Chapter 4

Automated Flight Control

Introduction
This chapter introduces automated flight control in the
advanced avionics cockpit. You will learn to use an autopilot
system that can significantly reduce workload during critical
phases of flight. The two-axis autopilot system installed in
most general aviation aircraft controls the pitch and roll of the
aircraft. The autopilot can operate independently, controlling
heading and altitude, or it can be coupled to a navigation
system and fly a programmed course or an approach with
glideslope. In addition to learning how to use the autopilot,
you must also learn when to use it and when not to use it.

4-1

You will learn how the autopilot and the flight management
system (FMS)/area navigation (RNAV) unit combine to
create a fairly automated form of flight that places you in
a managerial role. While the autopilot relieves you from
manually manipulating the flight controls, you must maintain
vigilance over the system to ensure that it performs the
intended functions and the aircraft remains within acceptable
parameters of altitudes, airspeeds, and airspace limits.

In every instance, you must be absolutely sure what modes the

FD/autopilot is in and include that indicator or annunciator
in the crosscheck. You must know what that particular
mode in that specific FD/autopilot system is programmed to
accomplish, and what actions will cancel those modes. Due to
numerous available options, two otherwise identical aircraft
can have very different avionics and autopilot functional
capabilities.

Autopilot Concepts

How To Use an Autopilot Function

The following steps are required to use an autopilot function:

An autopilot can be capable of many very time intensive

tasks, helping the pilot focus on the overall status of the
aircraft and flight. Good use of an autopilot helps automate
the process of guiding and controlling the aircraft. Autopilots
can automate tasks, such as maintaining an altitude,
climbing or descending to an assigned altitude, turning to
and maintaining an assigned heading, intercepting a course,
guiding the aircraft between waypoints that make up a
route programmed into an FMS, and flying a precision or
nonprecision approach. You must accurately determine the
installed options, type of installation, and basic and optional
functions available in your specific aircraft.
Many advanced avionics installations really include two
different, but integrated, systems. One is the autopilot
system, which is the set of servo actuators that actually do
the control movement and the control circuits to make the
servo actuators move the correct amount for the selected
task. The second is the flight director (FD) component. The
FD is the brain of the autopilot system. Most autopilots can
fly straight and level. When there are additional tasks of
finding a selected course (intercepting), changing altitudes,
and tracking navigation sources with cross winds, higher
level calculations are required.
The FD is designed with the computational power to
accomplish these tasks and usually displays the indications to
the pilot for guidance as well. Most flight directors accept data
input from the air data computer (ADC), Attitude Heading
Reference System (AHRS), navigation sources, the pilots
control panel, and the autopilot servo feedback, to name
some examples. The downside is that you must program the
FD to display what you are to do. If you do not preprogram
the FD in time, or correctly, FD guidance may be inaccurate.
The programming of the FD increases the workload for the
pilot. If that increased workload is offset by allowing the
autopilot to control the aircraft, then the overall workload
is decreased. However, if you elect to use the FD display,
but manually fly the aircraft, then your workload is greatly
increased.

4-2

1. Specify desired track as defined by heading, course,

series of waypoints, altitude, airspeed, and/or vertical
speed.
2. Engage the desired autopilot function(s) and verify
that, in fact, the selected modes are engaged by
monitoring the annunciator panel.
3. Verify that desired track is being followed by the
aircraft.
4. Verify that the correct navigation source is selected
to guide the autopilots track.
5. Be ready to fly the aircraft manually to ensure proper
course/clearance tracking in case of autopilot failure
or misprogramming.
6. Allow the FD/autopilot to accomplish the modes
selected and programmed without interference, or
disengage the unit. Do not attempt to help the
autopilot perform a task. In some instances this has
caused the autopilot to falsely sense adverse conditions
and trim to the limit to accomplish its tasking. In more
than a few events, this has resulted in a total loss of
control and a crash.

Specification of Track and Altitude

A track is a specific goal, such as a heading or course. A
goal can also be a level altitude, a selected airspeed, or a
selected vertical speed to be achieved with the power at
some setting. Every autopilot uses knobs, buttons, dials,
or other controls that allow the pilot to specify goals.
Figure 4-1 shows an autopilot combined with conventional
navigation instruments. Most autopilots have indicators for
the amount of servo travel or trim being used. These can be
early indicators of adverse conditions, such as icing or power
loss. Rarely will a trim indicator ever indicate full travel in
normal operation. Consistently full or nearly full travel of
the trim servos may be a sign of a trim servo failure, a shift
in weight resulting in a balance problem, or airfoil problems
such as icing or inadvertent control activation.

12

3
33

24

30

27

A heading knob on the

direction indicator is used
to specify target headings.

21

OBS
BS

SET

Primary flight displays (PFDs) often integrate all controls

that allow modes to be entered for the autopilot. The PFD
shown in Figure 4-2 offers knobs that allow you to enter
modes without turning attention away from the primary flight
instruments. Modes entered using the controls on a PFD are
transferred to the autopilot.

18

TO

15

N
A
V

Th OBS knob on the

The
CDI is used to specify
CD
target courses.
ta

YD

ARM

Engagement of Autopilot Function

BARO

ALT SEL

FT
UP
AP

FD

HDG

NAV

REV

APR

ALT

DN

Knobs on the autopilot control panel can be used

to enter assigned altitudes and vertical speeds.

