۱

The radio navigation aids enable the

crew to navigate and monitor the
position of the aircraft.

۲
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۳
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Radio altimeter
 Function:

 The radio altimeter is a device capable of accurately measuring

the aircraft’s height above ground level (AGL).

 It provides the flight deck display, automatic flight system and

the Ground proximity warning system with the height
information and rate of change of height.

 Frequency:

 4250 MHz to 4350 MHz – SHF band

٤
 It measures the aircraft height above the ground
accurately .

٥
 Radio altimeter

 Principles of operation:

 The radio altimeter makes use of primary radar principles transmitting

a frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) of 4300 MHz. The
depth of frequency modulation is 50 MHz so the frequency change
from 4250 MHz to 4350 MHz.

 In an airplane flying above the ground, there is therefore a difference

in the frequency of the reflected signals seen by the receiver and the
transmitter frequency at the same instant.

٦
Radio altimeter

۷
 Radio altimeter

 Principles of operation:

 The aircraft height is directly proportional to the difference in

frequencies between the transmitted and received signal over a
short sampling period (beat frequency).

 In the receiver mixer. The transmitted and received frequencies

are mixed and the beat frequency (difference) is counted in the
counter.

۸
 Radio altimeter
 Principles of operation:

 The beat frequency counter converts the frequency difference to an

analog DC voltage whose amplitude is a function of aircraft altitude
above the ground.

 A servo system in the indicator drives the indication (here a

vertically movable tape to a position corresponding to the amplitude
of the DC analog voltage received from the beat frequency counter.

۹
Radio altimeter

۱۰
 Radio altimeter

 The elliptical beam transmitted downwards is wide enough to always

allow some portion of the beam to travel vertically even with roll
angles 30 ˚ and pitch angles 20 ˚.

 If the bank angle exceeds 30˚, or pitch attitude exceeds 20˚, the
indicated altitude is excessive.

 These high figure attitudes would not be maintained very long, so that
does not present a problem.

۱۱
 Radio altimeter
 The radio altimeter use a continuous wave signal so it is necessary to
use a separate antenna, similar to the transmitting antenna for
reception .

 The radio altimeter is called “low range” because it is not intended to

operate at airplane altitudes above the ground greater than 2,500 feet.
 Its principal usage is during the final approach.
 Negative altitude:
 The equipment has been adjusted to indicate zero when the
main wheels first touch down the runway surface on landing.

 Therefore when aircraft is level on the ground the antenna will

be below its calibrated position relative to aircraft landing
attitude.
۱۲
 Radio altimeter
 Altitude Trip Switches:
 Compares the measured altitude with reference altitude if
they are equal it will used for lighting an alert.

Low Range Radio Altimeter

Receiver/Transmitter

ALTITUDE TRIP ALTITUDE TRIPS

SWITCHES

۱۳
Radio altimeter

۱٤
Radio altimeter

۱٥
 Radio altimeter
 Indicators:

۱٦
 Radio altimeter
 Indicators:

۱۷
 Radio altimeter
 Indicators:

۱۸
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۱۹
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Instrument landing system

 Function:

 The instrument landing system (ILS) provides

the pilot with visual instructions in the cockpit to
enable him to instrumentally fly the aircraft
down a predetermined glide path and localizer
(centre line) to his decision height (DH).

۲۰
 Instrument landing system
 Definitions:

 Decision Height:
 The height at which the pilot can see the land at this
point then he can legally land the A/C. If he can’t see to
land, he must go around.

 Runway Visual Range (RVR):

 It is the lower limit of visibility for safe landing.
- The RVR must be at least 1,200 ft when pilot begins his
Category II approach.

۲۱
 Instrument landing system
 Principles of operation:

 The ILS ground installations consists of:

1- Localizer:

- Transmits in VHF band and located about 1000 ft

(300m) beyond the far end of the runway.

- It provides the approach guidance in horizontal plane.

۲۲
Instrument landing system

۲۳
 Instrument landing system
 Principles of operation:

2- Glide slope:

- Transmits in UHF band and located about 1000 ft

(300m) from the touchdown end of the runway.

- It provides the approach guidance in vertical plane.

۲٤
Instrument landing system

۲٥
Instrument landing system

۲٦
Instrument landing system

۲۷
 Instrument landing system

CAT 1
200

CAT 2 A B C

100

CAT 3

800 600 400 200 50 0

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (METRES)

۲۸
12th February 2007 ILS CATEGORIES ۲۸
 Instrument landing system
 Frequency:
 localizer:

-VHF band – 108 : 112 MHz (50 KHz spacing) using the
odd first decimals to provide a 40 channels.
ex: 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35…111.95 MHz

 Glide slope:
-UHF band – 328.6 : 335.4 MHz (150 KHz spacing) to
provide a 40 channels.
ex: 329.15, 429.30, 329.45, ….335 MHz

۲۹
 Instrument landing system
 Frequency pairing:

 The glide slope frequency is paired with the localizer

and the frequency selection is automatic.

 When a particular localizer frequency is selected, the

frequency of the associated glide slope transmission is
simultaneously selected with the list published at ICAO.
ex: 108.1 MHz is paired with 334.7 MHz

۳۰
Instrument landing system

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

PAIRED FREQUENCIES

LOCALISER GLIDESLOPE

108.10 334.70

108.90 329.30

111.10 331.70

111.95 330.95
۳۱
۳۱
 Instrument landing system
 Localizer field pattern:

 There are two overlapping lobes on the same radio

frequency in phase with each other. One has a 90 Hz
modulation and the other has a 150 Hz modulation.
Both are directional transmissions.

 The 90 Hz modulated lobe is directed a little to one side

of beam center, and the 150 Hz modulation lobe is
directed to the other side of beam center by the same
amount.
۳۲
 Instrument landing system
 Localizer field pattern:

 The strength of the left and right lobes are carefully

maintained equal.

 The receiver measures, not the strength of the radio

signal, but the relative strength of the two audio
signals.

۳۳
Instrument landing system

۳٤
Instrument landing system
FLY LEFT
SIGNAL
150 Hz
PREDOMINATES

90 Hz
PREDOMINATES FLY RIGHT
SIGNAL

LOCALISER FIELD PATTERN ۳٥

 Instrument landing system
2 DOT ENVELOPE
(COURSE WIDTH) DOTS ON HSI
LATERAL
700 ft WIDE DEVIATION
AT THRESHOLD
LOC
TX

4º ON LONG RUNWAY
5º ON SHORT RUNWAY

۳٦
LOCALISER GEOMETRY
 Instrument landing system
 Glide slope field pattern:

 The glide slope field pattern is very similar to that of the

localizer. The difference is that the transmission is
rotated through 90º,so that the 90 Hz and 150 Hz audio
signals are displaced from each other vertically rather
than horizontally .

 The 90 Hz modulated transmission is directed a little to

upper side of beam, and the 150 Hz modulation
transmission is directed to the down side of beam by the
same amount.
۳۷
 Instrument landing system
 Glideslope field pattern:

 The strength of the upper and lower signals are carefully

maintained equal.

 The receiver measures, not the strength of the radio

signal, but the relative strength of the two audio
signals.

۳۸
Instrument landing system

۳۹
Instrument landing system
90 Hz
PREDOMINATES

FLY DOWN
SIGNAL

150 Hz
PREDOMINATES

FLY UP
SIGNAL

٤۰

GLIDESLOPE FIELD PATTERN

 Instrument landing system
2 DOT ENVELOPE
COURSE WIDTH 1.4º

28 ft

100 ft

14 ft
50 ft

3º

1,000 ft
1,000 ft 3,000 ft
٤۱

GLIDESLOPE GEOMETRY
 ILS Receiver

RF amplifier

IF amplifier
90 Hz filter

Audio
Indicator
detector

150 Hz filter

٤۲
LOCALIZER
GLIDE SLOPE
٤۳
 ILS Indication

Signal Integrity Flag

Indicates if instrument is unreliable

“Dots”
Each “dot” on the instrument
represents 2° of deviation

Glideslope Localizer
Deviation from optimal glide Deviation from runway centre
path line

٤٤
ILS Indication

٤٥
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
٤٦
 Global positioning system (GPS).
٤۷
 Marker beacon system

 Function:

 It is a radio beacons transmitting their power vertically toward the

sky .

 Enables the pilot to cross check the aircraft’s height against ranges.
 Three markers outer, middle and inner transmit a directional fan
shaped signal.

 The system provides visual and aural indications of the passage of

the aircraft over the marker transmitters located on the ground.

٤۸
 3000 Hz
WHITE
400 Hz
INDICATOR
BLUE
1300 Hz INDICATOR
AMBER
INDICATOR

MORSE MORSE
MORSE

٤۹
INNER MIDDLE OUTER
12th February 2007 ٤۹
MARKER MARKER MARKER
 3000 Hz
INNER MKR
DOT X 6
1,300 Hz
MIDDLE MKR
DOT DASH

OUTER MKR
400 Hz
DASH DASH

٥۰

MARKER BEACON INDICATIONS

 ٥۱
12th February 2007 ٥۱
Marker beacon system

٥۲
 Marker beacon system
OUTER
MARKER
MIDDLE 400 Hz
MARKER
INNER
1,300 Hz
MARKER
3,000 Hz

GLIDESLOPE

LOCALISER
CENTRELINE

٥۳

MARKER BEACON & ILS OPERATION

12th February 2007 ٥۳
 Marker beacon system
 Function:

 Outer and middle markers are associated with an instrument

landing system (ILS).

 The outer marker is usually located directly below the point

where an airplane on a localizer course should intersect the
glideslope and start descending.

 An outer marker is identified when the blue lights comes on

and a 400-Hertz tone is emitted.

