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Sprayed Concrete
for Rock Support
Tom Melbye
Director
UGC International
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Headquarters:
UGC International
Division of BASF Construction
Chemicals Europe Ltd
Vulkanstrasse 110
CH - 8048 Zurich
Phone +41-58-958 22 11
Fax +41-58-958 32 46
For your local BASF UGC representative, visit our website at www.ugc.basf.com.
MEYCO

Potenza spraying mobile equipped with MEYCO

Maxima manipulator,
in fully extended position.
3
Tom Melbye
Director
UGC International
Co-authors:
Ross Dimmock
Technical/Marketing Director
UGC International
Knut F. Garshol
Geological Engineer M.Sc/
Regional UGC Director Latin America
UGC International
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank colleagues within UGC International for their
assistance and support in the preparation of this publication. Special thanks are
extended to Jonathan Brown and Thomas Kurth, MEYCO Equipment, as well as to
Dr Andr Walliser, UGC International Development Center.
Sprayed Concrete
for Rock Support
4
Copyright UGC International, Division of BASF Construction Chemicals
(Switzerland) Ltd, 1994
This document is the exclusive property of UGC International, Division of
BASF Construction Chemicals (Switzerland) Ltd, having its registered office at
8048 Zurich (Switzerland), Vulkanstrasse 110.
The user of this document is expressly prohibited from copying or, in any man-
ner reproducing it, wholly or partly, without the prior written consent of UGC
International, Division of BASF Construction Chemicals (Switzerland) Ltd. Any
abuse of these constraints may give rise to legal proceedings.
11th edition, December 2006, 2000 copies.
5
Index
1. Introduction 11
1.1 What is sprayed concrete? 11
1.2 Where is sprayed concrete used? 13
1.3 Sprayed concrete know-how 14
1.4 Two methods What is the difference? 15
2. Dry-mix method 17
2.1 Composition of a dry mix 17
2.1.1 Cement content 17
2.1.2 Water / cement ratio 17
2.1.3 Natural moisture content 18
2.1.4 Admixtures 18
2.1.5 Additives 20
2.1.6 Fibres 20
2.2 On-site mixes versus bagged materials 21
2.3 Problem areas in the dry-mix spraying process 22
2.4 Conclusion 23
3. Wet-mix method 24
3.1 The reasons for the change to the wet-mix method 25
3.1.1 Economy 25
3.1.2 Working environment 25
3.1.3 Quality 26
3.1.4 Application 26
3.2 Advantages 27
3.3 Disadvantages 27
3.4 Summary of wet method 28
3.5 Mix design for wet spraying 28
3.5.1 Microsilica 29
3.5.1.1 Special advantages of sprayed concrete with microsilica 29
3.5.2 Aggregates 30
3.5.3 Admixtures (plasticizers / superplasticizers) 32
3.5.4 Traditional set accelerators 36
3.5.4.1 How do aluminate accelerators work chemically in the
hydration process? 36
3.5.4.2 Modified sodium silicates / water glass 40
3.5.4.3 Fields of application 41
3.5.4.4 Typical dosages 41
6
3.5.5 Alkali-free sprayed concrete accelerators 41
3.5.5.1 Dust development 43
3.5.5.2 Confusing chemistry: non caustic / alkali-free 44
3.5.5.3 Non caustic alkali-free accelerators in liquid form 46
3.5.5.4 Alkali-free accelerators in powder form 50
3.5.5.5 MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 /

SA176 /SA180 / SA181: Sensitivity to type of cement 51
3.5.5.6 Comparison of early strength results with traditional
aluminate based accelerators 53
3.5.5.7 Dosing and equipment 56
3.5.5.8 Compatibility with other accelerators 58
3.5.5.9 Special requirements for the use of MEYCO

SA160 /
SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 /
SA181 for wet spraying 58
3.5.5.10 Typical results from field tests 59
4. New advanced sprayed
concrete admixture systems 91
4.1 Synopsis 91
4.2 Delvo

crete 91
4.2.1 Introduction 92
4.2.2 Wet-mix sprayed concrete 94
4.2.3 Batching and delivery of wet-mix sprayed concrete 95
4.2.4 Control of cement hydration 96
4.2.5 Performance 99
4.2.6 Setting times 99
4.2.7 Strengths 100
4.2.8 Rebound 101
4.2.9 Economics 102
4.2.10 Summary 105
4.2.11 Selected case studies 106
4.3 Concrete improving (internal curing) 111
4.3.1 Background 111
4.3.2 Concrete improving with MEYCO

TCC735 112
4.3.3 A proven technology 113
4.3.4 Benefits of concrete improving with MEYCO

TCC735 115
4.3.5 A safer and cheaper solution 116
4.3.6 Results from some spraying tests 116
4.4 Conclusion 118
7
5. Fibres in sprayed concrete 119
5.1 Why concrete needs reinforcement 119
5.2 How steel fibres work in sprayed concrete 120
5.3 Types of fibres 120
5.3.1 Glass fibres 120
5.3.2 Polymer fibres 121
5.3.3 Carbon fibres 123
5.3.4 Steel fibres 124
5.4 Technical advantages of steel fibres 124
5.5 Economical advantages of steel fibres 126
5.6 Mix design for steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete 127
6. Durability of sprayed concrete 129
6.1 Buildable designs 130
6.2 Specifications and guidance 131
6.3 Construction competence 131
6.4 Sprayed concrete mix design 131
6.5 Sulphate resistance of sprayed concrete with
alkali-free accelerators 133
6.6 Chemical stability of new accelerators 134
6.7 Durability of steel fibre reinforcement 134
6.8 Application requirements 135
6.9 Conclusion 135
6.10 Example of C-45 136
6.11 Consequences of using different mix designs 137
7. Sprayed concrete equipment 138
7.1 Manual application 138
7.1.1 Equipment / systems for dry-mix spraying 138
7.1.1.1 Operating principle (e.g. MEYCO