Every autopilot offers a collection of buttons that allow you

to choose and engage autopilot modes and functions. Buttons
used to engage autopilot modes appear along the bottom
of the autopilot shown in Figure 4-1. The system shown
in Figure 4-3 does not use a separate device for autopilot
controls; it integrates the autopilot function buttons into
another cockpit display.

Verification of Autopilot Function Engagement

It is very important to verify that an autopilot mode has
engaged, and the aircraft is tracking the intended flight

Figure 4-1. A simple autopilot.

BRT

5000 FT

160

OAT
7C
TAS 143 KTS
GS 135 KTS
Nav
GPS1

Bearing
GPS2

20

20

150
4
14 3
1402

10

10

10

10

130

20

20

5200

20
10

5100

50

BDL
BRG 264
32.8 NM
00:14:34
KHPN
BRG 234
96.4nm
00:42:50

40
20
00

0
Vertical speed
indicator

-5
4900
29.92"

268

DIM

-10
-20
Hdg Bug

332 / 12

270

Alt Bug

Aux

VSI Bug

OFF

0 FPM

Range
View

Baro Set

Range

29.92"

View

Heading

5000 FT

Hdg

Sync

Altitude
Vertical speed
selection
Altimeter setting

This primary flight display offers separate windows used to input course, heading, altitude, and vertical speed targets.

Figure 4-2. Entering goals on a primary flight display.

4-3

NAV1
NAV2

How Autopilot Functions Work

Once an autopilot mode has been engaged, the autopilot:

10
10

1. Determines which control movements are required to

follow the flight profile entered by the pilot, and
2. Moves the controls to affect tracking of the flight
profile.

23

Determination of Control Movements Required To

Achieve Goals
Suppose you wish to use the autopilot/FD to turn to an
assigned heading of 270. The heading knob is used to
select the new heading. Before any control movements are
made, the autopilot/FD must first determine which control
movements are necessary (e.g., left or right turn). To do so,
the FD/autopilot must first determine the aircrafts current
heading and bank angle, determine amount and direction
of the turn, and then choose an appropriate bank angle,
usually up to 30 or less. To make these determinations, the
FD gathers and processes information from the aircrafts
ADC (airspeed and altitude), magnetic heading reference
instrument, and navigation systems.

230

AP

YD

FD

HDG

NAV

APR

ALT

MENU

VS

NOSE
UP

FLC

NOSE
DOWN

Carrying Out Control Movements

Figure 4-3. An integrated avionics system with an autopilot.

profile. Every autopilot displays which autopilot modes are

currently engaged, and most indicate an armed mode that
activates when certain parameters are met, such as localizer
interception. The autopilot shown in Figure 4-1 displays the
active modes on the front of the unit, just above the controls.
The integrated autopilot shown in Figure 4-4 displays the
currently engaged autopilot mode along the top of the PFD.

0
0

WPT

KGNB
KGN
NB
GPS
GP
PS

D
DIS
IS
AP
AP

553.5
53.
3.5NNMM
YD
D

DTK
DT
K

2274

TRK

360

AL
ALT
LT

Figure 4-4. Engaged autopilot modes shown at the top of a PFD.

4-4

Once the FD/autopilot has determined which control

movements are necessary to achieve the flight change,
the autopilot has the task of carrying out those control
movements. Every autopilot system features a collection of
electromechanical devices, called servos, that actuate the
aircraft control surfaces. These servos translate electrical
commands into motion, the muscle that actually moves
the control surfaces.

Flight Director
Flight Director Functions
An FD is an extremely useful aid that displays cues to guide
pilot or autopilot control inputs along a selected and computed
flightpath. [Figure 4-5] The flight director usually receives
input from an ADC and a flight data computer. The ADC
supplies altitude, airspeed and temperature data, heading
data from magnetic sources such as flux valves, heading
selected on the HSI (or PFD/multi-function display (MFD)/
electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI)), navigation
data from FMS, very high frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR)/distance measuring equipment (DME), and RNAV
sources. The flight data computer integrates all of the data
such as speed, position, closure, drift, track, desired course,
and altitude into a command signal.
The command signal is displayed on the attitude indicator
in the form of command bars, which show the pitch and roll

Heading
050

060

070
0

080
080
80

090

100
100

110

120

0
20
2

20

Degrees of attitude

10
10

10

Horizon

880 B

10

10

Figure 4-5. A flight director.

inputs necessary to achieve the selected targets. To use the

flight director command bars, which are usually shaped as
inverted chevrons, or V-shaped symbols, the pilot simply flies
to the bars. Some older models use crossed bars, leading the
pilot to the selected point. In both types, you simply keep
the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator aligned with the
command bars, or allow the autopilot to make the actual
control movements to fly the selected track and altitude.
Using the Flight Director (FD)

Flight Director Without Autopilot

The FD and autopilot systems are designed to work together,
but it is possible to use the flight director without engaging
the autopilot, or the autopilot without the FD, depending
on the installation. Without autopilot engagement, the FD
presents all processed information to the pilot in the form of
command bar cues, but you must manually fly the airplane
to follow these cues to fly the selected flightpath. In effect,
you tell the FD what needs to happen and the FD command
bars tell you what to do. This adds to your workload, since
you must program the FD for each procedure or maneuver to
be accomplished, while actually flying the aircraft. In many
cases, you will have a decreased workload if you simply
disable the FD and fly using only the flight instruments.