٥٤
 Marker beacon system
 Function:

 The middle marker is usually located near the runway usually

under the point on the glidepath where a descent could be
discontinued (DH).
 A middle marker is identified when the amber lights come
on and 1,300 Hertz tone is emitted.

٥٥
 Marker beacon system

 The inner marker is identified when the white lights come on and
3000 Hertz tone is emitted.

 Frequency:
 75 MHz

- There is no interference between adjacent beacons because of the

narrow extent of radiation patterns

٥٦
 Marker beacon system

• Appropriate light will flash and an audible

sound may be heard.

White IM
3000 HZ tone

Amber MM
1300 HZ tone

Blue OM
400 HZ tone

٥۷
Marker beacon system

٥۸
 Marker beacon system
MARKER BEACON AUDIO AUDIO
75 MHz SYSTEM AMPLIFIER (MORSE)
FILTER REMOVES
75 MHz
CARRIER SIGNAL

RF AMP & 3000 Hz

DETECTOR FILTER AMP
INNER

1300 Hz
MARKER FILTER AMP MIDDLE
HIGH
400 Hz
FILTER AMP OUTER
LOW

SENSITIVITY To increase
sensitivity when
SWITCH used with airway
markers

SCHEMATIC ٥۹
Marker beacon system

MARKER
٦۰
 Marker beacon system
 Airway marker:
 It used while route-navigation along airways in order to:

- identify certain fixes along routes where there are no

other means of establishing the fix.
- when flying over mountainous areas. It works where it
is difficult to receive other navigation aids.

 These markers can reach as high as 50,000 ft.

 Airway marker is identified when the white light comes
on and a 3000 HZ tone is emitted.
٦۱
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
٦۲
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Function:
 The distance measuring equipment (DME) determines the slant
range between an airplane and a selected VOR or ILS ground
station in nautical mile (line of sight) by timing a signal being
sent from the A/C (interrogating) to the GND station then the
GND station replay (transponding).

 Frequency:
 962 - 1213 MHz in UHF band at 1 MHZ spacing (with total of
252 channels).
 There is always a difference of +/_ 63 MHZ between the
interrogation and transponding frequencies.

٦۳
Distance measuring equipment (DME)

٦٤
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 DME station located at a VOR station
or
near an ILS station at an airport to supplement or replace the
range information provided by marker beacons.

 When a VOR or LOC frequency has been selected the frequency of the
associated DME station (if there is one) is simultaneously selected
(frequency pairing).

 Principles of operation:
 DME is a secondary radar system providing slant range by pulse
technique.
٦٥
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)

 Principles of operation:
 DME system consists of DME interrogator at the aircraft and DME
ground station.

 DME interrogator transmits its uniquely randomly spaced pulse pairs

to the ground station.

 Randomly spaced pulses make it possible for each DME system to

1- Discriminate between its own retransmitted signal and those of A/C s.
2- makes it possible for the A/C receiver to determine the elapsed time
between transmitted and received signal.
٦٦
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Principles of operation:

 After short delay (50 μs), the DME ground station retransmits these
pulse pairs at a frequency either above or below the frequency of the
transmitted signal by 63 MHz.

d = v T , where T is the round trip time

٦۷
Distance measuring equipment (DME)

٦۸
 DME interrogator
AUDIO
TO FLIGHT INTERPHONE SYSTEM
IDENTIFICATION

RECEIVER MATCHING CKTS

I
“Lock on”
N
“Delayed TX”
D
DUPLEXER I
CONTROLLED
C
VARIABLE DELAY
TRANSMITTER A
T
O
RCVR/XMITR
R
TO SUPPRESSOR FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER
BUS
FREQUENCY SELECTOR
SIGNALS ٦۹

VHF/ NAV CTL PNL

 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Components:

1 – Transmitter.
2 – Receiver.
3 – Duplexer.
4 – Antenna.
5 – Controlled variable delay.
6 – Matching circuit.

۷۰
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Components:

1- Transmitter :transmits the uniquely randomly spaced pulse pairs to

the ground station.
 The transmitter is connected to a suppressor bus which is
connected also to other DME transmitter, ATC transponders and
TCAS transmitters.
 When one transmitter connected to the suppressor bus is
transmitting other transmitters connected to the bus are
suppressed to prevent interference.
 DME, ATC and TCAS operate in the same frequency range.
 Both DME and ATC have an identical and interchangeable antenna.
۷۱
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Components:
 Receiver : receives the retransmitted pulse pairs from the ground
station.

 Controlled variable delay:

- Delay the transmitted signal internally.

- Gives out a signal to the indicator to display the equivalent

distance of the delay set up in the controlled variable delay
block.

 DME antenna : transmits DME interrogation and receives the

reply from the selected ground station.
۷۲
Distance measuring equipment (DME)

DME 1, 2

۷۳
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 Matching circuit:
gives out the error information by comparing the received signal
with the delayed transmitted signal from the controlled variable
delay block.

 When the system is turn on, it is in the Search mode. The

controlled variable delay servo motor runs from zero to max.
delay causing the indicator readout to change from zero to max.
and back to zero until it matches the delayed transmitted signal to
the received signal.

 During searching, the warning flag in the DME indicator is in

view showing that the DME isn’t operative.
۷٤
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)

 The matching circuit causes the servo motor to Lock on a

particular delay (equivalent to a particular distance lock on) when
the matching circuit sees the same delay for the transmitted and
received signals.

 “Lock on”: means the servo motor stops its rapid search and runs
slowly after Lock on.

 As long as the delayed transmitter signal matches the received

signal the distance indication is correct.

۷٥
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
 When the A/C is near or over the beacon. The DME range is
approx. = A/C altitude than the horizontal distance. This causes the
GND speed indicated to be slower than the actual GND speed.

 To overcome this problem, the indicator goes to the Memory mode

when the A/C is 20 NM from the beacon and indicates the last
calculated GND speed and correct it for the slant range at 20 NM
until the A/C pass another 20 NM on the other side of the beacon.

۷٦
Distance measuring equipment (DME)
Indicator

۷۷
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
DME CTL PNL
 If the DME function knob is in the normal (DME) position
distance indication up to 199 miles will be given for VOR
stations and up to 50 miles will be given to ILS stations

۷۸
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
DME CTL PNL
 If the knob in the override position distances up to 199
miles will be given for localizer stations.

۷۹
 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
DME CTL PNL
 When the knob in test position flag , blank ,and 000.0
indication appear in succession in one type of DME.

۸۰
Distance measuring equipment (DME)
Indicator

۸۱
Distance measuring equipment (DME)
Indicator

۸۲
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۸۳
 Global positioning system (GPS).
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

ATC
COMMUNICATION

۸٤
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 Function:

 Air traffic control radar beacon (ATCRBS) system allows controllers

to track airplane movement on ground radar displays.

 The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is:

• to separate aircraft to prevent collisions.
• to organize the flow of traffic.
• to provide information and other support for pilots when able to.

 The GND station monitor the A/Cs identification and altitude and
computes its range, bearing and airspeed.

۸٥
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۸٦
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 Function:
 The ATC ground station has both Primary and secondary Surveillance
Radar antennas mounted on the same rotating mounting, and therefore
both always pointed in the same direction at the same time.

۸۷
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 PSR (Primary Surveillance Radar):

 The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) is a primary radar uses the

echo principle and search light principle to determine range and
bearing of aircrafts .

 The PSR used by the ATC ground station provides the operator with a
symbol on his surveillance radar scope for every aircraft in his area.

 It does not require any response from the aircraft.

 The PSR disadvantage is the lack of individual aircraft identification.

۸۸
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۸۹
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):

 The secondary Surveillance Radar (PSR) uses what called “ATC

transponder” in the aircraft.

 The ATC transponder is a transmitter/receiver which transmits in

response to an interrogation from the ground station secondary
surveillance radar antenna.

 The aircraft transponder replies to this interrogation by transmitting a

reply signal consisting of an identification code given to him by the
ground station operator which identifies his particular aircraft on the
scope (Mode A).
۹۰
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR interrogations:

 To differentiate between the interrogations three pulses (P1. P2, and P3)
are always transmitted by the ground station.

 The spacing between P1 and P3

is different according to the mode
of interrogation.

۹۱
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)

Wednesday, September 26, ۹۲

2018
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
8µ SEC
P1 P3
P2

MODE “A” IDENTITY ONLY

21 µ SEC
P1 P3
P2

MODE “C” ALTITUDE

۹۳
12th February 2007 INTERROGATION PULSES ۹۳
 NO REPLY P1 REPLY P3
P2 P2
P1 P3

SIDELOBES

DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA MAIN
BEAM (P1 & P3)

OMNI ROTATION
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA (P2)
۹٤

SIDELOBE SUPPRESSION
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 ATC transponder reply:

۹٥
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 ATC transponder reply:
 On receiving a valid interrogation the aircraft transponder transmits
two framing pulses.
 Between the framing pulses there are 12 usable information pulses.
 There are 2^12= 4096 possible combinations of pulses.

 Mode A reply:

 The transponder transmit one of the 4096 possible identification

codes which was given to him by the operator by selecting the four
figure code (numbers) on the control panel (one from 0000 to 7777).
۹٦
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 ATC transponder reply:

 A further pulse the special position identification (SPI) pulse maybe

transmitted when the “ident” button is pressed at the ATC’s request.

 Mode C reply:
 The transponder transmit one of the 4096 codes regardless of the code
selected in the window. This code corresponds to its height.

 Note:
The aircraft replies only if the aircraft is equipped with a transponder
of the same mode as interrogation and the pilot selected this mode.