Piccola, MEYCO

GM) 138
7.1.1.2 Developments 140
7.1.2 Equipment / systems for wet-mix spraying 140
7.1.2.1 Developments 140
7.1.2.2 Equipment for manual application 144
7.2 Mechanized spraying 145
7.2.1 Spraying manipulators 145
7.2.1.1 Classic spraying manipulators of different ranges 145
7.2.1.2 Spraying manipulators for shaft sinking 149
7.2.1.3 Spraying manipulators for TBM ring constructions 151
7.2.1.4 Computer controlled spraying manipulators 152
8
7.2.2 Spraying mobiles 157
7.2.3 Benefits of mechanized spraying 161
7.3 Dosing systems 162
7.4 Nozzle systems 163
7.5 Systems for strength development measurements 164
7.5.1 Penetration needle 164
7.5.2 Pull-out test 165
8. Rock support design 166
8.1 Active mechanisms of sprayed concrete on rock 169
8.2 Sprayed concrete on jointed hard rock 171
8.3 Sprayed concrete on soft or crushed rock 173
8.4 Basic rock mechanics 174
8.5 Some points on NATM 177
8.6 Important properties of sprayed concrete for
rock support 179
8.7 Reinforcement 181
8.8 Tunnel support methods 182
9. Permanent sprayed concrete tunnel linings 184
9.1 Development of permanent sprayed concrete tunnel linings 184
9.2 Cost effectiveness of single pass tunnel linings 185
9.3 SPTL options 185
9.4 Tunnel geometry 187
9.5 Lining reinforcement 187
9.5.1 Steel reinforcement bars and weldmesh 187
9.5.2 Steel fibre reinforcement 188
9.6 Ground reinforcement 189
9.7 Construction joints related to excavation sequence 190
9.8 SPTL two layer method second layer construction joints 192
9.9 SPTL two layer method first and second layer bond 193
9.10 Surface finish 194
9.10.1 Screed and float finish 194
9.10.2 Cladding systems 196
9.11 Achieving sprayed concrete lining durability 196
9.12 Construction recommendations 196
9.12.1 Application requirements 196
9.12.2 Guidance on choice of modern application systems 199
9.13 Risk management systems 200
9.14 Enhancing watertightness with sprayable membranes 202
9
9.14.1 SPTL tunnels subject to potential occasional water ingress 203
9.14.2 SPTL tunnels with active water ingress 203
9.14.3 Rehabilitation of existing tunnels 204
10. Sprayed concrete application guideline 206
10.1 Substrate preparation 206
10.2 General spraying techniques 208
10.3 Reducing rebound, increasing quality 209
10.4 Mechanized wet-mix spraying 213
10.5 Raising competence levels 215
11. Time and economy 216
11.1 An example calculation 216
11.2 Conclusion 217
12. Outlook: The potential of sprayed
concrete applications 218
References 220
Appendix:
Specification for Sprayed Concrete 223
11
1. Introduction
Human creativity springs from the natural desire of mankind to know
and its capability to learn. Explorers and discoverers possess these
features in a high degree: They are driven by an unrelenting curiosity to
go beyond the boundaries of the known, to explore into the nature of
things, to reveal connections between ideas, facts, conceptions, to view
things from new angles, to change perceptions.
A well-known fact about the construction industry and underground
construction in particular is that all projects are unique. The degree
of complexity due to the intertwining of the variety of project-related
parameters is higher than in many other industries, thus forcing contrac-
tors as well as suppliers to be truly adaptable and flexible.
The enormous advantages of sprayed concrete as a construction and
rock support process and the improvement of materials, equipment and
application know-how have made it a very important and necessary
tool for modern underground construction works. The development of
modern wet-mix sprayed concrete in particular has enlarged the field
of underground construction work. Projects that were impossible to be
realised, have now become practicable. Subsurface structures can be
placed where they are needed, without regards as to rock and condi-
tions.
1.1 What is sprayed concrete?
Sprayed concrete or Gunite is not a new invention. Sprayed concrete
(mortar) has been known for more than a century.
The first sprayed concrete jobs were done in the United States by the
Cement-Gun Company, Allentown as early as 1907. The first device
made for spraying of dry materials for new constructions was invented
in Pennsylvania in 1907 by Carl Ethan Akeley, who needed a machine
to spray onto mesh to build dinosaurs. His company, the Cement-Gun
Company, protected the brand name Gunite for their sprayed mortar.
This mortar contained fine aggregates and a rather high percentage of
cement.
12
The name Gunite is still used. In some classifications Gunite stands for
sprayed mortar, but the grain size limits are not consistent: Depending
on the country, the limit for the maximum aggregate is defined as 4 mm,
5 mm or even 8 mm. To avoid this confusion between sprayed mortar
and sprayed concrete, we prefer to use the expression Sprayed con-
crete for every sprayed mixture of cement and aggregates.
Today there are two application methods for sprayed concrete: The dry-
mix and the wet-mix procedure. There was only dry-mix sprayed con-
crete in the beginning. In this procedure the dry mixture of cement and
aggregates is filled into the machine and conveyed with compressed
air through the hoses. The water needed for the hydration is added at
the nozzle.
The use of the wet-mix method began after the Second World War.
Similar to ordinary concrete the mixes are prepared with all neces-
sary water for hydration. The mixes are pumped by suitable machines
through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying.
Some people maintain that sprayed concrete is a special concrete.
Basically, however, sprayed concrete is but one of several ways to cast
concrete. As with traditional methods of casting, sprayed concrete also
makes its special demands on the characteristics of the concrete during
casting. At the same time all normal concrete technological demands,
such as w/c ratio, amount of cement, correct consistency and after-
treatment must be complied with and followed. The reason why so
much sprayed concrete of poor quality has been applied in many parts
of the world is because one seems to forget that sprayed concrete is
only a way of casting and that all concrete technological requirements
have to be fulfilled.
The equipment both for dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed concrete has
been improved substantially. The present state of the art will be shown
in a separate chapter.
13
1.2 Where is sprayed concrete used?
The enormous advantages of sprayed concrete as a construction proc-
ess and the improvement of equipment, materials and application know-
how have made it an important tool for various types of work.
Sprayed concrete takes care of stability problems in tunnels and other
underground constructions. Today sprayed concrete is a key factor for
rock support in
<
Tunnelling
<
Mining operations
<
Hydropower projects
<
Slope stabilization
More than 90 % of all sprayed concrete is used for rock support.
In comparison with traditional concrete, sprayed concrete is used today
to a relatively small extent, but when it is used, it is done so in many dif-
ferent ways. Some examples:
<
Pit curbing
<
Canal lining
<
Reconstruction and repair
<
Sea walls
<
Refractory
<
Fire and corrosion protection
<
Spraying of new constructions
<
Agriculture (manure pits)
<
Plastering and stabilizing of brick walls
Sprayed concrete is the building method of the future due to
<
Flexibility
<
Rapidity
<
Economy
Only use your imagination there are no limitations...
14
1.3 Sprayed concrete know-how
There are a few major sprayed concrete consumers who from practical
experience, research and development have acquired know-how.
Equipment and control methods have also gone through a development
which has led to a rational production as well as a more uniform quality
of the final product. From an international point of view it is safe to say
that we have come a long way from when sprayed concrete was used
for securing rock, but it is also fair to say that we are lagging behind
when using sprayed concrete for building and repair works. It is not easy
to find a reason. The know-how exists, however, it is not fully utilised.
Figure 1: Remote-controlled spraying
Prevailing regulations make special concrete technological demands
on the people doing the spraying work. Present requirements have
led to a better training of involved personnel. The result of this is an
improved quality of the work. The number of special contractors who
are working with sprayed concrete has increased over the last few
years, which improved the quality of the application. However, there is a
risk of getting badly executed work by less serious contractors. This is
particularly the case with smaller jobs where the contractor often lacks
knowledge about sprayed concrete. These are, however, things that
can be eliminated if the contractor makes more stringent demands for
his competence, previous experience, trained personnel, knowledge
about concrete and authorisation.
15
The contractors should demand an authorisation arrangement for
sprayed concrete with general validity as it exists e.g. for casting and
sheathing (like the Sprayed Concrete Association in UK).
1.4 Two methods What is the difference?

Today, two spraying methods are common: dry-mix and wet-mix. With
the dry-mix process the water required for hydration is added at the
spraying nozzle, with the wet-mix method the conveyed mixtures already
contain the necessary water for hydration.
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Depending on
the project requirements and the experience of people the best suited
method should be chosen. There will be a need for both methods in the
future.

Figure 2: The MEYCO

Suprema offers pulsation-free spraying and a

computerised control system (PLC).
Until a few years ago, dry spraying has been the dominating method,
but this has changed, especially in sprayed concrete for rock support. In
the future, we believe that wet spraying will be more and more prevailing
as this method gives a better working environment, a higher and more
consistent quality and a much higher production.
16
Figure 3: MEYCO

Piccola and MEYCO

GM excel by their robustness,

simple operation and flexibility to be adapted to the specific conditions
on the site.
Future developments within the sprayed concrete technology will, we
believe, be mainly in connection with the wet-mix process. Good exam-
ples of recent developments are the addition of new generations of
additives (MEYCO