Flight Director With Autopilot

When the aircraft includes both a flight director and an
autopilot, you may elect to use flight director cues without
engaging the autopilot. It may or may not be possible to use
the autopilot without also engaging the flight director. You
need to be familiar with the system installed. When you
engage the autopilot, it simply follows the cues generated by
the flight director to control the airplane along the selected
lateral and vertical paths.

Common Error: Blindly Following Flight Director

Cues
The convenience of flight director cues can invite fixation or
overreliance on the part of the pilot. As with all automated
systems, you must remain aware of the overall situation.
Never assume that flight director cues are following a route
or course that is free from error. Rather, be sure to include
navigation instruments and sources in your scan. Remember,
the equipment will usually perform exactly as programmed.
Always compare the displays to ensure that all indications
agree. If in doubt, fly the aircraft to remain on cleared track
and altitude, and reduce automation to as minimal as possible
during the problem processing period. The first priority for
a pilot always is to fly the aircraft.

Common Error: Confusion About Autopilot

Engagement
Pilots sometimes become confused about whether or not
flight director cues are being automatically carried out by
the autopilot, or left to be followed manually by the pilot.
Verification of the autopilot mode and engagement status
of the autopilot is a necessary technique for maintaining
awareness of who is flying the aircraft.

Follow Route
The FD/autopilots navigation function can be used to guide
the aircraft along the course selected on the navigation
indicator. Since the navigation display in most advanced
avionics cockpits can present indications from a variety of
navigation systems, you can use the autopilots navigation
function to follow a route programmed into the FMS using
VOR, global positioning system (GPS), inertial navigation
system (INS), or other navigation data sources.
Following a Route Programmed in the FMS
Figure 4-6 demonstrates how to use the navigation function to
follow a route programmed into the FMS. With the navigation
function engaged, the FD/auto-pilot steers the aircraft along
the desired course to the active waypoint. Deviations from
the desired course to the new active waypoint are displayed
on the navigation indicator. When the aircraft reaches the
active waypoint, the FMS computer automatically sequences
to the next waypoint in the route, unless waypoint sequencing
is suspended.
It is important to note that the normal navigation function
provides only lateral guidance. It does not attempt to control
the vertical path of the aircraft at any time. You must always
ensure the correct altitude or vertical speed is maintained.

4-5

AP

NAV

VS x 100
R INC
EC

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

The autopilot NAV function steers the aircraft to keep the CDI needle centered.
-10
-20
20

SU
UNOL
SUNOL
BRG 060
6.8 NM
00:04:15

Nav
N
GPS1

Hdg B
Hd
Bug

270

270

Bearing

Alt Bug

OFF

5000 FT

Aux

VSI Bug

OFF

0 FPM

Range
View

Baro Set

Range

29.92"

View

Hdg

Sync

The CDI is coupled to the area navigation computer, so the autopilot streets the aircraft
along the desired track to the active waypoint showing on the navigation computer.

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
120.600
VLOC

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

RING

COM

C
PWR

GPS

11 00
114.
116.00
11

CO
CO
OM
M
COM

1.0

1.0

KSQL
DIS

6.80 nm 059
96 kt 060
GS

CDI

SUNOL
DTK

OBS

BRG

060

TRK

NAV

MSG

04:15

FPL

GPS

ETE

PROC

Figure 4-6. Using the navigation function to follow the programmed flight route.

When combined, use of the FMS and the FD/autopilots

navigation function result in an automated form of flight that
was formerly limited to very complex and expensive aircraft.
This same level of avionics can now be found in single-engine
training airplanes. While it is easy to be complacent and let
down your guard, you must continuously monitor and stay
aware of automated systems status and function and the
track of the aircraft in relation to the flight plan and air traffic
control (ATC) clearance.
GPS Steering (GPSS) Function
Many autopilots offer a global positioning system steering
(GPSS) function. GPSS does all of the same actions as
the navigation function, but achieves a higher degree of
precision by accepting inputs directly from the GPS receiver.
Consequently, the GPSS function follows the desired track to
the active waypoint more aggressively, permitting only small
excursions from the desired course. On some installations,
pressing the autopilot NAV button twice engages the GPSS
function.
4-6

Following a VOR Radial

The FD/autopilots navigation function can also be used to
directly track VOR radials. The navigation display must be
configured to show indications from one of the aircrafts VOR
receivers. Once you have tuned and identified a VOR station
and selected the desired radial, you can select the navigation
mode to track the selected radial. Figure 4-7 demonstrates
how to use the navigation mode to follow a VOR radial.
When the navigation mode is used to follow a route defined
by VOR radials, you must still tune and identify each new
VOR facility manually and select the appropriate radials
along the way. The autopilots navigation function cannot
automatically manipulate the VOR receiver. However, some
highly automated FMS units tune and identify VORs along a
defined route, such as Victor or Jet routes. You should check
the FMS documentation and installed options.

AP

NAV

VS x 100
R INC
EC

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

-10
-20
20
ECA
BRG 058
38.8 NM
00:24:15

Nav
VLOC1

Hdg Bug

060
6

Bearing
OFF

270

N
33

Aux

Alt Bug
5000 FT

12
15

VSI Bug
0 FPM

OFF

30

Range
View
Range

Baro Set

21

24

29.92"

View

Hdg

Sync

The CDI is coupled to the VOR receiver, so the NAV function

steers the aircraft along the desired track to the selected radial.