۹۷
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):

 Up on the ATC ground station request called “Squawk ident.”, the

pilot presses “the ident” button on the control panel. This causes the
display on the radar scope to change so that operator can be positive
of the aircraft particular location.
 The aircraft transponder can also transmit aircraft altitude which can
then be displayed to the ground station operator (Mode C).
 Up on the ATC ground station request “State the flight level.”, the
pilot state the flight level.
 If on verification, there is a difference of more than + or – 300ft
between flight level had been sent and the stated flight level, the pilot
will normally be instructed to switch off mode C.
۹۸
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۹۹
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 Special codes:

1- 7700: to indicate emergency condition.

2- 7600: to indicate a radio failure.

3- 7500: to indicate Hi-jack.

4- 2000: to ask for an identification code when entering a new

airspace.

۱۰۰
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 Mode S “Selective addressing”

 Mode S is being introduced in order to overcome the limitations of the

present modes A and C.
 The aircraft address code will be made up of 24 bits (about 16.700.000
codes) available for allocation to aircrafts on a permanent basis.
 The system will be supported by ground data network so can provide
ground to air, air to ground, air to air data exchange.

 The interrogator (SSR ground station) uses “all call” interrogations to

interrogate aircrafts.

 It can be “mode S/ATCRBS all call” or mode “mode S only all call”
۱۰۱
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 Mode S “Selective addressing”

 The mode S equipped aircraft replies with a squitter message

contains its specific mode S address.

 The SSR ground station replies to a squitter message by mode S

interrogation with the mode S address of the interrogated A/C
(Selective).

 When a mode S intruder detects an interrogation with its

address called “discrete interrogation” . It replies according to
the interrogation.
Wednesday, September 26, ۱۰۲
2018
 INTERROGATION PULSE ATCRBS ATCRBS/MODE S
TRANSPONDERS TRANSPONDERS
(mode A & C)
P1 P3
P2
REPLY
REPLY
ATCRBS
P1 P3 P4
P2
REPLY NO REPLY

P1 P3 P4 REPLY MODE S
P2
REPLY (UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)

P1 P2 P5 P6
REPLY MODE S
NO REPLY (UNLESS LOCKED
OUT)
P1 P2 P5 P6 ONLY MODE S
NO REPLY DISCREETLY
ADDRESSED
REPLIES

۱۰۳

INTERROGATION SIGNALS
 Air traffic transponder (ATC)
 SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar):
 Frequency:
 The ground station transmits/interrogates on 1030 MHZ and
receives on 1090 MHZ.
 The aircraft receives on 1030 MHZ and transmits on 1090 MHZ.
 The SSR ground station transmits a narrow (unidirectional)
beam with a rotating antenna.
 The aircraft transmits Omni-directionally.
 The transponder switches between the top and bottom antenna
according to the characteristics of the received signals.

۱۰٤
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۱۰٥
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

Transponder (Aircraft)

RECEIVER DECODER

CONTROL
ENCODER
PANEL
DUPLEXER

AIR DATA
COMPUTER

TRANSMITTER MODULATOR Code/ altitude

information

۱۰٦
TO SUPPRESSOR BUS
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۱۰۷
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

ATC (2x2)

۱۰۸
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۱۰۹
Air traffic transponder (ATC)

۱۱۰
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۱۱۱
 Global positioning system (GPS).
(TCAS)

۱۱۲
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

TCAS
COMMUNICATION

 TCAS operates on the secondary surveillance radar (SSR)

principle using the normal SSR frequencies of 1030 and 1090
MHZ but in an air to air role.

۱۱۳
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Function:
 Detects any aircraft equipped with transponder flying in its
vicinity.
 Display potential and predicted collision targets.
 Issues vertical orders to avoid conflict.
Note:
- TCAS II never offers collision avoidance commands in horizontal
plane. Only in the form of descent or climb.
- For future development, TCAS III requires the accurate tracking
of an intruder to enable avoidance to be carried out in the
horizontal plane as well as the vertical plane.
۱۱٤
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

INTRUDER
AIRCRAFT 2700ft

30NM

2700ft

 TCAS II detection capability is limited to intruders flying

within a range of 30 NM and a relative altitude of +-2700 ft.
۱۱٥
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:
 TCAS system continuously interrogates the SSR transponder of
other aircraft in the vicinity.

 From the received information TCAS computes range, bearing,

range rate of change, relative altitude of the intruder and display
predicted and potential collision threats to the flight crew.

 The range of the other aircraft is determined (as in DME) by

using echo principle.

 The relative altitude can only be determined for mode C and

mode S equipped aircrafts By computing the barometric altitude
difference using the intruder received altitude information.
۱۱٦
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:

 The relative bearing of the transponder replies are determined

automatically using directional antennas (search light principle).

 Antenna consists of four independent elements.

 In reception the amplitude of the signals received by each

element depends on the direction of the signal source which
permits the relative bearing of the transmitting aircraft to be
determined.

 In transmission the antenna is considered. as Omni-directional

antenna as it transmits constant power in all directions
۱۱۷
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۱۸
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Tracking:

 The intruders are tracked by a series of interrogation/replies.

 These exchanges permit the TCAS to update the altitude, range,

bearing for each intruder and to compute the range rate of
change, altitude rate variations.

 Each threat is treated individually but the TCAS determines the

best collision avoidance possibility with respect to all aircraft in
its vicinity.

 These data are used to determine the time separating the two
aircrafts from their closest point to approach (CPA).
۱۱۹
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

 Time to intercept (TAU):

The TCAS does not need to locate the CPA in space, but rather it
needs to know the time to intercept for two aircraft.

TIME TO GO TO
3600 X SLANT RANGE (NM)
TAU (sec) = = CLOSEST POINT OF
CLOSING SPEED (kts) APPROACH

۱۲۰
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Aircraft with mode S transponder:
 The TCAS listens for squitter message transmitted by mode S
equipped aircraft every second.
 A squitter message contains its specific mode S address.
 The TCAS replies to a squitter message by mode S discrete
interrogation with the mode S address of the interrogated A/C
(Selective).
 When a mode S intruder detects an interrogation with its
address. It replies according to the interrogation.
 The mode S intruders are tracked one by one (after locking-out
each) by their mode S address.
۱۲۱
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۲۲
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:

 Aural and visual advisories are provided to the flight

crew to assure adequate separation when the system
predict an intruder penetration into the protected
airspace..

 Two type of advisories are provided:

1) traffic alert (TA).

2) Resolution advisory (RA)

۱۲۳
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۲٤
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:

1) traffic advisory (TA):

 Provides the flight crew with the relative bearing and distance to
intruding aircraft that approximately 40 seconds from CPA.
 No maneuvers are commanded.

2) Resolution advisory (RA):

 Either corrective or preventive will provide threat resolution
information in the form of a vertical maneuvers (corrective) or
restricted vertical speed ranges (preventive).
۱۲٥
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:
 The RA advisory will increase aircraft separation when the
threat aircraft is within approximately 25 seconds from CPA.
a) Preventive advisory:

- This is an RA that occurs when the TCAS has determined

that a threat exists but the current vertical speed will result
in adequate separation from the intruder to avoid the threat.

- The advisory occurs when the intruder is within 100 to 900 ft

relative altitude.

- The flight crew should monitor their aircraft vertical speed.

۱۲٦
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Principle of operation:

 b) corrective advisory:
- This is an RA that occurs when the TCAS has determined
that the flight crew should take action to avoid conflict where
the aircraft is operating at a vertical speed will result in a threat.

- The advisory occurs when the intruder is within 300 ft relative

altitude.

- The TCAS will provide the crew with a recommended vertical

speed, either climb or descent to avoid collision.
۱۲۷
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۲۸
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

FORBIDDEN VERTICAL SPEED (V/S)

‘FLY TO’ V/S

۱۲۹
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Note:

 When a resolution advisory occurred between two TCAS

equipped aircraft, a maneuver coordination message will be
transmitted to the intruding aircraft via the mode S transponder.
 This allows both TCAS equipped aircraft to coordinate the
resolution advisory to avoid both aircraft performing the same
maneuver.

 The first detecting TCAS will decide the maneuvers coordination

 If each TCAS detects the other one at the same time, the lowest
mode S address has the priority.
۱۳۰
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 Visual Indication:

- Four types of symbols, differentiated by both shape and color,

are used to display traffic around your own aircraft. The
different symbols represent:

 Other traffic
 Proximate traffic
 Traffic alert (TA)
 Resolution advisory (RA)
۱۳۱
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 Resolution advisory (RA) Traffic

 These symbols are displayed as a solid red square. They

represent aircraft that have become a threat and are within
approximately 25 seconds from CPA.

۱۳۲
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 Traffic Alert (TA) traffic

 These aircraft are displayed as a yellow or amber solid circle.

They represent aircraft that are approximately 40 seconds from
CPA.

 No maneuvers are commanded by the TCAS during this time.

 Traffic alert traffic may be upgraded to resolution advisory

traffic, depending upon its continued flight path.

۱۳۳
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 Proximate Traffic
 These aircraft are displayed as a white solid diamond. They
represent those aircraft within ± 1200 feet, relative altitude, and
within the selected traffic display range.
 These aircraft are not considered a threat, but will always be
displayed when a TA or an RA is present.

 Other Traffic
 These aircraft are displayed as a white open diamond. They
represent those aircraft within ± 2700 feet relative altitude, and
within the selected traffic display range.
 The TCAS does not consider Other traffic as a threat.
۱۳٤
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)

 Arrow to the right of the symbol indicating the vertical trend of

the target.

 Data tag consisting of digital data and + or – sign indicating the

barometric alt diff between two aircrafts in hundreds of feet.

