
3. Discuss: Domingo Paes says " Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king". Discuss why he said so.

4. Justify: The best place to go on a study tour is - The Vijayanagar Empire or Bahmani Kingdom - Have a group discussion. Let the students judge which group was more concerning and why?
5. Focus: Women occupied a high position in the Vijayanagar Empire. Name a few women of today who are in a very high position. 1. Political 2. Social 3. Sports
6. Things to do: I. Collect pictures and prepare an album on the various contributions of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdom to art and architecture.

ii.

On the outline map of India mark the following places. 1. Berar 2. Bidar 3. Golkonda 4. Ahmednagar 5. Vijayanagar

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2. BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS

The Bhakti Movement of medieval India was a wide spread movement that embraced the whole of India for several centuries. The saints of the Bhakti movement advocated Bhakti or devotion to God as a means of attaining salvation. Its main objectives were to reform the Hindu religion and foster friendly relations between the Hindu and Muslim communities. The preachers of this movement belonged to different places and different times.

influence of his sister Thilagavathiyar, he became a devotee of Lord Shiva.

He is said to have composed 49,000 pathigams (10 stanzas) of which only 311 pathigams are available.
Manikavasagar was firm in his faith of worship of one supreme God and declared that the way to reach God was love and not rituals. His work is called Tiruvasagam.

Bhakti Cult in South India Saivism and Vaishnavism revived and gained great impetus through the Bhakti Cult during the Pallava, Chola and Pandya period by the Nayanmars and theAlwars. There is a popular verse which says "Bhakti arose first in South India, Ramananda spread it to the north and Kabir made it popular among the masses".
Nayanmars

Sambandhar is said to have sung about 16000 devotional pathigams of which only 384 pathigams are available.
Sundaramoorthy Nayanar was born during the last decades of the 8th century A.D. in South Arcot district. He composed 38000 pathigams, of which only 100 pathigams are available. The most popular works of this period are Sekhizar's "Periyapuranam" (Biographies of Nayanmars), Devaram (a collection of hymns and Thiruvasagam. These hymns are great devotional, philosophical and literary works. Alwars
The glory of Lord Vishnu were sung by 12 Alwars. The most famous among the Alwars were Nammalwar, Perialwar and Andal. compiled the 4000 hymns sung by the Alwars and Divya named it as Nalayira Prabhandam.
169

There were 63 Nayanmars who popularized the fame of Siva and Sakti. The most famous among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana Sambandar and Manikavasagar. Appar was born around 600 A.D. in South Arcot district. Initially he was a follower of Jainism. Due to the

Impact of the Bakti Cult Bakthi cult gave rise to the construction of magnificent temples at Tanjore, Chidambaram and Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Many bronze sculptures of Gods, Goddesses and Bakthi saints were made and taken out in processions during festive occasions. Devotional songs were sung in vernacular languages. Early history of the Bhakti Movement One of the earlier exponents of the Bhakti movement was Sankaracharya. He was born at Kaladi in Kerala. He preached Advaita philosophy or the worship of one God (Monotheism). He said Brahma or the Supreme spirit is alone real. Sankaracharya taught his followers to love truth, respect reason and realize the purpose of life. Exponents of the Movement Ramanujar a great exponent of the Bhakti movement, was born at Sriperumbudur.

devotion to God. He invited the downtrodden to embrace Vaishnavism Ramananda was the follower of Ramanuja. He believed in the existence of God. He saw humanity as one large family and all men as brothers. His disciples came from all religions and castes. He started preaching in the language of the people.

Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 A.D.) was a devotee of Krishna who taught that an individual could attain salvation through Bhakti.

Sasava was the founder of Virasaivism. His followers were known as Virasaivas or Lingayats. They challenged the idea of caste and theory of rebirth.
Chaifanys was born in Bengal in 1485 A.D. He propagated Krishna cult. He believed that one can realize the presence of God only through love and devotion.

Kabir (1425-1518 A.D.), a

follower of Ramananda was the first to preach Hindu-Muslim unity. Kabir is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints. His followers are called Kabirpanthis. His teachings have been collected in a book called Bijaka. His poems particularly Dohas had a great appeal to the common man. Hesaid that Ram and Rahim were the same. He preached against idol worship and caste

lit
Ramanufa
He was a great Vaishnavite leader of the 12th century A.D. He taught that salvation lies only in
170

system.
Kabir Atypical poem of him. O servant where dost thou seek me? Lo! I am besidethee

1 am

neither in temple nor in mosque, Iam neither in Kaabha or Kailash Neither am I in rites and ceremonies nor in yoga and remuneration If thou art a true seeker, thou shall at once see me; thou shall meet me in a moment of time Kabir says;0 SadhulGod is breath of all breath.

honesty, kindness and condemned orthodox beliefs and idolatry or idol worship.

Mirabai
Mirabai a saint of this movement was born in 1498 A.D. She was the

LWC23
Mirabai Kabir

Guru Nanak (1469-1538 A.D.) GuruNanak another well-known Saint of the Bhakti Movement was the founder of Sikhism. He was a disciple of Kabir.

daughter of Rathor Ratna Singh Mewar and wife of the ruler Udaipur. She was a devotee Krishna. She was very popular Rajasthan for her bhajans.

of of of in

Maharashtrasaints
The Maratha region produced a number of Bhakti Saints namely Gnanadeva, Namdeva, Eknath, Tukaram, Tulsidas and Ramdas. Gnanadeva wrote a commentary on Bhagavat Gita called Gnaneswari. Chokamela was the first dalit writer of India. Eknath opposed caste distinction.