RING

COM
CO

PWR

VOL/ PUSH
SQ

119.000
120.600

1.0

KSQL

VLOC

DIS

114.00
116.00

V
VOL/ PUSH
ID

1.0

6.80 nm 059
96 kt 060

COM

GS

CDI

SUNOL
DTK

OBS

BRG

060

TRK

NAV

MSG

04:15

FPL

GPS

ETE

PROC

Figure 4-7. Using the navigation mode to follow a VOR radial.

Depending on the FMS, the highly automated flight that

results when the navigation mode is used to follow a
published route from the database uses a different skill set
from using the navigation mode to track discreetly tuned VOR
radials. Learning how to select preprogrammed routes from
the database of airways can be challenging. Programming
or tuning discreet VORs en route in turbulent conditions
presents different challenges. Either skill set can result in a
greater sharing of duties between pilot and technology and
an increase in safety.

Fly Heading
The heading mode is used to steer the aircraft automatically
along a pilot selected heading. Using the FD/autopilot to fly
a heading is a simple matter of selecting the assigned heading
and then engaging the heading function or, more commonly,
accomplished by first engaging the heading mode and gently
turning the heading selection knob to the new heading. Gently
turning the knob with the mode already engaged allows you
to make a smooth change from level to turning flight. Many

autopilots make an abrupt bank if engaged when there is a big

change to be made in heading or track. The heading function
is illustrated in Figure 4-8.
You should note that, when using the heading mode, the FD/
autopilot ignores the pilot-programmed route in the FMS or
any VOR radials you set. When in heading mode, the FD/
autopilot will fly the selected heading until fuel starvation.

Maintain Altitude
The autopilots altitude mode maintains an assigned
barometric altitude. When the altitude mode is engaged, the
autopilot seeks to maintain the same barometric pressure
(altitude) that the aircraft was flying at the time that the
altitude mode was engaged. Figure 4-9 shows how to engage
the altitude mode for one manufacturers autopilot.
In addition to determining and carrying out the pitch
commands necessary to maintain the flights assigned
altitude, most autopilots are also able to trim the aircraft.
4-7

The autopilot maintains the heading until fuel starvation.

060
06
60 Heading

SET

Set the heading bug to the desired heading.

YD

ARM

BARO

ALT SEL

FT
UP
AP

FD

Press

HDG

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

DN

to engage the heading function.

Figure 4-8. Flying an assigned heading using the heading mode.

5 5 0 0 ft
The autopilot maintains the altitude until fuel starvation.
YD

ARM

BARO
ALT SEL

FT
UP
AP

FD

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

DN

Press the altitude button ALT when

aircraft reaches the desired altitude.

Figure 4-9. Maintaining an altitude using the altitude hold mode.

An autotrim system is capable of automatically making any

needed adjustments to the pitch trim to maintain the aircraft
at the desired altitude and in a properly trimmed condition.
Pitch control pressure applied with the altitude hold mode
engaged will cause the autopilot to trim against you.

Climbs and Descents

Vertical Speed
The autopilots vertical speed mode allows you to perform
constant-rate climbs and descents. Figure 4-10 illustrates
the use of the vertical speed mode for one autopilot that is
integrated with a PFD.
When you engage the vertical speed mode, the FD/autopilot
will attempt to maintain the specified vertical speed until you
choose a different setting in autopilot, the aircraft reaches an
assigned altitude set into the assigned altitude selector/alerter,
4-8

or the autopilot is disconnected. If an altitude selector is not

installed or functioning, the pilot has the task of leveling off
at the assigned altitude, which requires monitoring progress
and manually engaging the autopilots altitude hold function
once the aircraft reaches the desired altitude. You must be
very careful to specify an appropriate vertical speed, as the
aircraft will fly itself into a stall if you command the autopilot
to climb at a rate greater than the aircrafts powerplant(s) is/
are capable of supporting. You also need to monitor descent
airspeeds diligently to ensure compliance with VNE/VMO and
VA or turbulence penetration speeds if there is doubt about
smooth air conditions. As discussed in the previous chapter,
you should be cognizant of the powerplant temperatures
reciprocating powered aircraft and bleed air requirements
for turbine-powered aircraft.
Vertical Speed With Altitude Capture
Some FD/autopilots have an altitude select/capture feature.
The altitude select/capture feature is illustrated in Figure 4-11.
The altitude select/capture feature combines use of the
activated vertical speed mode and an armed altitude hold
mode. To use this feature, the vertical speed function is
initially engaged. The altitude hold mode usually arms
automatically when a different altitude is selected for capture
and vertical speed is activated. With an altitude select/capture
option or feature, the altitude hold mode disengages the
vertical speed mode upon capture of the selected altitude once
the vertical speed function completes the necessary climb or
descent. Once the aircraft reaches the assigned altitude, the
vertical speed function automatically disengages, and the
altitude mode changes from armed to engaged. The change
from vertical speed mode to altitude hold mode is the capture
mode, or transition mode. Any changes made by the pilot
during this short phase usually result in a cancellation of the
capture action, allowing the aircraft to continue the climb or
descent past the selected altitude. Again, be familiar with the
aircrafts equipment. Let the system complete programmed
tasks, and understand what it will do if interrupted.
Many FD/autopilot altitude selectors include an altitude alert
feature, an auditory alert that sounds or chimes as the aircraft
approaches or departs the selected altitude.

Catching Errors: Armed Modes Help Prevent

Forgotten Mode Changes
You have already seen how remembering to make a needed
mode change in the future can be an error-prone process. Not
canceling the armed function allows the altitude select mode
to relieve the pilot from needing to remember to engage the
function manually once the aircraft has reached the selected
altitude. Do not interrupt the altitude armed or capture mode,
unless prepared to manually control the process.