+11

۱۳٥
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

INTRUDERS

OTHER TRAFFIC

PROXIMATE TRAFFIC

TRAFFIC ADVISORY
RESOLUTION ADVISORY

۱۳٦
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۳۷
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱۳۸
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:

۱۳۹
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:
 Traffic alert annunciation

“TRAFFIC,TRAFFIC,TRAFFIC” traffic has entered 45 second

envelope (symbol has changed to solid yellow circle)

 Resolution advisory annunciation

“MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED, MONITOR VERTICAL

SPEED” monitor present vertical speed to prevent entering
restricted (red arc) speed….Preventive action
- means that’s the aircraft can fly in the grey area (no green
area) without risk of conflict.
۱٤۰
Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)

۱٤۱
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:
 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)

“ ADJUST VETRICAL SPEED, ADJUST”

- require the pilot to reduce the vertical rate of the aircraft, i.e. to climb
more slowly, or to descend more slowly, or to level off. The required
vertical rate is indicated on the RA display. shown by the green arc on
the VSI.

“ MAINTAIN VETRICAL SPEED, MAINTAIN”

- Maintain the current vertical speed shown by the green arc on the VSI.

“ MAINTAIN VETRICAL SPEED, CROSSING MAINTAIN”

- Maintain the current vertical speed shown by the green arc on the VSI,
indicated that you will cross through the intruder altitude.

۱٤۲
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:

 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)

“ CLIMB, CLIMB, CLIMB. ”
- Climb at the rate shown by the green arc on the VSI

“ CLIMB, CROSSING CLIMB, CLIMB, CROSSING CLIMB. ”

- As above except that flight path will cross through that of the
intruder

“ REDUCE CLIMB, REDUCE CLIMB. ”

- Reduce rate of climb to that shown on VSI
Wednesday, September 26, ۱٤۳
2018
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:

 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)

“ DESCEND, DESCEND, DESCEND” (-1500 ft/mn)
- Descend at the rate shown by the green arc on the VSI

“ DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND, DESCEND, CROSSING

DESCEND”
- As above except that flight path will cross through that of the
intruder
“ REDUCE DESCENT, REDUCE DESCENT”
- Reduce rate of decent to that shown on VSI
۱٤٤
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:

 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)

 An increase advisory, either climb or descend at 2500 fpm to

3000 fpm, will occur if the previous 1500 fpm to 2000 fpm rate
of climb/descent is no longer adequate.

 This display will be accompanied by an audio annunciation of

“INCREASE CLIMB; INCREASE CLIMB” or “ INCREASE
DESCENT; INCREASE DESCENT,” as appropriate for the
advisory.
۱٤٥
Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)

۱٤٦
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:
 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)
 Alternately a reversal advisory
- A climb advisory after a descend advisory, or a descend
advisory after a climb advisory – will occur if the TCAS system
determines that the initial advisory should be reversed for
adequate separation.

 Reversal advisory displays are accompanied by an audio

annunciation of :
- “Climb-Climb Now; Climb-Climb Now” follows “descend” advisory
- “Descend-Descend Now; Descend-Descend Now,” follows “climb”
advisory. ۱٤۷
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS aural messages:
 Resolution advisory annunciation (ctd.)

 “CLEAR OF CONFLICT” When the range of the intruder

aircraft responsible for causing an RA begins to increase, the
conflict is considered to be resolved.

 If more than one intruder is causing an RA, the clear-of-conflict

message will not be annunciated until all conflicts are resolved.

۱٤۸
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)
 Synthetic voice prioritization:

 Modern aircraft use a synthetic voice to give warning advice to the

crew. The synthetic voice is prioritized as follows:

1- Stall
2- Windshear
3- GPWS
4- TCAS
۱٤۹
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
Intruder
Example Conflict Scenario (TCAS II Equipped)

TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC

CLIMB, CLIMB

DESCEND, DESCEND
TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC CLEAR OF CONFLICT

Conflict

Ownship
(TCAS II Equipped)

۱٥۰
CLEAR OF CONFLICT
VSI TCAS INDICATIONS
۱٥۱
VSI TCAS INDICATIONS
۱٥۲
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
(TCAS)

۱٥۳
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
 TCAS components:

1- One TCAS computer

2- Upper and lower directional TCAS antenna .
3- ATC/TCAS control panel
4- Two mode S ATC transponders (One active and other
is standby)
5- Indicator

۱٥٥
TCAS TOP ANTENNA

TCAS
۱٥٦
۱٥۷
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۱٥۸
 Global positioning system (GPS).
Airborne weather radar (AWR)

۱٥۹
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Function:
 The airborne weather radar is used to provide the pilots with
information regarding weather ahead to avoid turbulent areas
as well as used as a back-up navigation.

 The main functions of an AWR are to:

- Detects the size of water droplets and hence indicate where the
areas of turbulence are within the cloud.
- Provides the range and bearing (azimuth) of these areas.
- Map the terrain below the aircraft to provide navigational
information.
۱٦۰
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Principles of operation:
 AWR is a primary radar use the echo principle to determine
range and the searchlight principle to determine relative bearing
of the targets.

 Frequency:
 9375 MHz – SHF band.

 The optimum radar frequency is one that has a wavelength

comparable to the size of the objects which we wish to detect,
namely the large water droplets which associated with severe
turbulence which about 3 cm across.
۱٦۱
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Modes of operation:
1- Normal mode: the difference between very turbulent cloud
and less turbulent cloud is the difference between the intensity
of the target paint on the screen.

2- Contour mode: selected for a black and white display. An iso-

echo circuitry used to invert the target signal above a given
level.

- This results in particularly turbulent cloud painting on the

screen with a black hole in the middle, the hole indicating the
area of intense turbulence like a heavy rainfall or storm centers.
۱٦۲
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Normal mode:

۱٦۳
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Normal mode:

۱٦٤
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Contour mode:

۱٦٥
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Contour mode:

۱٦٦
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Modes of operation:
- In both normal and contour modes the radiated beam is a
pencil beam (horizontally polarized).

3- Map mode: used to provide a presentation of the ground

surface.
- The transmitted power is progressively reduced as distance
decreases so that the power directed to the closest object is
minimum.
- This reduction in power with decreasing range is a function
of the cosecant (csc^2) cos of the depression angle - hence the
name cosecant beam also called fan-shaped beam (vertically
polarized).
۱٦۷
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Modes of operation:

۱٦۸
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Modes of operation:
- A spoiler grid in the antenna will cause the beam to be fanned-
out forming a fan beam.

۱٦۹
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)

 System components:
 Transceiver.
 Waveguide.
 Antenna.
 Control panel.
 Indicator.

۱۷۰
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Transceiver:

 for the transmission and reception of µw energy. The

transceiver operates in the X-band frequency at 9345 MHZ.

 It uses the principle of radio echoing to detect the concentration

of the moisture and the principle of Doppler effect to detect the
turbulence areas.

۱۷۱
Airborne weather radar (AWR)

۱۷۲
۱۷۳
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Waveguide:

 It is a standard rectangular section. It connects the µw energy

radiated by the transmitter to the antenna.

 In dual system installation a waveguide switch is used to select

the transceiver to be connected to the antenna.

۱۷٤
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Antenna:

 the antenna is located at the nose of the airplane covered by the

nose radome.
 The antenna has +,- 90 degree scan in azimuth direction.

 The antenna has a tilt (elevation) coverage of +,- 15 degree with

¼ degree step.

۱۷٥
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Antenna:

 The antenna is stabilized in pitch and roll to maintain antenna

position relative to the earth’s horizon regardless of aircraft
attitude variations.

 Stabilization data are:

1- Aircraft pitch and roll angle.

2- Selected tilt angle.
3- Antenna azimuth and elevation angles.
۱۷٦
۱۷۷
Weather radar
antenna

۱۷۸
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Control panel (For monochrome screen weather radar):

۱۷۹
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Control panel (For colored screen weather radar):

 System switch (SYS): to energize the

transceiver.
۱۸۰
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Control panel (For colored screen weather radar):
 Mode selector switch:

- WX: normal mode of operation.

- WX/TURB (contour mode of monochrome system is replaced
by this mode): operation in weather and turbulence detection.
- Map : is useful for back-up navigation.

 Gain knob : permits receiver sensitivity adjustment in different

modes.
Note: Manual gain control is recommended when in map mode.

۱۸۱
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Control panel (For colored screen weather radar):

 TILT knob : allows manual control of antenna

elevation (also called tilt angle).

 The elevation angle can be adjusted in 0.25 degree step

within a range of –15 degree up to +15 degree.

۱۸۲
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Indicator panel (For monochrome screen weather radar):

۱۸۳
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Indicator (For colored screen weather radar):

۱۸٤
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Indicator (For colored screen weather radar):

۱۸٥
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Indicator Control panel (For colored screen weather
radar):

 The targets appear as colored areas

WX: depending Low
onintensity
the level
of the received signal.

High intensity
 For Weather:

 Black : for very light targets (no returns).

 Green : for light targets.
 Yellow : for moderate targets.
 Red : for heavy targets that should be avoided.
۱۸٦
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
 Indicator (For colored screen weather radar):

MAP: Water

Ground

For map:
Cities, mountains


 Black : for water.

 Green : for ground.
 Yellow : for cities and mountains.
۱۸۷
 Airborne weather radar (AWR)
Antenna position
PITCH
ATTITUDE
ROLL
ATTITUDE STAB AMPS ANTENNA STAB
CKTS
VG
POWER
TILT CONTROL
MAP OFF RF
STBY
NORM
MODE CONTROL
CTR AZIMUTH POSITION

TEST
ANTENNA
IF GAIN
ASSEMBLY

CONTROL PANEL

۱۸۸
TRANSCEIVER
INDICATOR
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۱۸۹
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Function:
 The GPWS is used to alert the flight crew to the existence of an
unsafe condition due to terrain proximity.