SA alkali-free accelerators, Delvo

crete, MEYCO

TCC, concrete improver (internal curing), microsilica as well as steel and
polymer fibres) to the sprayed concrete.
The situation nowadays is that world-wide 70 % of the sprayed concrete
is applied by the wet-mix method and 30 % by the dry-mix method.
In some areas, however, the wet-mix method is already dominating
(Scandinavia, Italy: almost 100 %). Within the next 5 years the wet-mix
method could be used for more than 8090 % of all sprayed concrete
world-wide. Today, more than 12 million m
3
of sprayed concrete are
applied world-wide every year.
17
2. Dry-mix method
2.1 Composition of a dry mix
2.1.1 Cement content
For the manufacture of the dry mix, the proportion of the binder is usually
between 250 and 450 kg per 1 000 litres of aggregate or 320 to 460 kg
per m
3
of concrete. In order to judge the actual cement content of the
sprayed concrete applied, the rebound must be considered. In com-
parison with the initial mix, rebound mainly leads to a loss of top-size
aggregate and thus to an increase in the cement content. In a typical
standard mix with 350 kg of cement per m
3
, a rebound of 20 % finally
results in approximately 400 kg of cement per m
3
of in-place sprayed
concrete.
2.1.2 Water / cement ratio
The water / cement ratio is, of course, a decisive factor for the quality
of sprayed concrete. The total amount of water used with dry mixes
is made up of the mixing water added at the nozzle and the moisture
already in the aggregate. Unlike the wet spraying process, in the dry
spraying process there is no clear-cut set value for the water / cement
ratio, because the amount of mixing water is controlled and regulated
by the nozzle man. This is frequently considered to be a great disadvan-
tage. In practice, however, the water / cement factor is fairly constant, as
there is a limited scope for varying the mixing water quantity: If too little
water is added, the result is an immediate excess of dust; if too much
water is added, the sprayed concrete does not adhere to the surface
but runs down instead.
Where work is carried out properly, the water / cement factor varies only
slightly and remains below 0.5. In the best case (aggregates requiring
low water quantity, sufficient cement content), it is even possible to
manufacture sprayed concrete with less than 0.4.
18
2.1.3 Natural moisture content
An important aspect of the dry mix is also the natural moisture content.
Where the mix is too dry, spraying causes too much dust. If the natural
moisture content is too high, this may lead to problems: The sprayed
concrete throughput drops drastically, machines and conveying lines
become encrusted and get blocked. Ideally, the natural moisture con-
tent should lie between 3 and 6 %.
In addition to on-site mixes, there has been an increase in the last few
years in the use of dry materials delivered to the site in bags or in silos.
Of course, these contain no natural moisture. To reduce dust formation
it is advisable to wet the dry material before feeding it into the spraying
machine. Specially equipped feeding devices or special pre-wetting
nozzles can be used for this purpose.
2.1.4 Admixtures
Various admixtures are available for controlling the properties of sprayed
concrete. The most important of these are fast setting admixtures
(accelerators). These admixtures reduce the setting time. Sprayed con-
crete has a quicker setting and higher early strength. This allows sub-
sequent layers of sprayed concrete to be applied sooner and in greater
thicknesses.
On large-scale projects, accelerators definitely help to increase pro-
ductivity and are an important pre-requisite for many applications. In
underground construction works and pit curbing, for instance, the early
strength of the sprayed concrete is decisive and an essential require-
ment.
As it is well-known from construction technology, accelerating the
cement hydration inevitably results in a reduction of the 28-day strengths.
In order to obtain a consistently high quality of sprayed concrete, it is
thus essential to ensure that the lowest possible quantity of accelerator
is added as consistently as possible. The accelerator proportion must
be determined in each case in relation to the amount of cement used.
19
Accelerators can be used in powder or in liquid form. Powder accel-
erators (such as the alkali-free MEYCO

SA545) are added while

feeding the spraying machine. Unfortunately, with the still wide-spread
method of adding powder by hand, it is of course impossible to guar-
antee exact proportioning. The usual result is a massive over-dose,
very unevenly spread. Various studies have demonstrated a reduction
of 35% and more in the final strength compared to base concrete, i.e.
without accelerator. Manual dosing can therefore only be accepted in
exceptional cases or for sprayed concrete applications where quality
requirements are low.
Greater precision is obtained with feeding devices combined with pow-
der dosing appliances. The best results are achieved with feed screws
equipped with a spindle batcher. Conveyor belt feeders are not recom-
mended. A convenient solution to the proportioning problem of powder
accelerators is, of course, to use suitably modified bagged materials.
However, these are often out of the question for financial reasons, espe-
cially in large projects.
The best way of ensuring the precise dosage of accelerator during
application is to use liquid products (such as the MEYCO

AFA). These
are measured into the mixing water and thus added to the dry mate-
rial at the nozzle. To obtain a steady dosage, however, it is essential to
use a suitable dosing system even with liquid accelerators. Where it is
necessary to pre-mix water and accelerator, machines are only suitable
up to a point. Since the water / accelerator ratio is fixed, the dosage is
altered in relation to the weight of the cement every time the water addi-
tion is adjusted by the nozzle man. However, it is both necessary and
important to adjust the water quantity, for instance in order to respond
to variations in the natural moisture of the aggregate or in the behaviour
of the water flow on the surface.
A consistent cement / accelerator ratio can be ensured by using piston
pumps, which measure a constant amount of the admixture defined in
proportion to the capacity of the spraying machine quite independently
of the water flow setting (e.g. MEYCO

Dosa TDC).
Liquid accelerators have further advantages in comparison to pow-
der: The problem of caustic components in the spray dust is avoided.
Dosing at the nozzle prevents flash set. Thanks to the even mix with the
20
spraying material, liquid accelerators can be measured more economi-
cally, which also leads to better final strengths. Experience shows that,
compared to base concrete, the loss of final strength can be reduced
to less than 25 %.
Apart from accelerators, the only other admixtures used in the dry
spraying process are dust binders. These powder admixtures as
the name implies reduce dust formation. In practice, however, these
agents have only achieved limited acceptance.
2.1.5 Additives
Unlike chemical admixtures, the action of additives is mainly physical.
Well-known examples are mineral fillers known as microsilica (or silica
fume) which are more and more gaining in significance. These fine
substances (surface of 2035 m
2
/ g) with a proportion of SiO
2
varying
from 65 to 97 %, depending on the quality of the product, lead to an
important improvement in the quality of the sprayed concrete, apparent
in the increased compressive strength and density. Due to the improved
bonding, thicker layers can be sprayed even without accelerators.
In the dry-mix method microsilica have another interesting effect. Added
in the proper way, the use of microsilica can also bring about a reduc-
tion in rebound of up to 50 %. With normal (uncompacted or densified)
microsilica added in the mixer the rebound reduction is only minimal.
Elkem has developed a special technology for adding a 50 % slurry at
the nozzle (dosed in the water). The slurry system is very efficient but
rather complicated. It needs a special dosing pump and an additional
product on site in quite large quantities. The slurry has to be stored cor-
rectly and in most cases an agitator is necessary.
2.1.6 Fibres
For sprayed concrete, steel and synthetic polymer fibres can be used.
Their chief virtue lies in the fact that they lead to an improved fracture
energy and / or shrinkage behaviour of the sprayed concrete.
21
The use of steel fibres / structural polymer fibres is still relatively rare in
dry-mix compared to wet-mix sprayed concrete. The main reason is
the higher rebound (> 50 %). Therefore, the cost / performance relation
becomes critical.
2.2 On-site mixes versus bagged materials
As already mentioned, the dry process allows the use of mixes with
earth-dry or kiln-dried aggregates. Earth-dry aggregates are cheap
and produce less dust. The natural moisture content is nevertheless
sufficient to start off premature hydration. For this reason, earth-dry
mixes have only a limited storage life and should be used up within
1 or 2 hours. Storage for a longer time causes an enormous increase in
rebound and a heavy drop in final strength.
The manufacturing of the dry mix on site entails the installation of the
necessary batching and feeding plants. Such an installation is obviously
only worthwhile on large-scale projects. On a smaller scale or on short-
term sprayed concrete projects the dry mix can be obtained from a
ready-mix plant. This poses the problem of the increased delay before
use due to the transport distance and the question of safe delivery.
Delivery and placing must be very carefully scheduled in order to avoid
delays and interruptions in the work due to inadequate supplies.
Of course, the greatest degree of flexibility possible is afforded by dry
materials that are delivered in bags or silos. These can be stored over
a long period of time, thus simplifying planning. Furthermore, they are
also of consistently high quality. Disadvantages include the increased
tendency to dust formation (which can be controlled by pre-wetting) and
the considerably higher price.
The development of hydration control systems such as Delvo

crete has
made it now possible to prolong the storage life of earth-dry mixes. By
adding the Delvo

crete Stabilizer during manufacturing, the mix remains

fresh and unchanged. The liquid alkali-free accelerator (MEYCO

SA) is
added at the moment of the application. It simultaneously reactivates
the cement hydration and acts as an accelerator. The accelerator is
added like a conventional liquid accelerator. Therefore technique and
equipment have not to be changed when using Delvo

crete.
22
With the Delvo

crete Hydration Control System dry mixes can be stored

for up to 3 days. This in turn means adequate flexibility in relation to
bagged materials, but with considerably less costs.
2.3 Problem areas in the dry-mix spraying process
Every process naturally has its drawbacks. With the dry-mix spraying
process, these are partially the relatively high costs due to wear and tear
on the rotor machines, especially on rubber gaskets and friction discs.