5000 FT

1 Enter the desired vertical speed.

VSI Bug
500 FPM

2 Press the vertical speed button

VS

Baro Set

AP

NAV

29.92"

VS

Hdg

Sync

VS x 100
R INC
EC

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

5 0 0 fpm

3 The autopilot attempts to maintain the dialed vertical speed.

Figure 4-10. Performing a constant-rate climb or descent using the vertical speed function.

The autopilot attempts to maintain the target vertical

3 speed until reaching and capturing the target altitude.

BRT

7000 FT

7 0 0 0 ft

5200

20
10

5100

50

5 0 0 fpm

40
20
00

DIM

0
-5

4900
29.92"

AP

NAV

ALT

-10
-20
Hdg Bug

VS

270

VS x 100
R INC
EC

D
NAV

APR

REV

ALT

7000 FT

HDG

Alt Bug

VSI Bug

VS

500 FPM

VS

Baro Set

2 Simultaneously press VS to engage the vertical speed

function and ALT to arm the altitude function.

29.92"

Hdg

Sync

1 Enter the target altitude and desired vertical speed.

Figure 4-11. Climbs and descents to capture using the altitude select/capture feature.

4-9

The indications on the autopilot in Figure 4-11 do not

distinguish between functions that are armed or engaged.
The more sophisticated annunciator shown in Figure 4-12 uses
color coding to distinguish between armed and engaged
autopilot functions.
Engaged functions are shown in green.

0
0

WPT

KGNB
GPS

DIS
AP

53.5
53
5NM
YD

274

TRK

800 FPM

ALT

DTK
VS

274

Armed functions are shown in white.

AP = autopilot engaged
YD = yaw dampener
VS = vertical speed engaged

Figure 4-12. A mode annunciator showing armed and engaged

autopilot modes.

Common Error: Failure To Arm the Altitude Mode

The most common error made by pilots during climbs and
descents is failure to arm the altitude mode to capture the
assigned altitude. In many instances, this happens when the
crew does not correctly adjust the altitude selector or alerter.
Sometimes, this malfunction occurs when the altitude is
adjusted at the same time the system is attempting to go
into the capture mode. This situation typically results in the
aircraft climbing or descending beyond the assigned altitude,
which may result in an altitude deviation. Altitude deviations
are among the most common mishaps reported by pilots to
NASAs Aviation Safety and Reporting System (ASRS). In
any event, always monitor the actions of the FD/autopilot
system and be prepared to fly the aircraft manually.

Awareness: Altitude Alerting Systems

Altitude alerting systems were mandated for commercial
jet transports in the early 1970s in response to a growing
number of altitude deviations in airline operations. Although
they helped reduce the total number of altitude deviations,
altitude alerting systems also made possible a new kind of
error. Altitude deviation reports submitted to the Aviation
Safety and Reporting System (ASRS) indicate that pilots
sometimes rely too much on the altitude alerting system,
using it as a substitute for maintaining altitude awareness.
Instead of monitoring altitude, pilots sometimes simply listen
for the alert. This phenomenon is one instance of what human
factors experts call primary-secondary task inversionwhen
an alert or alarm designed as a secondary backup becomes
the primary source of information. In the case of the altitude
4-10

alerting system, when the alerting system is missed, or you

are distracted, nothing is left to prevent an altitude deviation.
You must remember that the altitude alerting system is
designed as a backup, and be careful not to let the alerting
system become the primary means of monitoring altitude.
Most airline operators have a standard operating procedure
that requires pilots to call out approaching target altitudes
before the altitude alerting system gives the alert. Common
errors occur when setting 10,000 feet versus 11,000 feet.
Too many ones and zeros can confuse a fatigued, busy pilot,
resulting in setting an incorrect altitude.

Awareness: Automatic Mode Changes

Distinguishing between armed and engaged adds
complexity to the process of maintaining mode awareness.
In addition to autopilot functions that are engaged by the
pilot, some autopilot functions engage and disengage
automatically. Automatic mode changes add to the challenge
of keeping track of which autopilot functions are currently
engaged and which functions are set to become engaged.
You can minimize confusion by always verifying the status
annunciations on the FMs, PFD/MFD, and the autopilot
mode annunciator after any change of heading, altitude,
or vertical speed. The verification process forces you to
carefully consider the configuration of the FMS and FD/
autopilot. Determine if engaging the autopilot cancels certain
FD modes. Some units interact, and when the autopilot is
engaged, some FD modes are automatically canceled, notably
altitude hold or selection.

Learning: The Importance of Understanding

One way to learn the steps required to use an autopilot is
simply to memorize them. This approach focuses solely on
the button and control manipulations required to perform each
procedure. Although this approach to learning may appear
to be the quickest, studies have shown that pilots who take
the time to develop a deeper understanding of how a system
works give themselves three important advantages. These
pilots are better able to:
1. Work through situations that differ from the ones they
learned and practiced during training,
2. Transition from one manufacturers system to another,
and
3. Recall procedures after not having practiced them for
some time.
Investing time to understand FD/autopilot functions pays off.
For example, in many systems, once the aircraft reaches the
selected altitude and levels off as indicated by the altitude
mode annunciator, the pilot can select the next altitude in
the window. Then, upon receiving the clearance to climb