 The system operates between 50 and 2450 feet actual height above the
surface (radio altitude) and automatically selects the correct mode of
operation.

 The GPWS modes are annunciated to the flight crew by means of

aural messages and aural indications.

۱۹۰
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Modes of operation:

 Mode 1: Excessive descent rate with respect to terrain clearance

 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising terrain

 Mode 3: Excessive barometric altitude loss during climb-out (or GA)

 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is not in

proper landing configuration

 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when making a

front course approach with the gear down
۱۹۱
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 1: Excessive descent rate with respect to terrain
clearance

۱۹۲
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 1: Excessive descent rate with respect to terrain
clearance

- This mode is independent of aircraft configuration (landing gear and

flap positions).

- Mode 1 indications occur when the barometric altitude rate exceeds

threshold value (1000 ft/min).

- Mode 1 envelope is divided into two areas:

- The initial penetration area aural alert “Sink rate”
- The inner area aural warning “Pull up”
۱۹۳
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 1: Excessive descent rate with respect to terrain
clearance

۱۹٤
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising terrain

۱۹٦
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising terrain

- This mode monitors Mach number (or airspeed), radio altitude rate of
change (closure rate), aircraft configuration and barometric altitude.

- Mode 2 indications occur when the closure rate exceeds threshold value
(2000 ft/min)

- This mode consists of two submodes:

- Mode 2A if the flaps are not down 25
- Mode 2B if the flaps are down 25 or more (landing configuration)

۱۹۷
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising
terrain

- Mode 2A (the flaps are not down 25):

1- If airspeed < 190 kts the upper boundary is 1650 ft (RA)

2- If airspeed > 250 kts the upper boundary is 2450 ft (RA)

3- If 250 kts > airspeed > 250 kts the upper boundary is varies
according to an airspeed expansion function

۱۹۸
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising
terrain
- Mode 2A (the flaps are not down 25):
- Mode 2A envelope is divided into two areas:

- The initial penetration area aural alert “Terrain terrain”.

- The inner area aural warning “Pull up” and it will continue
until the aircraft has gained 300 feet of barometric altitude or
when the landing gear is lowered.

۱۹۹
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising terrain
- Mode 2A:

۲۰۰
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 2: Excessive closure rate with respect to rising
terrain
- Mode 2B (the flaps are down 25 or more “landing
configuration”):
- Mode 2B is an advisory only mode (no “Pull-up” aural message).

- Mode 2B aural alert is “Terrain Terrain”

- Mode 2B indications occur between 789 ft and down to 200-600 ft

depending on the barometric rate of descent.

۲۰۲
Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)

۲۰۳
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 3: Excessive barometric altitude loss after take off

۲۰٤
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 3: Excessive barometric altitude loss during climb-
out (in take-off or go-around)

- This mode applies to Excessive barometric altitude loss after take off
(if the flaps are less than 25 degree or the landing gear is raised) or
below 200 feet during a missed approach.
- Mode 3 is effective between 50 ft and 700 ft radio altitude.
- Mode 3 does not arm during the descent until below 200 ft radio
altitude in landing configuration (flaps down more than 25 and
landing gear down).
- Mode 3 indications occur when the barometric altitude loss exceeds
threshold value (10 % of the current altitude).
۲۰٥
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 3: Excessive barometric altitude loss during climb-out
(in take-off or go-around)

- This mode is disabled after climb above 700 ft during take-off and only
armed again during descent below 200ft.

- This mode is an advisory only mode (no “Pull-up” aural message).

- Mode 3 aural alert is “DON’T SINK”

۲۰٦
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 3: Excessive barometric altitude loss after take off

۲۰۷
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is not
in proper landing configuration

۲۰۹
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is
not in proper landing configuration

- This mode alerts the crew about insufficient terrain clearance when the
aircraft not in proper landing configuration based on radio altitude,
airspeed, rate of descent and aircraft configuration.

- This mode is armed above 700 ft so mode 3 and mode 4 are mutually
exclusive.

- This mode is an advisory only mode (no “Pull-up” aural message).

۲۱۰
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is not
in proper landing configuration

- This mode consists of two submodes:

- Mode 4A if the Landing gear is up
- Mode 4B if the landing gear is down but the flaps are less than 25
degree

- Each submode envelope is divided into two advisory areas ; one for low
airspeeds, and the other for high airspeeds.

۲۱۱
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is
not in proper landing configuration

- Mode 4A (the Landing gear is up):

- Mode 4A envelope is divided into two advisory areas:

- The low airspeed area aural alert “Too low…gear” and radio
altitude threshold is 500 ft.
- The high airspeed area aural alert “Too low…terrain” and
radio altitude threshold is 1000 ft.
.
۲۱۲
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4A (the Landing gear is up ):

۲۱۳
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4: Insufficient terrain clearance when the aircraft is
not in proper landing configuration

- Mode 4B (the landing gear is down but the flaps are less
than 25 degree):

- Mode 4B envelope is divided into two advisory areas:

- The low airspeed area aural alert “Too low…flaps” and radio
altitude threshold is 200 ft.
- The high airspeed area aural alert “Too low…terrain” and
radio altitude threshold is 1000 ft.
.
۲۱٤
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 4B (the landing gear is down but the flaps are less than
25 degree):

۲۱٥
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when
making a front course approach with the gear down

۲۱۷
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when
making a front course approach with the gear down

- This mode is inhibited during back-course landing condition.

- This mode is armed when a valid signal is being received by the glide
slope receiver and the radio altitude is 1000 ft or less and the gear is
down.

- This mode may be cancelled or inhibited by pressing G/S INHB switch

while below 1000 ft radio altitude and it will re-armed automatically
when climbing above 1000 ft or descending below 50 ft.

۲۱۸
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when
making a front course approach with the gear down

- This mode is an advisory only mode (no “Pull-up” aural message).

- Mode 5 envelope is divided into two areas:

- The initial penetration area results in a low-level aural
annunciation “Glide Slope”.
- The inner area results in a normal-level aural annunciation
“Glide Slope”.

- The sound level in normal-level area is the same as in modes 1 to 4, and

it is six decibels lower in the low-level area
۲۱۹
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when
making a front course approach with the gear down

- The low-level advisory area indications: occur below 1000 ft and

down to 50 ft radio altitude. When the glide slope deviation exceed
1.3 dots.
- The normal-level advisory area indications: occur below 300 ft and
down to 50 ft radio altitude. When the glide slope deviation
exceed 2 dots.
- Mode 1 to 4 aural alerts and warnings have priority over mode 5
aural alerts.
۲۲۰
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
 Mode 5: Excessive deviation below the glide path when
making a front course approach with the gear down

۲۲۱
 Ground proximity warning system
(GPWS)
Computed airspeed

Barometric altitude

Barometric altitude rate

Radio altitude
GPWC
Glideslope deviation

Flap position

L/G position

۲۲۳
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)
 Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS):

- EGPWS was introduced to overcome the disadvantages of the basic

GPWS.
 The GPWS disadvantages:

1- Short warning time to potential impact with terrain.

- GPWS does not “look ahead” so any mode 2 warning when flight is
towards high ground will be dependent on the steepness of the terrain.

2- Minimal advice generated (no visual warning).

۲۲٤
 ۲۲٥
12th February 2007 ۲۲٥
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)
 The EGPWS Enhanced features:
 Terrain awareness alerting and display (TAD):
- This uses an terrain database giving the ground elevation with respect
to aircraft position.
- When the envelope boundaries are met, these alerts are generated:

- Terrain caution alert “Caution Terrain”.

- Terrain warning alert “Terrain Terrain, Pull up”.
- These alerts are completed by a terrain image on the display.
- Green, yellow and red indicates terrains not only below the
aircraft but also ahead of its flight path.
۲۲٦
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)

۲۲۷
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)

۲۲۸
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)
 The EGPWS Enhanced features:
 Terrain clearness floor (TCF):
- This alerts the crew to possible premature descent for non-precision
approaches regardless of the aircraft configuration.
- It uses the present aircraft position with respect to the runway and the
aircraft radio altitude.
- The TCF alert function complements the existing mode 4
(also called mode 4C).
- When TCF alert envelope is penetrated. “Too low Terrain” is
broadcasted.
۲۲۹
Enhanced Ground proximity warning system
(EGPWS)

۲۳۰
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۲۳۲
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Automatic direction finder
 Function: (ADF)
 Automatic direction finder (ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in
conjunction non-directional beacon (NDB) on the ground to provide
an aid for navigation and non-precision approaches to airfields .
 The ADF measures the bearing of a NDB relative to the aircraft.
 Used when VOR information is invalid.

 Frequency:

 It operates in LF and MF band (190 KHz to 1750 KHz) – ground

waves.
 It includes both standard AM radio stations (550 to 1610 KHz) and
the NDBs (190 to 550 KHz).
۲۳۳
 ADF

NDB

۲۳٤
AIRCRAFT RELATIVE
MAGNETIC BEARING
HEADING TO ADF
BEACON
88º
NDB

۲۳٥

ADF DISPLAY
 Automatic direction finder
(ADF)
 Relative bearing:

۲۳٦
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
MAGNETIC NORTH
NDB 2
NDB 1
QDM
300° HEADING QDM
30° 60°

RELATIVE
BEARINGS

Magnetic bearing to station (QDM) = Magnetic heading (MHDG) + Relative bearing

۲۳۷

ADF BEARINGS
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 Non directional beacon (NDB):

 The Non directional Beacon is a ground based transmitter which

transmits omni-directinally vertically polarized radio signal.

۲۳۸
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:
1- loop and sense antennas.
2- receiver.
3- control panel and indicator.

 Loop antenna theory:

 The NDB transmits radio signal which induces voltages in vertical
elements A and B.