1 = Feeding hopper
2 = Rotor
3 = Outlet
p = Pressurized air

Figure 4: The rotor principle of a typical dry-spraying machine
(MEYCO

GM, Piccola)
By a correct set-up of the machines and by changing the parts in time
(and with skilled grinding) these costs can be kept within reasonable
limits.
Another disadvantage is the formation of dust. However, this can
be considerably reduced by ensuring a favourable natural moisture
content (or adequate pre-wetting) and by using dust binders. Water
pressure boosting pumps can also help in this. These pumps intensify
the water pressure during mixing at the nozzle. Combined with the use
of improved water rings, it is possible to ensure good and steady wetting
of the dry material at the nozzle. Depending on the system, the hydrau-
lic pressure rises to about 80 bar. Such appliances are expensive and
relatively susceptible to break down. In our experience, systems with
1015 bar are usually fully adequate.
23
In addition to the formation of dust at the nozzle, the impact of the dust
from the feeding system on the machine must be taken care of. In this
respect, the traditional double-chamber machines are advantageous.
Rotor machines can, however, be dust-proofed to a large extent, or even
completely, by various means, such as fitting a rotor dust collector or by
continuously lubricating the rubber gaskets (intermittent lubrication).
Another important problem in the dry spraying process is the relatively
high degree of rebound. Depending on the application surface (vertical
or overhead), 15 to 35 % of concrete is lost. The average loss is 20 to
25 %, compared to between 5 and 10 % with the wet spraying process.
The rebound can be considerably reduced by using the new kinds of
additives and admixtures mentioned above. Microsilica or hydration
control systems like Delvo