or descend, the pilot must select only the vertical mode. In

many systems, the vertical speed mode is indicated and the
altitude mode is indicated as armed and ready to capture
the selected altitude. Only the power requires pilot manual
control.
Power Management
Unless the aircraft has an autothrottle system, you must adjust
the power to an appropriate setting when performing any
climb, descent, or level-off. You cannot allow the aircraft
to exceed any applicable speed limitations during a descent.
During a climb at a vertical speed that the aircraft cannot
sustain, the FD/autopilot may command a pitch that results
in a stall.
Essential Skills
1. Use the FD/autopilot to climb or descend to and
automatically capture an assigned altitude.
2. Determine the indications of the armed or capture
mode, and what pilot actions will cancel those modes.
3. Determine if the system allows resetting of the armed
or capture mode, or if manual control is the only option
after cancellation of these modes.
4. Determine the available methods of activating the
altitude armed or capture mode.
5. Determine the average power necessary for normal
climbs and descents. Practice changing the power to
these settings in coordination with making the FD/
autopilot mode changes.
6. Determine and record maximum climb vertical speeds
and power settings for temperatures and altitudes.
Ensure the values are in agreement with values in
AFM/POH for conditions. Make note of highest
practical pitch attitude values, conditions, and loading.
Remember powerplant factors (e.g., minimum
powerplant temperature, bleed air requirements) and
airframe limitations (e.g., VA in setting power).

Figure 4-13 illustrates selecting the assigned heading, setting

up your FD/FMS autopilot for the assigned course, engaging
the heading mode, and arming the navigation function. Once
the aircraft reaches the course, the autopilot automatically
disengages the heading function and engages the navigation
mode.
On most FD/autopilots, courses can be intercepted by first
using the heading bug to select an intercept course and then
engaging the heading function. Alternatively, engaging the
navigation function in some units causes the FD/autopilot
to select an intercept heading, engage the heading function,
and arm the navigation function. This can be a cause for
conflict if ATC assigns an intercept heading, but the FD is
programmed to use one angle. In those instances, you need
to set the heading into the FD/autopilot, fly, and control
the intercept until the aircraft is close enough to complete
the intercept and capture without deviating from the ATC
instructions. At that point you can select and arm the
navigation mode, which completes the intercept and begins
tracking the selected course.
Essential Skills
1. Use the FD/autopilot to fly an assigned heading to
capture and track a VOR and/or RNAV course.
2. Determine if the FD/autopilot uses preprogrammed
intercepts or set headings for navigation course
interceptions.
3. Determine the indications of navigation mode armed
conditions.
4. Determine parameters of preprogrammed intercept
modes, if applicable.
5. Determine minimum and maximum intercept angle
limitations, if any.

Course Intercepts
Flying an Assigned Heading To Intercept a
Course or VOR Radial
You can use the navigation mode in combination with the
heading function to fly an assigned heading to intercept
a course. The procedure illustrated in Figure 4-13 takes
advantage of the ability to arm the navigation mode while
the heading mode is engaged.

4-11

-10
-20
Nav
GPS1

SAC
DTK 240
19.1 NM
00:07:22

Hdg Bug

270

270

Alt Bug

Bearing
OFF

5000 FT

Aux

VSI Bug

OFF

0 FPM

Range
View

Baro Set

Range

29.92"

View

Hdg

Sync

1 Enter the desired heading and engage the heading function.

AP

HDG

NAV

VS x 100
R INC
EC

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

2 Arm the navigation function.

AP

NAV

VS x 100
R INC
EC

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

As the autopilot captures the course, the heading function automatically

3 disengages, and the navigation function switches from armed to engaged.

Figure 4-13. Flying an assigned heading to intercept a course.

Coupled Approaches
The approach function is similar to the navigation mode, but
flies the selected course with the higher degree of precision
necessary for instrument approaches and allows glideslope
tracking in the vertical dimension. Most autopilots feature
a separate button that allows you to engage the approach
function, as shown in Figure 4-14. (NOTE: Usually, this
mode is not used with most GPS receivers. The GPS approach
RNP (required navigation performance) of 0.3 induces the
necessary flight tracking precision. This mode is used only
if specifically stated as a command in the avionics handbook
for that equipment in that aircraft).
Like the navigation function, the approach mode can be used
to execute precision and nonprecision approaches that rely
on types of ground-based navigation facilities (e.g., VOR,
VOR/DME, and localizer approaches).

4-12

ILS Approaches
Coupled ILS approaches make use of the autopilots
glideslope function. Figure 4-15 shows the procedure for
one type of autopilot.
Note that you cannot directly arm or engage the glideslope
function. The autopilot must usually be engaged first in
the approach and altitude modes. When the FD/autopilot
begins to sense the glideslope, the glideslope function will
automatically arm. When the aircraft intercepts the glideslope,
the glideslope function engages automatically, and uses the
aircrafts pitch control to remain on the glideslope. It is
important to note that, generally, the glideslope function
can capture the glideslope only from below or on glideslope.
RNAV Approaches With Vertical Guidance
Coupled RNAV approaches with vertical guidance work in
the same way as coupled ILS approaches. Lateral and vertical
guidance commands are generated by the FMS/NAV and
sent to the FD/autopilot. The same approach and glideslope

YD

ARM

BARO
ALT SEL

UP
AP

FD

Press

HDG

APR

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

DN

to engage the approach function.

Use the approach and altitude functions to establish

the aircraft on the localizer.
AP

NAV

NAV

APR

ALT

VS x 100
R INC
EC

APR
HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

X
The autopilot should maintain a greater
accuracy of track in the approach mode.