۲۳۹
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:

 Loop antenna theory:

 If the loop antenna is lying across the

path of incoming signal, the voltages
induced in elements A and B are equal
and vary with incoming signal with
same rate.

 Because an electric current only flows

when a voltage difference occurs,
no current flows.
۲٤۰
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:

 Loop antenna theory:

 If the loop antenna is aligned the

path of incoming signal, one vertical
element of the loop is further from the
NDB than the other, so a phase difference
exists between the two sides of the loop.

 the result is that the voltages induced in

elements A and B are different and
an electric current flows.
۲٤۱
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:

 Loop antenna theory:

The magnitude of current induced into such a coil will be very small.
This problem is overcome by using many thousands of coils.

Wednesday, September 26, ۲٤۲

2018
 LOOP AERIAL
AT 90° TO SIGNAL

NO INCREASING NO INCREASING NO
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT

RADIO TRANSMITTER
۲٤۳

ADF LOOP AERIAL OPERATION

 ROTATABLE
LOOP AERIAL

CURRENT CURRENT
FLOWS FLOWS

RADIO TRANSMITTER
۲٤٤

ADF LOOP AERIAL OPERATION

 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:

 Loop antenna theory:

 If the signal strengths received by a loop antenna were plotted as a

transmitter moved around the antenna, it will represent a “figure of
eight” polar diagram.

۲٤٥
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:
 Loop antenna theory:

 As shown there are two peaks at A and C and two nulls at B and D
(loop antenna is a directional antenna).

 The two nulls are sharp and well-defined and the two peaks are broad
and hard to define. This is the reason why the direction of the
transmitting station can be discovered accurately by finding a null in
the loop antenna.

 By finding the null in the loop antenna, the NDB station may be at
0 or 180 degrees.

 The direction of the station from the receiving antenna is ambiguous,

because there is no way of telling whether it is to one side or other of
the pair of antenna. To solve the ambiguity, a sense antenna is added.
۲٤٦
 LOOP AERIAL
AT 90° TO SIGNAL

THIS WAY OR THIS WAY

TO NDB? TO NDB?

SENSE
AERIAL

ADF LOOP AERIAL OPERATION ۲٤۷

 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:
 Loop antenna theory:
The resultant signal (through the transformer primary) is very nearly
90 degree out of phase with the signal in either vertical antennas.

۲٤۸
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:
- Sense antenna:
 The function of the sense antenna is to eliminate the ambiguity of
loop by distinguishing between signals received from one side of the
loop and signals received from the other side of the loop.

 Sense antenna is an Omni-directional antenna designed so that the

received signal produces an current of the same strength as the
maximum current in the loop.

 The phase of the induced current signal in the sense antenna is 90

degree out of phase in one direction or the other with the signal
received on the vertical elements of the loop antenna.
۲٤۹
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF components:
- The ADF receiver:
 If the signal from the loop antenna is fed to the receiver and phase
shifted by 90 degree. The loop signal will be either in phase or 180
degree out of phase with the signal from the sense antenna.

 So it is possible to know which way to turn

the loop to point a particular face toward
the transmitting station.

۲٥۰
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF receiver:

 If the 90 degree phase shifted loop antenna signal is in phase with

the sense antenna signal, we will turn the loop in one direction
toward the desired null.

 If the 90 degree phase shifted loop antenna signal is 180 degree out
of phase with the sense antenna signal, we will turn the loop in other
direction toward the desired null.

 This is done by manually rotating the loop antenna.

۲٥۱
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF receiver:

 The combined polar diagrams of the sense and loop antennas will
depend on algebraic sum of their signs and forms a polar diagram in
the shape of cardioid (heart shaped).

 Suppose that the NDB is at D. The loop

antenna senses a null, which means that
the NDB must either be at B or D.

 Rotating the loop anti-clockwise the

combined polar diagram will rotate with it
and signal strength will increase.
۲٥۲
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF receiver:

 If the NDB were at position B, the reverse would be true and the
signal strength will decrease.

 Suppose that we always rotating the loop

antenna anti-clockwise, if the rotation
produces a stronger signal, the bearing is
correct (the NDB were at position D),
however if produces weaker signal the
bearing is reciprocal.
۲٥۳
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF receiver:

 Hence, the bearing of the NDB can be found by firstly locating the
nulls by manually rotating the loop antenna with the sense antenna
output switched off then the sense antenna output is switched in to
modify the polar diagram to the cardioid shape.

 Then rotating the loop antenna by about 10 deg which causes the
cardioid polar diagram to rotate and listening to the strength of the
received signal which either increase or decrease depending on the
direction of the NDB.

۲٥٤
 Automatic direction finder (ADF)
 The ADF with non rotating loop:

 It is not feasible to have a rotating loop outside the aircraft so the

ADF using a fixed loop.

 The fixed loop is preferred because it is more nearly trouble free due
to fewer moving parts.

 The fixed loop consists of two loops oriented 90 degree to each other.

 Each loop is connected to an individual stator of a receiving resolver

in the ADF receiver.

 The position of the received NDB station would determine the

position of the resultant field in the stator of the resolver.
۲٥٥
 SENSE
ANTENNA AUDIO
FWD

90° BALANCED AUDIO

MIXER
SHIFT MODULATOR DETECTOR

A
RS 47Hz 47Hz
OSC FILTER
BRINGS THE LOOP SIGNAL
MIXES THE SENSE AND
B MODULATES THE LOOP
EITHER IN PHASE OR 180° SIGNALS
LOOP
SIGNAL DETECTS THE LOOP
OUT OFWITH
PHASEANWITH
AUDIOTHE
FREQUENCY AUDIO SIGNAL
SENSE AERIAL SIGNAL
ADF TX (EASIER
M TOPHASE DETECTOR
DETECT ONLY ALLOWS
47Hz
& MODULATOR THE 47Hz SIGNAL
ANTENNA PHASE SHIFT WITH AF) or
TO PASS

ADF RECEIVER
DETERMINES THE
DIRECTION TO
TURN THE POINTER
AC SUPPLY
RMI TR TO POINT TO THE
BEACON

ADF SYSTEM SCHEMATIC ۲٥٦

۲٥۷
 ۲٥۸
12th February 2007 ۲٥۸
Automatic direction finder (ADF)

۲٥۹
Automatic direction finder (ADF)

۲٦۰

RBI – RMI displays

Automatic direction finder (ADF)

۲٦۱
ADF antennas
Automatic direction finder (ADF)

ADF antennas ۲٦۲

Automatic direction finder (ADF)

When selected produces an offset frequency within the receiver

which when combined with the received frequency of the Keyed
carrier wave produces a tone of 1020 Hz.

The advantage of using this keyed carried wave is that all the power
is contained in the carrier wave, and none in the modulating wave.
۲٦۳

Radio Management panel (RMP)۲٦۳

 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۲٦٤
 Global positioning system (GPS).
VOR

۲٦٥
 VHF Omni-directional range
 Function: (VOR)
 The VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) was adopted by ICAO as the
standard short range navigation aid.

 As apposed to the NDB, which transmits a non-directional signal, the

signal transmitted by the VOR contains directional information.

 The VOR provides the aircraft with the bearing to VOR station (QDM)
and aircraft position with respect to, and deviation from, a selected
course.
 Frequency:
 VHF band – 40 channels (108 : 112 MHz) with 50 KHz spacing using
the even first decimals (108.00, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25...111.85 MHz)
 VHF band – 120 channels (112.00 : 117.95 MHz) with 50 KHz spacing
۲٦٦
VOR Ground station

۲٦۷
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)
 FOUR TERMS ARE USED IN VOR NAVIGATION:

1 - RADIAL
2 - BEARING
3 - COURSE
4 - HEADING
۲٦۸
 000º

045º

090º
VOR
BEACON

225º
RADIALS ARE FROM A VOR
۲٦۹

RADIAL (also called QDR)

 180º

225º

270º
VOR
BEACON

045º
Note: Magnetic bearing to station (QDM) = Radial (QDR) + 180 º

BEARINGS ARE TO A VOR ۲۷۰

BEARING
 000º

270º 090º

HEADING IS A
COMPASS FUNCTION

180º
۲۷۱
HEADING
 Example: COURSE 270°

270º HEADING 270º HEADING

VOR

270º RADIAL 090º RADIAL

COURSE IS A PATH CONSISTING

OF TWO RECIPROCAL RADIALS
AND A HEADING ON THEM

COURSE ۲۷۲
 VHF Omni-directional range
 Function: (VOR)
 The VOR station used to help the aircraft receiver for establishing its
position with respect to the VOR station and magnetic north (which
radial the aircraft is on).
 The receiver can not tell from the VOR signal by itself where the
station is located with respect to the airplane.
 It differs from the ADF because the ADF receiver points the needle
directly at the station independent of compass information.

 With respect to the VOR, in order for the needle to point at the station,
two kinds of information must be combined:
- one is the receiver position relative to the station (which radial the
aircraft is on).
- The other is the airplane heading (compass information).
۲۷۳
VHF Omni-directional range (VOR)

۲۷٤
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)
 Theory of operation:
 The VOR station used to determine on which radial the
aircraft is on. The receiver do this by measuring the phase
difference between two signals from the VOR station.

1- a 30Hz FM modulated Reference Signal which produces

constant phase regardless of a receiver’s bearing from the
VOR station.

2- a 30Hz AM modulated directional signal created by the

rotation of the transmission antenna.
۲۷٥
 VHF Omni-directional range
 Theory of operation: (VOR)
 The 30Hz FM reference signal is synchronized with the 30 rev/sec
rotating directional antenna such that:

1- When the antenna is pointed north, the phase of the 30 Hz FM

signal is peaked positive.