crete have a positive effect. The average

losses can thus be restricted to approx. 15 %, which is comparable to
the results obtained with the wet spraying process.
The low performance of the equipment is frequently referred to as a
further drawback. Nowadays, however, machines are available which
make it possible to apply more than 10 m
3
/ h. This is of course no longer
possible by manual application, but by the use of a spraying manipula-
tor. However, due to the increase in wear costs, outputs in excess of
8 m
3
/ h become critical from an economical point of view.
2.4 Conclusion
Thanks to many years of experience in the dry spraying process, there
is now a great deal of know-how available. It is extremely important to
ensure that the materials, equipment and application techniques are
selected and intermatched in the best possible way in order to achieve
satisfactory results with regard to quality and economy.
The dry process is the older of the two spraying processes. Thanks to
on-going developments in machine and material technology, it has been
possible to keep extending the field of application. In the future it is to
be expected that, due to the advantages and the opportunities avail-
able today for overcoming the traditional drawbacks, the dry spraying
process will continue to play an important role. Main applications will be
projects with relatively small volumes and / or high requirements as to
flexibility (e.g. repair) or long conveying distances.
24
3. Wet-mix method
As mentioned earlier, this method is used 100 % in Scandinavia, Europe
and in a large number of the major underground construction projects
around the world. The considerable increase in the use of sprayed con-
crete for rock support over the last 20 to 25 years has made demands
on the method and therefore the technology has gone through an inten-
sive development.
The development in the wet-mix method in Scandinavia between 1971
and 1980 has caused the Scandinavian sprayed concrete market to turn
upside down. During this period the sprayed concrete market turned
from 100 % dry-mix spraying to 100 % wet-mix spraying. During the
same period a similar change from manual to robot application took
place. This dramatic change is unique to Norway. Since about 1976
1978 silica fume and steel fibres have been added to wet-mix sprayed
concrete in rapidly increasing volumes.
It is not unfair to say that Norwegians lead the way into real wet-mix
sprayed concrete, they are those who have definitely the longest experi-
ence and who know most about wet spraying.
Wet spraying received a bad reputation because of poor equipment
and little knowledge of the method. Therefore, concrete of very poor
quality was produced. In order to allow the mix to pass through the
equipment, very high water contents were used, with w / c factors of
up to 1.0. Thanks to the latest development in the concrete industry
it is no problem nowadays to produce wet-mix sprayed concrete with
compressive strengths of more than 60 MPa at 28 days.
Today, wet spraying is also used for the construction of new buildings
(instead of traditional casting) and repairing of oil platforms in the North
Sea. This is prove of the quality of the method as it is well-known that
very stringent demands are made on methods and materials used in
off-shore construction.
25
3.1 The reasons for the change to the wet-mix method
It is not known why the rapid change in Scandinavia has had no paral-
lel in any other country. A description of the reasons under Norwegian
conditions may give some explanation.
3.1.1 Economy
The spraying capacity has increased substantially from the dry-mix
machines / spraying manipulators to the latest models of mechanized
spraying manipulators. The practical average long term capacity per
8-hour shift is normally 45 times higher than that of the dry-mix
method.
Investment cost for the new wet-mix spraying systems increased dra-
matically, but as a matter of fact there was a parallel significant drop of
the cost of in-place sprayed concrete. One of the main cost factors, the
set-up time per spraying round, decreased. Due to the integrated nature
of mobile spraying units, the application of sprayed concrete can be
started in a matter of minutes after arrival of the equipment on site. With
the introduction of the hydraulic bore hammers the capacity of drilling
increased by about 100 %. With higher investment less time is spent per
round for drilling and blasting. Therefore, time cost increased. The time
spent on spraying had to be as short as possible. Therefore the key fac-
tor was to increase the capacity of sprayed concrete application.
The reduction in rebound of about per m
3
of sprayed concrete also
had an important economical impact.
3.1.2 Working environment
When working with the dry-mix process the operators were used to
a lot of dust. The dust emission was located not only at the nozzle,
but also at the spraying machine. Measurements of dust in the work-
ing atmosphere normally gave results of more than three times of the
amount allowed.
26
With the wet-mix method the change in the working atmosphere was
evident and the crew would usually express their satisfaction with this
improvement.
Spraying under severe rock conditions was one of the features that
brought about the development of the wet-mix method. The safety risk
was often unacceptable without a spraying manipulator and the use of
steel fibre reinforcement.
3.1.3 Quality
Quality is normally not considered as an asset of wet spraying nor as
a reason to change from the dry to the wet method. We do not agree
with those people stating that the wet-mix method produces bad quality
and hence should be avoided. By using water-reducing admixtures (low
w / c ratio) and microsilica, peak compressive strengths of wet sprayed
concrete can be as high as 100 MPa.
The quality spread in wet-mix spraying is fairly stable with a low spread
of results. With dry-mix spraying this is more problematic.
3.1.4 Application
With the wet method, a ready mixed concrete from a concrete plant is
used, or a pre-bagged mortar is mixed. The concrete is prepared in the
same way as for normal concrete. It is possible to check and control the
w / c ratio and thus the quality at any time. The consistency can be adjusted
e.g. by means of admixtures.
With the wet-mix method it is easier to produce a uniform quality through-
out the spraying process. The ready mix is emptied into a pump and
forwarded through the hose by pressure. At the beginning mainly mono
(worm) pumps were used. Today, piston pumps predominate and will
continue to do so in the future.
At the nozzle at the end of the hose, air is added to the concrete at a rate
of 715 m
3
/ min and at a pressure of 7 bar depending on whether the
spraying is performed manually or by a manipulator. The air is added to
27
increase the speed of the concrete so that good compaction is achieved
as well as adherence to the surface. A mistake often made with the wet
spraying method is that not enough air is used. Mostly only 48 m
3
/ min are
added which gives bad results for compressive strength, adherence and
rebound. For manipulator spraying, up to 15 m
3
/ min is necessary.
In addition to the air, set accelerators are added at the nozzle. Sceptics
are wrong to maintain that frost-safe concrete cannot be obtained and
that sprayed concrete with set accelerators gives a poorer bonding.
Several well documented tests from public institutes and practical expe-
rience have shown that better frost proofing has been obtained than
without accelerators due to the fact that a tighter and more durable con-
crete is obtained. Bonding is also improved by the accelerators because
trickling is avoided and the concrete bonds immediately to the surface.
3.2 Advantages
The advantages of the wet-mix method compared to the dry-mix method
can be summarised as follows:
<
Far less rebound. A loss of 510 % is normal with use of correct
equipment and trained personnel. These figures also apply to the
spraying of fibre reinforced concrete.
<
Better working environment; dust problem reduced.
<
Thicker layers because of effective use of the admixing materials.
<
Controlled water dosage (constant, defined w / c ratio).
<
Improved bonding.
<
Higher compressive strength and very little variation in results.
<
Much larger production and consequently improved total economy.
<
Use of steel fibres / structural polymer fibres and new advanced
admixtures.
3.3 Disadvantages
<
Limited conveying distance (max. 300 m).
<
Increased demands on aggregate quality.
<
Only limited interruptions.
<
Cleaning costs.
28
3.4 Summary of wet method
With manipulator spraying of sufficiently large surfaces, an average pro-
duction of 60100 m
3
may be achieved (with less than 10 % rebound)
using the wet-mix method over a production time of 8 hours with one
man.
Comparing dry and wet methods, one conclusion could be that the dry-
mix method should be used for small volume applications (e.g. repairs)
and in cases with very special conditions (long conveying distances,
repeated interruptions etc.), whereas the wet-mix method should be
used in all rock support works.
3.5 Mix design for wet spraying
Aids available for making good sprayed concrete with the wet-mix
method:
<
Cement
<
Microsilica
<
Aggregates
<
Admixtures
<
Liquid alkali-free set accelerators
<
Fibres
<
After-treatment
<
Correct spraying equipment
<
Correct execution
We shall briefly deal with the individual areas here in order to elucidate
the advantages, but also point out drawbacks due to improper use. As
mentioned earlier, the same requirements are made on sprayed con-
crete as on normal concrete for construction, namely
<
Low w / c ratio
<
Less water
<
Less cement
<
Good casting ability
The conflict between the properties of fresh concrete and set concrete
is particularly strong for sprayed concrete and used to reduce the
29
quality of wet-mix sprayed concrete. Water-reducing admixtures, as
well as microsilica and fibres have, however, altered this.
3.5.1 Microsilica
Silica fume, or microsilica, is considered to be a very reactive pozzolan.
It has a high capacity to incorporate foreign ions, particularly alkalis.
Microsilica has a definite filler effect in that it is believed to distribute
the hydration products in a more homogeneous fashion in the available
space. That leads to a concrete with reduced permeability, increased
sulphate resistance and improved freezing and thawing durability.
When considering the properties of microsilica concrete, it is important
to keep in mind that microsilica can be used in two ways:
<
as a cement replacement, in order to obtain reduction in the cement
content usually for economic reasons.
<
as an addition to improve concrete properties both in fresh and
hardened state.
In sprayed concrete, microsilica has to be used rather as an additive
than as a substitute for cement to improve the concrete and spraying
properties.
3.5.1.1 Special advantages of sprayed concrete with microsilica
Normal sprayed concrete qualities, i.e. 2030 MPa cube strengths, can
be produced without microsilica, whereas a practical and economical
production of higher strengths is more or less dependent on the use of
microsilica. It seems favourable from a technical point of view to use
510 % bcw of microsilica.
The correct use of microsilica can provide the sprayed concrete with the
following properties:
<
Better pumpability (lubricates and prevents bleeding and segrega-
tion)
<
Reduced wear on the pumping equipment and hoses
<
Increased cohesiveness of the fresh concrete and therefore
reduced consumption of accelerator which is positive for the final
compressive strength
30
<
Increased bonding strength to various substrates and between
sprayed concrete layers
<
Improved strengths
<
Improved resistance against alkali aggregate reaction
<
Improved permeability resistance
<
Reduced rebound
<
Improved sulphate resistance
In fibre reinforced sprayed concrete it also provides:
<
Easier mixing and distributing of fibres
<
Reduced fibre rebound
<
Improved bonding between cement matrix and fibres
Because of these positive effects we wish to maintain that microsilica
should always be added to the sprayed concrete in order to obtain the
best possible quality.
When adding microsilica to concrete because of its fineness it is neces-
sary to add always a high rate of plasticizers / superplasticizers to disperse
the microsilica. The dosage of admixtures increases by approximately
20 %, compared to sprayed concrete without microsilica.
3.5.2 Aggregates
As for all special concrete, the aggregate quality is of major importance
for the fresh concrete as well as for the hardened product. It is particu-
larly important that the grain size distribution and other characteristics
show only small variations. Of particular importance are the amount
and characteristics of fines, i.e. the grain size distribution and grain size
analysis. However, it is not relevant to talk about choice of aggregate, as
normally the available material must be used and the prescription has
to be adapted to it. Nevertheless, for wet-mix spraying, the following
criteria have to be observed:
<
Maximum diameter: 810 mm. This is because of limitations in the
pumping equipment and in order to avoid too much rebound loss.
From a technological point of view, one should wish for a larger
maximum diameter.
<
The granule distribution basket is also very important, particularly
its lower part. The fine material content in sieve size 0.125 mm
should be min 45 % and not higher than 89 %.
31
<
Too little fine material gives segregation, bad lubrication and risk of
clogging. However, in the case of fibre concrete the surplus of fine
material is important, both for pumping and compaction. A high fine
material content will give a viscid concrete.
As the margins in the sieve basket are relatively small, it may often
be convenient to combine two or more fractions, e.g. 02, 24 and
48 mm, by adjusting the proportion between them, to make a sieve
curve that fits within the ideal curve limits. Too little fine material will
be compensated by using more cement or microsilica. Too much fine
material is primarily compensated by increasing the dosage of water-
reducing admixtures.
The grain size distribution curve for the aggregate should fall within the
striped area of Figure 5.
ISO sieve
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d
ASTM sieve, sieve size in mm
Figure 5
The quantity of 8 mm particles should preferably not exceed 10 %. The
larger particles will rebound when spraying on a hard surface (when
starting the application) or penetrate already placed concrete producing
craters difficult to fill.
During screening, storing and handling of the aggregates, measures
should be taken to prevent the presence of particles in excess of 8 mm.
Coarse particles may block the nozzle and subsequent cleaning can be
very time consuming.
32
Table 1:
SIEVE MIN % MAX %
0.125 4 12
0.25 11 26
0.50 22 50
1.0 37 72
2.0 55 90
4.0 73 100
8.0 90 100
16.0 100 100
The aggregates shall be well graded, and no fraction shall constitute
more than 30 % of the total. The contents of crushed and non-cubical
material should not exceed 10 %. An improvement of the grain size
curve for a natural sand by the use of crushed materials often results in
an increased water demand and poorer pumpability and compaction.
Before crushed materials are employed as part of the aggregates, tests
for comparison should be done to establish whether the addition of
crushed material gives an improved result.
3.5.3 Admixtures (plasticizers / superplasticizers)
In order to obtain specific properties in the fresh and hardened concrete,
concrete admixtures should always be used in the wet-mix spraying
method. Concrete admixtures are no new inventions. The old Romans
used different types of admixing material in their masonry, such as goat
blood and pig fat in order to make it more mouldable. The effect must
be good, since the constructions are still standing.
The fact is that concrete admixtures are older than PC-cement, but it is
only during the last 30 years that more stringent requirements for higher
quality and production have speeded up development, research and
utilisation of admixing materials. Water reducers are used to improve
concrete workability and cohesiveness in the plastic state. The water
reducer can give a significant increase in slump with the same w / c
ratio, or the w / c ratio can be reduced to achieve the same slump as for
a mix not containing the water reducer. The reduced w / c ratio relates
33
to a direct increase in strength. The higher slump adds to an increased
pumpability.
The wet-mix method is attractive as the concrete is mixed and water
is added under controlled and reproducible conditions, for instance at
a concrete plant. The w / c ratio, one of the fundamental factors in the
concrete technology, is under control. One often forgets, however, that
the equipment makes heavy demands on the fresh concrete first of all in
terms of pumpability. Furthermore, the method requires a larger amount
of fast setting admixing materials, which may lead to loss of strengths
in the final product.
Today, combinations of lignosulphonate, naphthalene and melamine are
often used. This is to obtain the best possible and production-friendly
concrete. Naphthalenes / melamines (superplasticizers) are chemically
distinct from lignosulphonates (plasticizers / water reducers). They are
better known as high range water reducers since they can be used at
high dosages without the problems of set retardation or excessive air
entrainment often associated with high rates of addition of conventional
water reducers. Briefly, we can say that melamine forms a lubricating film
on the particle surfaces, naphthalene electrically charges the cement
particles so that they repel each other and lignosulphonate decreases
the water surface tension. When well dispersed, the cement particles do
not only flow around each other more easily but also coat the aggregates
more completely. The result is a concrete that is both stronger and more
workable.
The effect of superplasticizers / plasticizers to disperse fines makes
them perfect and needed admixtures for sprayed concrete. The slump
increase achieved by adding conventional superplasticizers is time and
temperature dependent. However, pumpability can only be maintained
for a limited time (2090 min) after mixing, and excessive dosages of
admixtures can result in a total loss of cohesiveness and in segregation.
Normal dosage is from 410 kg / m
3
depending on the quality require-
ments, w/c ratio, required consistency, as well as cement and aggregate
type.
A new generation of high performance superplasticizers has entered the
market during the last years. Glenium