Guru Nanak

He was born in 1469 A.D. in Talwandi near Lahore. He preached unity of God, goodwill and co operation among Hindus and Muslims. He advocated truth,
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Guru Ramdas's work was Dasabodha. Tulsidas was the author of Ramcharit manas. The Sufi Movement Sufism was a reform movement which originated in Persia and became popular in India in the 12th century A.D. The followers of this movement were called as Sufis. The

Sufis protested against materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution and turned towards asceticism and mysticism. They regarded Prophet Muhammad as a perfect human being. Sufism insisted that God could be reached only through meditation, love and devotion. They opposed rituals and were tolerant towards other religions. The Sufis organized themselves into communities and were controlled by a master known as Shaikh (in Arabic) Pir or Murshid (in Persian). The Sufis belonged to 12 orders called as Silsilas. The word Silsila means a "chain" signifying a continuous link between master and disciple. The Chisti Silsila is the most important Sufi order in India as they adapted successfully to the local environment and the features of Indiandevotional tradition.

important place of pilgrimage. The Hindu customs of breaking coconuts and lighting of lamp are followed here.

'Sufism -Name Derivation

Suf means wool. The coarse woolen clothes worn by the Sufis is an emblem of simplicity. It was a silent way of protest against the growing luxuries of the world. Safa meaning purity. Suffa was the platform outside the Prophets mosque where a group of close followers assembled to learn a boutthe faith.
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Important Sufi Saints of India

Some of the most important Sufi Saints of India were Khwaja Muinud-din Chisti, Baba Farid and Nizam-ud-dinAuliya.

Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti came to India around 1192 A.D. and stayed at Ajmer. According to him the greatest form of devotion to God was through service to humanity. He dedicated his entire life to the service of mankind. He was popularly known as 'Gharib Nawaz' or protector of the poor. He encouraged singing of devotional songs and qawalis at gatherings. He died in 1235 A.D. The place where he was buried in Ajmer is an
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disciple of Baba Farid, the Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti preached the unity of God and brotherhood. He encouraged people to live a simple life. He composed many verses in Punjabi which are recited by both the Hindus and the Muslims. Sultan Balban was a devotee of Baba Farid. Nizam-ud-din Auliya was a popular saint who came from Badayeen and settled in Delhi. He became the disciple of Baba Farid. He was against class and caste distinctions.

He was popularly referred to as Mehboob-i-illahi (Beloved of God) by his devotees. His dargah is at Delhi . It is visited by both the Hindus and Muslims. Saint Nagore Andavar
Saint Nagore Andavar belonged to the 16thCentury A.D. He was popularly called as Meeran Sahib or QadirWali. The shrine at Nagore is

dedicated to him. The Kandhuri Urs festival celebrated at Nagore is attended by people of all religions. Although the Nagore Dargah is dedicated to a Muslim saint, Hindu influence is seen in the architectural style of the Dargah and the rituals performed, e.g. applying sandalwood paste, giving prasadam, tonsuring the head etc.
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The Dargah or a tomb The Dargah or a tomb of a Shaikh became a centre of devotion for his followers as they believed that the Shaikh was united with God and become closer to Him in death. So the followers visited the Dargah seeking material and spiritual benefits.

s.

Impact of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements

The Bhakti and Sufi Movements tried to end the exploitation of the masses by the priestly class. They

I) Choose the correct answer. I.The Bhakti movement spread during the in India. a) Medieval b) Ancient c) Modern 2.Shankaracharyawasbornat _ in Kerala. a)Kaladi b)Talwandi c)Mewar 3. Gurunanak was the founder of _ .
a)Sikhism b)Virasaivism c)Vaishnavism

a) Iraq

created awareness about the evils of superstitious beliefs. It paved the way for equality and brotherhood. The Bhakti saints preached against ritualism, idol worship, castesystem, priestly domination and difference of religions. They believed that through love and devotion one can realize the personal presence of God. They encouraged good will and co operation among the Hindus and Muslims. The Sufi Saints taught that there is one God and all human beings are his children. They emphasized on leading a pure life and serving the poor and needy. They condemned rituals and sacrifices.

Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil literature were enriched by the Bhakti and Sufi saints.

EXERCISE
period

4. Sufism originated in

_.
c) Persia

b)Turkey

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I) Fill in the blanks. 1. Shankaracharya preached _ philosophy.

2. Ramanuja, an exponent of the Bhakti movement was born at _ near Chennai.

3. Basava was the founder of _ . 4. Gnanadeva wrote a commentary on Bhagavat Gita called_

II) Matchthe following. - DalitWriter 1. Nayanmars 2. Mariikavasagar - Vaishnavites

3. Alwars
4. Mirabai

5.
5. Chokamela

_ festival is celebrated at NagoreDargah.

- Tiruvasagam - Saivites
- Devotee of Krishna

III) Answerthe following questions briefly. 1. What were the main objectives of the Bhakti movement? 2. What was the impact of the Bhakticult in south India?

3. Write a short note on Kabir? 4. Name the Maratha Saints of the Bhakti movement. 5. What did the Sufists insist?
IV) Answer in detail.

1. Give a detailed account of the exponents of the Bhakti movement in India. 2. Write in detail about the Sufi movement in India.
3. What was the impact of the Bhaktiand Sufi movement in India.

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT _

1. Group Discussion: Discuss if the social evils condemned by the Bhakti saints are still prevalent? If so suggest some ways to prevent it.

2. Act: With the help of your Tamil language teacher find out a few incidents which happened in the life of Bhakti / Sufi saints of Tamilnadu and act out it in the classroom.
3. Sing: Memorise a few poems / dohas of the Bhakti and sufi saints and sing it in class.

4. Collect: Collect stories of Bhakti / Sufi saints published in the Newspapers / Magazines and read it in class.
5. Things to do: 1. Collect pictures of the Bhakti and sufi saints and prepare an album. 2. Prepare a chart on the twelve Alwars along with their literary works.

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