2- When the antenna is pointed east, the phase of the 30 Hz FM

signal is shifted 90 degree.

3- When the antenna is pointed south, the phase of the 30 Hz FM

signal is shifted 180 degree (peaked negative).

4- When the antenna is pointed west, the phase of the 30 Hz FM

signal is shifted 270 degree.
۲۷٦
VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

۲۷۷
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)
 Theory of operation:
 As received, the signal has an additional modulation. This modulation
is a 30 Hz amplitude modulated signal which results from directional
antenna rotation.
 For every rotation of the antenna, the receiver sees a very strong signal
(peak) when the antenna is pointing at the receiver which diminishes as
the antenna moves away from that position.
 The amplitude of the signal as seen by the receiver is at minimum
(negative peak) when the antenna has moved half a turn and is pointing
away from the receiver.

 The amplitude of the received signal increases to a peak during the next
half turn, when the antenna is once again pointing at the receiver.
۲۷۸
 ELECTRONICALLY ROTATED
30 REVOLUTIONS/SECOND

WEAK SIGNAL
STRONG SIGNAL

VOR TRANSMITTED SIGNAL ۲۷۹

VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

۲۸۰
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)
 The phase difference measured at any other point will equal
to the A/C’s magnetic bearing from the VOR (radial).
• The two 30Hz modulations are in phase when the receiver at the
magnetic north of the VOR beacon.
• If the AM signal lags the FM signal by 90 degree, the receiver is at
east of VOR station.
• If the AM signal lags the FM signal by 180 degree, the receiver is at
south of VOR station.
• If the AM signal lags the FM signal by 270 degree, the receiver is at
west of VOR station.
۲۸۱
VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

۲۸۲
VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

۲۸۳
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)
 VOR Transmitter Diagram

30Hz FM Power AM Final

Oscillator Modulator Amplifier Modulator Amplifier

9960Hz RF
Oscillator Amplifier

Station
frequency

۲۸٤
 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

VOR Receiver

30 Hz AM
detector Radial
RF IF Audio Phase
amplifier amplifier detector detector

30 Hz FM
detector

۲۸٥
 VOR STATION
IDENTIFICATION
1020 Hz
(MORSE IDENT SIGNAL)

۲۸٦
12th February 2007 ۲۸٦
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR - RMI
۲۸۷
VOR NO 1

VOR NO 2

RMI
YELLOW POINTER
BEARING TO VOR
NO 1 GREEN POINTER
BEARING TO VOR
NO 2

۲۸۸

VOR RMI PRESENTATIONS

 VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

Wednesday, September 26, ۲۸۹

2018
 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - HSI

۲۹۰
HEADING 325°
12th February 2007 ۲۹۰
 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - HSI

HEADING 000°

۲۹۱
12th February 2007 ۲۹۱
 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - HSI

HEADING 030°

۲۹۲
12th February 2007 ۲۹۲
 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - HSI

HEADING 030°

۲۹۳
12th February 2007 ۲۹۳
 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - HSI

HEADING 030°

۲۹٤
12th February 2007 ۲۹٤
VHF Omni-directional range
(VOR)

۲۹٥
VHF Omni-directional range (VOR)
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED TOP
OF FIN

VOR ANTENNA LOCATION ۲۹٦

VHF Omni-directional range (VOR)

۲۹۷

VOR ANTENNA LOCATION

۲۹۸
 YELLOW HEADING
POINTER LUBBER

N GREEN
POINTER
COMPASS
CARD

E
(MAGNETIC)
A A
D D GREEN
F F
S POINTER
SELECT
SOURCE
VOR VOR
YELLOW
POINTER
SELECT
SOURCE

۲۹۹
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR - RMI
 AIRCRAFT HEADING
MAGNETIC NORTH BEARING TO
VOR 2
BEACON

BEARING TO
ADF 1
BEACON

N
W

A A
D D
F F
S

۳۰۰
VOR VOR
 ۳۰۱

VOR-ADF on RMI
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۳۰۲
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)
 Function:
 Inertial Navigation System (INS) is self-contained navigation system
which give continuous and accurate information regarding the position
of the aircraft to which it is fitted.

 INS uses two accelerometers to sense any change in the aircraft

velocity (acceleration/deceleration), one measures the aircraft
accelerations in north-south direction and the other measures the
aircraft accelerations in east-west direction .

 This information is then integrated once to give velocity (speed in a

given direction) and a second time to give change of position
(distance travelled in a given direction).
۳۰۳
Inertial Navigation System (INS)

۳۰٤
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)

DISTANCE
TRAVELLED
NORTH

DISTANCE
TRAVELLED
EAST

START
POSITION

VECTORAL ADDITION ۳۰٥

Inertial Navigation System (INS)
ACCELERATION
FEET PER SECOND
PER SECOND

VELOCITY
FEET PER SECOND

DISTANCE
IN FEET

TIME
۳۰٦
ACCELEROMETER OUTPUTS
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK)

SERVO
AMPLIFIER

SIGNAL PROPORTIONAL
TO ACCELERATION

ACCELEROMETER ۳۰۷
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
WEIGHT

CALIBRATED ELECTRICAL
SPRINGS PICK-OFF

ACCELEROMETER ۳۰۸
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
APPLIED FORCE

OUTPUT

ACCELEROMETER ۳۰۹
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
VELOCITY

DISTANCE

INTEGRATOR NO1 INTEGRATOR NO2

۳۱۰

ACCELEROMETER
 PRESENT
POSITION

START DESTINATION
POSITION

VELOCITY
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK) GROUNDSPEED

2ND INTEGRATOR

MASS AMP DISTANCE

1ST INTEGRATOR
ACCELEROMETER

DISTANCE FLOWN

START PRESENT
POSITION POSITION

۳۱۱
COMPUTER
 STARTING
COMPUTER POINT

INERTIAL PLATFORM

NORTH
VECTOR
SUMMING

ACCELEROMETERS
PRESENT
POSITION
90º
DISTANCE
EAST
GROUND
SPEED

۳۱۲
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)
 Accelerometer:

۳۱۳
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)

 The accelerometer itself is extremely accurate and will measure

precisely even the smallest change in aircraft velocity, subject to two
very important constraints:

 If the accelerometer is not Earth horizontal a continuous current will

be required at one or other of the force-feedback coils to maintain the
equal air gaps between the I bar and the outer arms of the E bar. This
bias current is caused to flow because of gravity, but unfortunately the
computer will integrate this bias current as an erroneous groundspeed.
It is therefore essential that the stable platform is maintained Earth
horizontal.

 If the accelerometer is directionally misaligned, that is to say that the

sensitive axes of the north-south and east-west accelerometers are not
lying precisely in north-south and east-west planes, then essential that
the platform maintains a high degree of directional alignment.
۳۱٤
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)

 It is a complex procedure to isolate those accelerations which are

relevant to the aircraft's changing horizontal position relative to the
Earth from accelerations due to the effect of gravity and aircraft
maneuvers.

 Two approaches for isolating the required horizontal accelerations are

available:

1. stable platform system.

2. Strapped down system.

۳۱٥
۳۱٦
Inertial Navigation System (INS)

۳۱۷
۳۱۸
 Inertial Navigation System (INS)
 No stabilized platform and three accelerometers are mounted rigidly
inside the inertial navigation unit, which is simply bolted to the
aircraft structure. The accelerometers are therefore effectively fixed to
the airframe, and are aligned with the aircraft's pitch, roll and yaw
axes.

 The accelerometers will clearly measure total acceleration, which will

now be due to gravity (the accelerometers are not stabilized Earth
horizontal), to aircraft maneuvers and to the aircraft movement over
the surface of the Earth.

 Of these only acceleration due to the aircraft movement over the

surface of the Earth is required, and the other two output components
must be isolated. ۳۱۹
۳۲۰
 Honeywell LASEREF

N4 7 3 2 4 W0 4 5 1 2 3
A DSPL SEL

I TK/GS
P/POS
WIND
HDG/STS
1
N
2
3

TEST
R IRU No 2 INTERFACE
TEST
BRT W
4
H
5
E
6

C SYS DSPL
2
7
S
8
9

1 3

R OFF
ENT
0
CLR

A
F INERTIAL SYSTEM
T DISPLAY UNIT

S
Y
S IRU No 3 INTERFACE
TEST

T ALIGN
NAV
ATT
ALIGN
NAV
ATT
ALIGN
NAV
ATT

E OFF OFF OFF

M SYS 1 SYS 2 SYS 3

S ALIGN

ON BATT
ALIGN

ON BATT
ALIGN

ON BATT TEST

BATT FAIL BATT FAIL BATT FAIL

FAULT FAULT FAULT

IRU No 1 INTERFACE
MODE SELECT UNIT
TEST

۳۲۱

IRS BLOCK SCHEMATIC

Inertial Navigation System (INS)

۳۲۲
 TN Inertial Navigation System (INS)
WIND SPEED
& DIRECTION
PRESENT
POSITION
INDICATED
AIRSPEED

TRK GROUNDSPEED
DRIFT

START HDG
POINT

۳۲۳
INERTIAL NAVIGATION OPERATION
Inertial Navigation System (INS)

۳۲٤
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۳۲٥
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Area navigation
 Function:
(RNAV)

 Area navigation (RNAV) is a navigation & guidance system which

uses DME slant range, VOR bearing and Barometric altitude to
compute course and distance to a waypoint.

 The system can only function within the service area of a VOR/DME
station so it can not be used for overseas navigation.

 It allows the aircraft to be navigated without the requirement to fly

directly over ground based facilities.