is a high performance hyperplas-

ticizer based on a modified polycarboxylic ether. It has the capability to
34
provide a very high water reduction and excellent workability retention,
without the usual unwanted set retarding side effect.
Glenium

is a complex and flexible molecule, comprising functional

groups of chains of differing lengths. The mixing of water with cement
initiates a chemical reaction (i.e. hydration). Water is absorbed into,
and quickly dissolves, the surface of the cement particles. The
Glenium

molecules are attracted to the surface of the cement particles

during mixing and increase the negative charge on the surface, which
causes electrostatic repulsion to occur. This results in greatly improved
dispersion of the cement particles leading to a remarkable improvement
in workability, despite the lower water content. The Glenium

molecules
have very long side chains which also build steric hindrance, further
improving the ability of the cement particles to keep a distance from
each other and further increasing the dispersing effect.
Glenium

has a two step mechanism, which provides for an extended

workability time for the fresh concrete. As part of the chemistry of
Glenium

, a second molecule is incorporated which reacts after the

first. The increasing alkalinity in the concrete during mixing and placing
activates and drives the second molecule. This deferred action provides
an extended workability without the usual side effects of retarded final
setting times and retarded early strengths.
The benefits of Glenium

are:
<
Extremely high water reduction (> 40 %)
<
Low capillary porosity
<
Long extended workability, with the lowest possible water/cement
ratio
<
High cohesiveness, easy pumpability
<
Rapid strength development
Glenium

, a polycarboxylic, is already widely used in combination with

alkali-free accelerators. It represents the future of sprayed concrete
admixtures.
35
Figure 6: A comparison test on 28 days old concrete with various high
range plasticizers reveals that Glenium produces by far the lowest cap-
illary porosity compared to traditional superplasticizers.
36
3.5.4 Traditional set accelerators
The wet-mix method requires the addition at the nozzle of accelerating
admixtures for fast setting. The primary effect of these products is to
reduce the slump (consistency) at the moment of spraying from liquid
to paste while the concrete is still in the air, so that it will adhere to the
surface as the layer thickness increases.
With the use of set accelerators, effective spraying on vertical and over-
head surfaces becomes possible. The setting effect allows the applica-
tion of sprayed concrete for initial support an important function in
the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM). Water inflow (e.g. from
the rock substrate) usually calls for a higher proportion of admixtures to
accelerate the setting of sprayed concrete.
Accelerators are added in liquid form via a special dosing pump (piston
or worm pump). The accelerator dosage may vary, depending on the
operators skill, the surface and the water / cement ratio (high w / c ratios
will increase the need for accelerators in order to reduce consistency).
Every coin has two sides. A secondary effect of traditional accelerators
(based on aluminate and waterglass) is the reduction in final (28-day)
strength compared to non-accelerated concrete. Therefore, the accel-
erator consumption should be kept at a minimum at all times (lower
consumptions on walls than in the roof).
The difference between aluminates and modified sodium silicate / water-
glass accelerators is basically that aluminate based set accelerators take
part in the hydration process and contribute to higher early strengths
within the first 0.52 hours (12 MPa).
3.5.4.1 How do aluminate accelerators work chemically
in the hydration process?
Ground Portland cement clinker reacts with water spontaneously to a
hardened mass which has a high compressive strength, already after a
few minutes. Because of this quick reaction, these ground clinkers are
only used in some special cases as bonding materials for concrete. To
make them workable in the well-known way, 25 % of calcium sulphate
(CaSO
4
) have to be added.
37
This calcium sulphate reacts with the C
3
A (tricalcium aluminate), one
of the four important clinker phases to form ettringite. The ettringite
surrounds each cement particle like a dense coat which delays, but not
really stops, the further access of water to the cement surface. Due to
this retardation of the reaction of the cement paste, the concrete main-
tains its workability for a certain time. When all sulphates are consumed
and bonded to ettringite, the excess of aluminates reacts with ettringite
again and removes sulphates while building a monosulphate. This
monosulphate is more permeable to water which allows further cement
reaction, in a quicker way, again.
By the addition of aluminate based set accelerators the required content
of aluminates for the reaction to monosulphates will be raised sud-
denly. This allows normal cement hydration in a spontaneous way and
leads to high early compressive strengths.
Normal setting characteristics for aluminate based accelerators are:
initial set: < 60 seconds*
end of set: < 3.5 minutes*
(* = Tested with manual vicat needle test machine and process.)
Figure 7: Setting behaviour of a high-efficiency aluminate based liquid
accelerator
Aluminate based accelerators are preferably used in soft rock with
heavy rock deformation and where high early strength support and
38
large thicknesses (> 15 cm) are required within a short time after the
excavation.
Aluminate based accelerators start to develop strengths after 510 min
and after 2030 min the strength is normally high enough (> 0.4 MPa)
that the sprayed concrete layer is strong enough to bear its own weight.
Therefore with aluminate based accelerators thicker layers can be
sprayed than with modified sodium silicate or water-glass. Typical thick-
nesses can vary from 2050 cm overhead.
Normal procedure is to spray a first layer of 610 cm in the whole area
with each set up. By the time this is completed, strength has sufficiently
developed so that going back to the starting point a new 10 cm layer
can be sprayed. This process can be repeated until the required thick-
ness is reached.
Aluminate based accelerators are also suitable to use where there are
water problems. The normal spraying procedure with water problems
is to put up a very thin layer of sprayed concrete with an overdose of
aluminate accelerator (810 % b.w.) and to wait for 30 min until this layer
has developed sufficient strength to bear the water pressure. Spraying
is continued until the required thickness is reached.
The disadvantages of aluminate based set accelerators are:
<
Higher decrease in final strength than with modified sodium silicate
(> 3050 %)
<
Very sensitive to type of cement, will not work with every type of
cement. The reactivity of the cement has to be tested before spraying
is started.
<
Very high pH (> 13) and therefore aggressive to skin, eyes etc.
Special precautions for handling and using this type of accelerator have
to be observed. People involved in handling and spraying must always
wear gloves, mask and goggles, and all direct contact with skin must
be avoided.
Typical dosages of aluminate based set accelerators:
48 % of b.w.
There are two types of aluminate based set accelerators:
<
Sodium aluminate
39
<
Potassium aluminate
Potassium aluminate based accelerators work with a larger variety of
cement types and normally give faster setting and higher early strength
than sodium aluminate based accelerators.
Setting test with aluminate based accelerators
1) Weigh, to the nearest 1 g, 300 g cement.
2 Weigh a quantity of water, e.g. 90 to 105 g (to obtain a standard con-
sistence), in the rubber cup.
3) Add superplasticizer (usually 1 g) into the rubber cup and mix with
water.
4) Add the cement carefully into the rubber cup to avoid loss of water
or cement (the time of addition shall be 5 to 10 seconds) and mix
shortly (15 seconds) and vigorously by hand (with the wooden blade
spatula).
5) Start the mixer immediately and run it for 1 min.
6) Stop the mixer, add the set accelerator and mix efficiently by hand
(with the wooden blade spatula) for 15 to 20 seconds. Note the time
of addition of the accelerator as zero time from which later measure-
ments of time shall be made.
7) Form a cake out of the accelerated cement paste and put it under
the Vicat test machine.
8) Only use the manual (not automatic) Vicat needle machine.
9) Test the initial set and record it. The needle should stop at 12 mm
from the bottom.
10) Test the end of set and record it. The needle may not penetrate into
the cement paste.
Setting criteria
Initial set
< 30 seconds good
< 60 seconds acceptable
> 60 seconds not acceptable
End of set
< 3 minutes good
< 4 minutes acceptable
> 4 minutes not acceptable
40
Main criteria for aluminate based accelerators:
C
3
A 510 %, preferably 79 %
Blaine > 3 500, preferably > 4 000
Also depending on the blending of fly-ash, slag and gypsum.
3.5.4.2 Modified sodium silicates / water glass
Modified sodium silicates / water glass give only momentarily a gluing
effect (< 10 s) of the sprayed concrete mix (loss of slump) and take no
part in the hydration process like aluminate based accelerators (if dos-
ages do not exceed 20 % of b.w.)
Modified sodium silicates bind the water in the mix. Dosage is therefore
depending on the w / c ratio: The higher the w / c ratio the more modified
sodium silicate / water glass is required in order to glue the water and
the mix.
Modified sodium silicates or water glass do not give very high strength
within the first 24 hours. Normal final setting is from > 30 min (depend-
ing on cement type and temperature).
Advantages
<
Work with all types of cement
<
Less decrease in final strengths than with aluminate based accel-
erators at normal dosages (46 %)
<
Very good gluing effect
<
Environmentally friendly, not so aggressive for skin. The pH is < 11.5,
but still direct skin contact has to be avoided and gloves and gog-
gles should always be used.
<
Much lower alkali content than aluminate based products (< 8.5 %
of Na
2
O)