When the aircraft comes within reception range of the

glideslope, the autopilot automatically arms the
glideslope function.

Figure 4-14. Flying a coupled nonprecision approach.

AP
P

NAV

Essential Skills
1. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to a precision approach.

GS
VS x 100
R INC
EC

D
HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

X
When the glideslope has been captured, the autopilot
automatically disengages the altitude function and
engages the glideslope function. The pilot must
adjust power and drag (flaps and landing gear) to
control airspeed.
AP
P

NAV

APR

GS
VS x 100
R INC
EC

Power Management
Since most autopilots are not capable of manipulating power
settings, you must manage the throttle to control airspeed
throughout all phases of the approach. The power changes
needed during altitude changes must supply the necessary
thrust to overcome the drag. The pilot must coordinate the
powerplant settings with the commands given to the FD/
autopilot. Remember, the FD/autopilot can control the
aircrafts pitch attitude only for altitude or airspeed, but not
both. The FD/autopilot attempts to perform as programmed
by you, the pilot. If the climbing vertical speed selection
is too great, the aircraft increases the pitch attitude until it
achieves that vertical speed, or the wing stalls. Selection of
an airspeed or descent rate that is too great for the power
selected can result in speeds beyond the airframe limitations.
Leveling off from a descent, without restoring a cruise power
setting results in a stall as the FD/autopilot attempts to hold
the altitude selected.

ALT

functions of the autopilot are used in the same way to carry

out the lateral and vertical guidance and control of the aircraft.
This process is transparent to the pilot. Most VNAV
functions do not qualify as approach vertical functions and
many FMS/GPS units inhibit that function during approaches.

APR

HDG

NAV

APR

REV

ALT

VS
VS

Figure 4-15. Flying a coupled precision approach.

3. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to an RNAV approach.

4. Determine the power setting required to fly the
approaches.
5. Determine the power settings necessary for leveloff
during nonprecision approaches and go-around
power settings for both precision and nonprecision
approaches.

2. Use the FD/autopilot to couple to a nonprecision

approach.

4-13

6. Determine the speeds available for the minimum

recommended powerplant settings. It is useful to
determine if an ATC clearance can be accepted for
climbs, altitudes, and descents.

Deciding When To Use the FD/Autopilot

In addition to learning how to use the FD/autopilot, you must
also learn when to use it. Since there are no definitive rules
about when an FD/autopilot should or should not be used,
you must learn to consider the benefits and disadvantages of
using the FD/autopilot in any given situation.
One of the most valuable benefits of using the FD/autopilot
is delegating the constant task of manipulating the aircrafts
controls to the equipment, which do nothing other than
comply with the pilots programming. This allows you
more time to manage and observe the entire flight situation.
Managing the flight versus actually moving the controls
allows more time for:
1. Programming. Especially when flying under IFR,
changes to a route are inevitable. Even when the
pilot is proficient in using FMS/RNAV, this task
requires focusing some attention on the programming
task. The FD/autopilot keeps the aircraft on the
programmed heading or course and altitude while the
pilot makes the necessary changes to the flight plan.
If programmed correctly, the aircraft maintains the
correct track and altitude.
2. Distracting tasks/workload. Similarly, the FD/
autopilot is used to control basic aircraft movement
while the pilot focuses attention on tasks such as
reviewing charts, briefing and configuring for an
instrument approach, updating weather information,
etc. The FD/autopilot can also be a great help in
other high workload situations, such as flying in a
busy terminal area or executing a missed approach in
adverse weather conditions.
3. Maintaining autopilot skills. The FD/autopilots ability
to help manage pilot workload depends heavily on the
pilots proficiency in using it. Regular practice with the
various autopilot functions (especially the approach
functions) is essential to develop and maintain the
knowledge and skills necessary to maximize its
utilization.
4. Emergencies. The FD/autopilot can be extremely
useful during an emergency. It can reduce pilot
workload and facilitate efforts to troubleshoot the
emergency.

4-14

Disadvantages of using the FD/autopilot include the

following:
1. Forgetting to maintain manual flying skills. It is
important to practice flying without the FD/autopilot
often enough to maintain proficiency in basic flying
skills and the instrument cross-check and scan. One
common pitfall of advanced avionics is the pilots
tendency to forget to maintain hard-earned skills for
instrument flight. All equipment will fail at some time.
The competent pilot is ready and prepared to make a
transition to aircraft piloting at any time.
2. Turbulence. The pilots operating handbook (POH)
and FD/autopilot flight manual supplements for many
aircraft discourage or prohibit use of the autopilots
altitude hold function during moderate or severe
turbulence. Some FD/autopilot systems may default
or disengage if certain trim or control limits are
encountered during turbulent conditions. You should
consult the flight manual to ensure the aircraft is
not operated outside specified limits. The aircrafts
flightpath and mode indications should always be
monitored to ensure what modes are active.
3. Minimum altitude. Autopilots are certified for use
above a specified minimum altitude above ground
level (AGL). Some higher performance and higher
service ceiling aircraft require autopilot control above
certain airspeeds and altitudes. The flight manual
and operations manual (if any) should be consulted
to ensure that the pilot does not operate the aircraft
outside specified limits. For higher safety standards,
commercial operators must observe restrictions in
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
sections 121.579, 125.328, and 135.93, according to
their regulatory classification. Adoption of these limits
by private operators would add a safety margin to
flights conducted under 14 CFR part 91 regulations
in many cases.
4. Possible malfunction. If at any time the pilot observes
unexpected or uncommanded behavior from the
autopilot, he or she should disengage the autopilot
until determination of the cause and its resolution.
Most autopilot systems have multiple methods of
disengagement; you should be immediately aware of
all of them. Also be aware of the methods to cancel
the FD display to avoid confusing information.