۳۲٦
 Area navigation
(RNAV)
 RNAV is connected to:
 VOR receiver ( provides VOR bearing).
 DME interrogator (provides distance to DME station).
 Central air data computer (provides barometric altitude).
 Navigation data base (Route information, navigation aids which is
VOR/DME stations and waypoints).
 Control display unit (enter information to the computer and to
display navigation information).
 HSI (receives course deviation signals).
 Autopilot (receives lateral steering command).
۳۲۷
Area navigation
(RNAV)

۳۲۸
 Area navigation
 Function:
(RNAV)

 A waypoint is a predetermined geographic position defined in terms

of latitude and longitude.

 It may also be defined as a radial and range from VOR/DME stations,

which is known as Rho/Theta.
 Waypoints may also be defined by ranges from two DME stations,
which is known as Rho/Rho.

۳۲۹
 Area navigation
 Function: (RNAV)
 The navigational database stored in the computer contains the
characteristics of each waypoint which are latitude and longitude,
altitude, frequency of the related Nav aid, distance from the Nav aid,
the magnetic bearing from the Nav aid.

 The pilot defines waypoints along the route to be flown as range and
bearing from suitably located VOR/DME.

 A simple RNAV system uses Rho/Theta (range/bearing) to define

current position, which is driven from range and bearing information
from VOR/DME stations.

 The computer compares this two bearings and also distances and
provides an error signal, which provides steering signals to the course
deviation indicator. It also provides a distance to go reading.
۳۳۰
Area navigation
(RNAV)

۳۳۱
 Area navigation
(RNAV)
 Rho - Theta mode:

۳۳۲
 Area navigation
 Rho - Theta mode:
(RNAV)

 Knowing the length of side A (DME distance), the length of side B

(from the data base), and the angle of A (difference between the
bearing of the aircraft (by VOR) and the bearing of the waypoint
(from the data base).

 we can compute the length of side A-B, which gives distance to the
waypoints and angle B, which is the course or track angle to the
way point.

 This combination is referred to as the Rho-Theta mode of area

navigation, where Rho is the DME distance, Theta is the VOR angle.
۳۳۳
 Area navigation
(RNAV)
 Rho – Rho method:
 An improvement over Rho-Theta is possible using two DME distances.
 The navigation database would be expanded to provide each waypoint
with two NAV aid references.
 Knowing the distances to the two stations, and from the navigation
database distances from the waypoint to the stations. The computer
provides an accurate position fix.

۳۳٤
Area navigation
(RNAV)

۳۳٥
 Area navigation
(RNAV)
 Benefits of RNAV:

 Reduction in distance, flight time and fuel.

 An increase in route capacity by

making full use of the available
airspace by providing more direct
routes.

۳۳٦
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
۳۳۷
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Flight Management System
(FMS)

 The flight Management provides the flight plan selection

with its lateral and vertical functions.

 It provides navigation, performance optimization, radio

tuning and information display management.

 The main components of FMS system are:

- Two flight management computers (FMC).
- Two Multi control and display units (MCDU).
۳۳۸
 Flight Management System
(FMS)

Flight
Management

Flight Performance Display

Navigation Predictions
Planning Optimization Management

۳۳۹
 Flight Management System
(FMS)
 Lateral functions:

- The main lateral functions are:

 Aircraft position determination.

 VOR, ADF, ILS and DME tuning.
 IRS alignment.

- A navigation database provides all necessary data to build a flight plan.

۳٤۰
 Flight Management System
(FMS)
 Vertical functions:

- The main vertical functions are:

 Optimized speed computation.

 Performance predictions as time, fuel, altitude and wind at various
flight points.

- A performance database provides all necessary data.

۳٤۱
 Flight Management System
(FMS)

Types of data base:

1. Navigation data base: stores all navigation data (updated

every 28 days).

2. Performance data base: stores engine installation data, a/c

aerodynamically limits and atmospheric models. (no
updates).

۳٤۲
 Flight Management System
(FMS)
 Multi purpose control and display unit (MCDU):

۳٤۳
 Navigation Systems
 Radio altimeter (RA).
 Instrument landing system (ILS).
 Marker beacon System.
 Distance measuring equipment (DME).
 Air traffic transponder radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
 Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS).
 Weather radar (WXR).
 Ground proximity warning system (GPWS).
 Automatic direction finder (ADF).
 VHF Omni-directional range (VOR).
 Inertial navigation system (INS).
 Area navigation (RNAV).
 Flight management system (FMS).
 Global positioning system (GPS). ۳٤٤
 Global navigation satellite system
(GNSS)
Introduction:

 A satellite navigation system is a system that uses satellites to

provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic
receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude,
and altitude/elevation) to high precision using time signals transmitted
along a line of sight by radio from satellites.

 The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for

tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite
tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate
the current local time to high precision.
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 Global navigation satellite system
(GNSS)
 A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed
a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). As of December 2016,
only the United states' Global Positioning System (GPS),
Russia's GLONASS, China's BeiDou Navigation system(BDS) and
the European union’s Galileo are global operational GNSSs. The
European Union's Galileo GNSS is scheduled to be fully operational
by 2020.

۳٤٦
 Global positioning system
(GPS)

 The Global Positioning System (GPS, is a satellite based radio

navigation system owned by the United states government and
operated by the United States Air Force.

 The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in

1973 for use by the United States military and became fully
operational in 1995. It was allowed for civilian use in the 1980s.

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2018
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
 GPS Segments :
The GPS has three segments:
* Satellite
* User
* Control.

۳٤۸
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
Satellite Segment:
 The satellite segment is a group of satellites that orbit approximately
10,900 nautical miles above the earth.
 Each satellite completes an orbit approximately once every 12 hours.
 There are 21 operational satellites and 3 spares.

۳٤۹
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
Control Segment:
 The control segment has control and monitor stations on earth that
continuously monitor and track the satellites, uploads satellite
ephemerides and clock characteristics. There are five monitor
stations, three uplink stations, and one master control station.

User Segment:
 The user segment is the GPS sensor unit (GPSSU) on the airplane. It
receives the satellite signals. The GPSSU uses the satellite data to
calculate the airplane position.

۳٥۰
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
Theory of operation:
 The GPS sensor units (GPSSUs) use the principle of ranging to
measure the distance between the GPSSU on the airplane and the
satellites.

 The GPSSU has in memory the location of the satellites in their orbits
at any time (ephemeris data). It is possible for the GPSSU to know the
position of each satellite because they follow a known orbit.

 The GPSSU measures the time it takes for a radio signal to go from a
satellite to the airplane. Since the GPSSU knows the location of the
satellite and that the radio signal travels at the speed of light, it can
calculate the distance to the satellite.
Wednesday, September 26, ۳٥۱
2018
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
 However, since this is a one-way range measurement, the GPSSU
must know exactly at what time the satellite sent the radio signal.
The GPSSU compares the satellite signal to a signal that the GPSSU
makes at the same time as the satellite.(GPSSU simultaneously
generates the same pseudo random code as the satellite).
 It depends on all satellite and all receivers simultaneously generating
an identical series of codes at exactly the same time. When a
message arrives at receiver, It matches the two codes.
 The signal appears random but in fact is generated according to a
complicated set of instantaneous and repeats itself every seven days.
because of this the signal is often referred to as ”pseudo random”.

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2018
 Global positioning system
SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
FROM SATELLITE

SIGNAL INTERNALLY GENERATED

WITHIN THE AIRCRAFT’S GPS RECEIVER

TIME DELAY = RANGE

SIGNAL RECEIVED
FROM SATELLITE

12th February 2007 353

CODE TIME DIFFERENCE

 Global positioning system
(GPS)
 The difference between the two signals
(time bias) is the time the satellite signal
took to get to the GPSSU.

 Each satellite has atomic clocks to keep accurate time. All the
satellites have precisely the same time. The GPSSU in the airplane
has an internal clock but it is not atomic, so it is not as accurate. Thus,
it is not possible for the GPSSU to have precisely the same time as
the satellite. ۳٥٤
 Global positioning system
(GPS)

 The GPSSU assumes that its internal clock is off by some clock bias.
This clock bias is an unknown that the GPSSU must calculate. The
clock bias is the difference between the GPSSU time and GPS time.

 This error on GPSSU clock, or clock bias, Δtbias, is just another

unknown and can be included in our range equation.

۳٥٥
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
 So it needs four satellites to give us four equations from which to fix
aircraft position.

 To calculate the airplane position

(latitude, longitude, and altitude) and
the clock bias, the GPSSU must
know the position of at least four
satellites. The GPSSU then measures
the distances to all the satellites at
the same time, and solves for these
four unknowns with four range
equations.

۳٥٦
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
 we can see that the area of uncertainty in
position, the shaded area, depends greatly
on the relative positions of the satellites, so
that for the same uncertainly in range, we
can have different uncertainties in our
position. Generally, the closer together (in
angle) two satellites are from us, the greater
the GDOP.

 GDOP stands for “geometric dilution of precision”. It means how

imprecise the calculation is may depend on the relative positions of
the satellites involved.
 The GDOP is a function of the relative geometry of the satellites and
۳٥۷
the user. A large GDOP is bad.
 Global positioning system
(GPS)

 Differential GPS uses a ground receiver at a known location to check

the GPS signals and measure range errors. These corrections are
broadcast from a local transmitter and allow GPS users in the vicinity
to include the corrections in their calculations.

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2018
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
GPS range errors

 There are still errors in range measurements, other than the time bias.
Typical errors in range measurements and their sources are:

1- satellite clock error.

2- satellite ephemeris error.
3- Receiver errors.
4- multipath errors.

Wednesday, September 26, ۳٥۹

2018
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
GPSSU

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2018
 Global positioning system
GPS antenna:
(GPS)

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2018
 Global positioning system
(GPS)
GPS antenna:

Wednesday, September 26, ۳٦۲

2018
۳٦۳