Disadvantages
<
Temperature depending (cannot be used at temperatures below
+5C)
<
Limited thickness: max 815 cm
41
3.5.4.3 Fields of application
<
For permanent support
<
For temporary support, where no early strengths are required (hard
rock conditions)
<
Repair work
<
In places where max thickness of overhead application is limited to
1015 cm
3.5.4.4 Typical dosages
Modified sodium silicates: 36 % by b.w.
Water glass should normally not be used because high dosages (> 10
12 %, normally 20 %) are needed that decrease strengths and give a
very bad quality and a false security. Normal water glass is more or less
banned.
The European Specification for Sprayed Concrete (EFNARC) only allows
a maximum dosage of 8 % by weight of the cementitious material for the
use of liquid accelerators.
The effect of modified sodium silicates in reducing final strength depends
also on the curing conditions. At a dosage of 15 % of the cement weight,
a 50 % strength loss could result; if samples are water cured, the loss
is reduced to 30 %.
3.5.5 Alkali-free sprayed concrete accelerators
Of late, safety and ecological concerns have become dominant in the
sprayed concrete accelerator market and applicators have started to
be reluctant to apply aggressive products. In France, Switzerland, UK,
Hong Kong, Singapore and Austria, e.g., it is no longer allowed to use
caustic aluminate accelerators due to the health risk to personnel.
According to information given in the ITA Working Group on Sprayed
Concrete in Washington, 1996, one important reason for the large wet-
mix market in Brazil is the health problems caused by dust in dry-mix
spraying.
42
In addition, requirements for reliability and durability of concrete struc-
tures are increasing. Strength loss or leaching effects suspected to be
caused by strong alkaline accelerators have forced our industry to pro-
vide answers and to develop products with better performances.
Traditionally, sprayed concrete operators have been used to excessive
dust and health problems: skin burns, risk of loss of eyesight and even
risk of injury due to falling rock (especially in the case of dry-mix manual
spraying, with caustic aluminate accelerators and mesh reinforcement
on unsupported ground). It is an international trend that these negative
conditions are no longer accepted (with large local variations).
During the last decade the construction industry has been crying-out
for safer sprayed concrete accelerators with better performance. Today,
well functioning liquid alkali-free and non caustic products are available,
providing safe, high quality and cost effective sprayed concrete applica-
tions. There is no longer an excuse for using dangerous products, such
as the traditional caustic aluminates and caustic industrial waterglass.
The author is in favour of totally forbidding these types of products.
UGC International is still selling caustic aluminates, but on direct request
only, and no promotion activities are carried out any longer. As a con-
sequence, the sales volume has been dramatically reduced and has
been replaced by UGC Internationals liquid alkali-free and non caustic
accelerators.
The responsibility to improve the sprayed concrete application as well
as the environmental and working safety now lies with the owners, the
specifiers and the contractors.
Due to their complex chemistry, alkali-free accelerators are legitimately
more expensive than traditional accelerators. However, accelerator
prices have very little influence on the total cost of in-place sprayed
concrete. Of much larger consequence are the time and rebound sav-
ings achieved, the enhancement of the quality and the safe working
environment.
43
3.5.5.1 Dust development
The choice of the wet-mix method as well as the replacement of caustic
aluminate accelerators by liquid non caustic and alkali-free products are
big steps toward an improved working environment. Dust and rebound
are dramatically reduced and skin burns can be made a matter of the
past.
Dust measurements from the North Cape Tunnel in Norway (see
case study in chap. 3.5.5.10) where high performance wet-mix
sprayed concrete with the liquid non caustic alkali-free accelera-
tor MEYCO

SA160 is used, show a total dust content of less than

3.7 mg per m
3
of air in the immediate environment of the operator. This
value is two times lower than those of measurements obtained with
liquid modified silicate accelerators, under the same conditions, see
also Figure 8.
Direct comparisons by dust measurements under equal conditions in
the same tunnel, are difficult to find. One example is the report by Dipl.
Ing. Markus Testor from the Irlahll Tunnel in Germany. The dust devel-
opment was measured for three application systems:
1) Dry-mix process with oven dried aggregates mixed with Schwenk
quick cement CEM I 32.5 R / SE, using a Rombold Spraymobile.
2) Dry-mix process with naturally humid aggregate and Heidelberg
Cronolith S quick cement, using a Heidelberg Trixer with a SBS Type
B1 spraying machine.
3) Wet-mix process with Karstadt CEM I 42.5 cement, liquid alkalifree
accelerator MEYCO