Miscellaneous Autopilot Topics

Autopilot Mode Awareness
In addition to performing the basic aircraft control and
navigation function described previously, some autopilots
are capable of automatically switching from one function
to another. These automatic mode changes can complicate
the task of maintaining mode awareness, but every autopilot
has some form of flight mode annunciator that shows which
autopilot functions are currently engaged. The autopilot
shown in Figure 4-4 displays the name of any autopilot
mode that is currently engaged just above the button used to
engage the function. It is important to develop two habits:
1. Checking the flight mode annunciator after entering a
command to ensure that the selected function is indeed
armed or engaged, as appropriate.
2. Including the flight mode annunciator in the scan to
maintain continuous awareness of what mode is active
and what is armed to activate next.
Positive Exchange of Controls
When control of the aircraft is transferred between two pilots,
it is important to acknowledge this exchange verbally. The
pilot relinquishing control of the aircraft should state, You
have the flight controls. The pilot assuming control of the
aircraft should state, I have the flight controls, and then
the pilot relinquishing control should restate, You have
the flight controls. Following these procedures reduces the
possibility of confusion about who is flying the aircraft at
any given time.
Using an FD/autopilot system can present an opportunity for
confusion. When engaging the autopilot, it is a good idea to
announce that the autopilot is being engaged, what autopilot
mode is being used, and then to confirm the settings using
the flight mode annunciator. It has been general practice
for many years in many aircraft to first engage the FD to
determine what instructions it was going to transmit to the
autopilot. This is determined by reading the FDs command
bars. If the commands shown agree with your perception of
the control motions to be made, then engage the autopilot
to fly the entered course and vertical mode. A caution at
this point: some FDs cancel the altitude hold mode when
the autopilot is engaged. Always ensure that, after autopilot
engagement, the desired modes are still active.
Preflighting the Autopilot
The POH or aircraft flight manual (AFM) supplement
for each FD/autopilot system contains a preflight check
procedure that must be performed before departure. As
with other preflight inspection items, this check allows you
to ensure that the autopilot is operating correctly, before
depending on it in the air.

Autopilot and Electric Trim System Failures

It is vital that you become immediately familiar with the
procedures required to disconnect or disable the electric trim
and autopilot systems. Electric trim and autopilot failures can
occur in the form of failure indications; unusual, unexpected,
or missing actions; or, in the extreme case, a runaway servo
actuator in the autopilot or trim system.
The first and closest method of disconnecting a malfunctioning
autopilot is the autopilot disconnect switch, typically mounted
on the control yoke. This switch is usually a red button, often
mistaken by new pilots for the radio transmit button. You
need to know which buttons activate which functions.
Most systems may be disconnected by the mode buttons on
the autopilot control panel. However, there are some failures
(shorted relays, wires, etc.) that remove control of the servo
actuator from the control unit itself. In those rare instances,
the pilot must find and pull the circuit breakers that interrupt
power to both the trim and autopilot systems. Some trim
systems have separate circuit breakers for trim motors that
operate different control surfaces (roll, pitch, yaw). Many
pilots have installed small plastic collars on the autopilot
to facilitate finding and pulling the correct autopilot circuit
breaker to kill the power to that circuit. Ensure that you
understand all functions and equipment are lost if those (and
in fact, any circuit breaker) are disabled. In too many cases, a
circuit breaker installed in an aircraft supplies power to more
functions than the label implies. To be absolutely sure, check
the wiring diagrams, and do not pull circuit breakers unless
the POH/AFM directs that specific action.
Another method of maintaining flight control when faced
with a failed trim or autopilot system is the control yoke. Most
autopilot and trim systems use a simple clutch mechanism
that allows you to overpower the system by forcing the
control yoke in the desired direction. This is usually checked
during the afterstart/pretakeoff/ runup check.
Essential Skills
1. Demonstrate the proper preflight and ground check of
the FD/autopilot system.
2. Demonstrate all methods used to disengage and
disconnect an autopilot.
3. Demonstrate how to select the different modes and
explain what each mode is designed to do and when
it will become active.
4. Explain the flight director (FD) indications and
autopilot annunciators, and how the dimming function
is controlled.

4-15

Chapter Summary
Automated flight control can make a long flight easy for
you by relieving you of the tedious second-by-second
manipulation and control of the aircraft. Overdependence
on automated flight controls can cost you hard-earned
aircraft handling skills, and allow you to lose the situational
awareness important to safe flight. You must practice your
skills and cross-check.
Automated flight controls require you to study and learn the
systems programming and mode selection actions. You must
also learn what actions disconnect the autopilot, whether
commanded or not. In preflight planning you must determine
the limitations on the autopilot and what the installation in
that aircraft permits.
It is important for you to be aware of what functions are
automated and what activates those functions, and the
actions or conditions that cancel or inhibit those functions.
Remember that, in most aircraft, you must set the power
and manage the powerplant(s). Even in very expensive
aircraft equipped with autothrottle, you must monitor the
powerplant(s) and be ready to intervene to ensure operation
within safe parameters.

4-16