SA140 and a MEYCO

Roadrunner Spray-
mobile.
The measurements were carried out with an optical fine dust instrument
- hund TM DATA. The relative dust intensities measured in the immediate
environment of the spraying operator were:
Spraying system Rel. dust intensity Spraying capacity Nozzles
1) (dry) 12.6 13.5 m
3
/h 2
2) (dry) 6.6 6.8 m
3
/h 1
3) (wet) 3.3 15.4 m
3
/h 1
44
Another example are dust measurements carried out in Scandinavia
between 1979 and 1998, see Figure 8.
Ulla Frre. Output ~5 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
Stockholm. Output ~5 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
Lillestrm. Output ~8 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
North Cape (1998). Modified silicate based accelerator, output ~15 m
3
/hour
North Cape (1998). MEYCO

SA160 liquid alkali-free and non caustic

accelerator, output ~15 m
3
/hour
10 20 30 40 50
Total dust [ mg / m
3
of air ]
Dry-mix process Wet-mix process
Figure 8: Comparison of dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed concrete, with
different types of accelerators, based on some examples of dust
measurements carried out in Scandinavia between 1979 and 1998.
The application of the wet mixes in the North Cape Tunnel was carried
out under identical conditions (equipment, operator, tunnel ventilation,
spraying capacity and mix design).
3.5.5.2 Confusing chemistry: non caustic / alkali-free
In the context of sprayed concrete accelerators, the actual meaning
of the terms non caustic and alkali-free are frequently mixed up. The
reason for this is the dual meaning of alkaline in English professional
language. The term alkaline can be understood as:
1) A basic liquid (with a pH value in the range of 7 to 14). As an example,
calcium oxide dissolved in water produces a high concentration of
OH
-
-ions and a pH value of about 13. This solution is strongly basic
(= alkaline), but it contains no alkali cations.
45
Another example are dust measurements carried out in Scandinavia
between 1979 and 1998, see Figure 8.
Ulla Frre. Output ~5 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
Stockholm. Output ~5 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
Lillestrm. Output ~8 m
3
/hour (ref. T. Myran)
North Cape (1998). Modified silicate based accelerator, output ~15 m
3
/hour
North Cape (1998). MEYCO

SA160 liquid alkali-free and non caustic

accelerator, output ~15 m
3
/hour
10 20 30 40 50
Total dust [ mg / m
3
of air ]
Dry-mix process Wet-mix process
Figure 8: Comparison of dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed concrete, with
different types of accelerators, based on some examples of dust
measurements carried out in Scandinavia between 1979 and 1998.
The application of the wet mixes in the North Cape Tunnel was carried
out under identical conditions (equipment, operator, tunnel ventilation,
spraying capacity and mix design).
3.5.5.2 Confusing chemistry: non caustic / alkali-free
In the context of sprayed concrete accelerators, the actual meaning
of the terms non caustic and alkali-free are frequently mixed up. The
reason for this is the dual meaning of alkaline in English professional
language. The term alkaline can be understood as:
1) A basic liquid (with a pH value in the range of 7 to 14). As an example,
calcium oxide dissolved in water produces a high concentration of
OH
-
-ions and a pH value of about 13. This solution is strongly basic
(= alkaline), but it contains no alkali cations.
2) A solution containing alkali cations such as Na
+
, K
+
, Li
+
. An example
is common salt dissolved in water (sodium chloride solution).
This solution contains alkali cations; its pH value, however, is approx.
7, and it is therefore neutral.
Alkalinity and alkali content are two independent properties! For sprayed
concrete accelerators the term alkali-free should have only one mean-
ing: The set accelerator contains a maximum of 1 % by weight of
Na
2
O equivalent (which represents sodium and potassium content as
described in DIN EN 480-12).
The reason to aim for this is that this will reduce the risk of alkali cations
reacting with sensitive minerals (dissolvable silica, SiO
2
) that are some-
times in the concrete aggregates. If such a reaction takes place, aggre-
gate grains will fracture due to expansion. This may have a detrimental
effect on the sprayed concrete matrix.
Most accelerators are strongly basic (pH value 1214). This can be
expressed as caustic, basic, aggressive or in some cases corrosive,
however, the term alkaline should be avoided. There are also examples of
accelerators that are strong acids (pH value 02). This can be expressed
as acidic, aggressive or corrosive. The background for the importance
of this property is working safety and working environment.
Table 2: Corrosiveness: The pH scale
0

7 14
acidic neutral basic (alkaline)
Aggressive / Not corrosive Aggressive /
corrosive to: and corrosive to:
Steel not Aluminium
Concrete aggressive Eyes and skin
Eyes and skin Respiratory organs
Respiratory organs
Examples of pH values:
1 4 7 10 12 14
sulphuric acid, acetic acid water soda, cement sodium
hydrochloric ammonia milk hydroxide
acid (caustic soda)
46
Strong acids as well as strong bases can be dangerous to personnel
because of their aggressive behaviour upon contact with eyes, skin and
the respiratory organs. The general terms to be used in this relation are
therefore near neutral (pH value 59) and aggressive (pH value 04 and
1014).
3.5.5.3 Non caustic alkali-free accelerators in liquid form
The increasing demand for accelerators for sprayed concrete termed
alkali-free always contains one or more of the following issues:
1) Reduction of risk of alkali-aggregate reaction, by removing the alkali
content arising from the use of the common caustic aluminate based
accelerators.
2) Improvement of working safety by reduced aggressiveness of the
accelerator in order to avoid skin burns, loss of eyesight and respir-
atory health problems.
3) Environmental protection by reducing the amount of released aggres-
sive and other harmful components to ground water, from sprayed
concrete and its rebound.
4) Reduced loss of sprayed concrete final strength, normally in the
range of 15 to 50 % with older accelerator products.
The focus within different markets, regarding the above points, is
variable. Where most sprayed concrete is used for primary lining (in
design considered temporary and not permanent), points 2 and 3 are
the most important. When sprayed concrete is used for permanent
structures, items 1 and 4 become equally important. This variation
in basic reason why to require a new accelerator technology has
caused some confusion.
Requirements in different countries, examples
In some countries almost all sprayed concrete in tunnelling is defined
as temporary and is disregarded in the design of the permanent lining.
The possible durability problems created by an alkali aggregate reac-
tion in the sprayed concrete is therefore not an issue. There is, however,
a growing demand for alkali-free accelerators, as legislation is being
established, to improve working safety. In other words, the real require-
ment is for non aggressive accelerators.
47
In other countries the same use of sprayed concrete prevails, but there
exist so far no regulations which prohibit aggressive accelerators. Out
of concerns for environmental protection (= ground water) the authori-
ties are, however, now requiring alkali-free accelerators. No additional
high pH leaching components other than cement shall be used. The
real requirement is in this case for a non aggressive (highly irritant)
accelerator.
There are also countries where most sprayed concrete in tunnelling is
temporary from a design point of view, but where, however, it is normal
to require an alkali-free accelerator, i.e. non caustic and containing no
alkali cations to avoid aggressive leaching components and, frequently,
to obtain a limited allowed final strength reduction. Regarding personnel
safety there exist so far no regulations against aggressive products.
Typical Situation I: The practical situation in the above cases is that
of application directly at the tunnel face, mostly spraying on or through
mesh reinforcement and lattice girders or steel beams, working on small
areas at a time and quickly applying layer thicknesses of > 150 mm. A
high early strength is often mandatory for safety reasons.
In the London subway tunnelling the normal procedure when using
sprayed concrete lining is to first apply a primary, temporary lining. So
far there exist no regulations requiring the use of alkali-free accelerators
for this. However, because of the very good results with temporary
wet-mix sprayed concrete, the use of sprayed concrete also for the
permanent lining is getting increased interest, as described by Annett
and Varley. To produce a high quality, durable concrete with marginal
final strength reduction, an alkali-free accelerator was required. In this
case (Jubilee Line, Contract 104), the primary purpose of an alkali-free
accelerator was that of durability and hence no alkali cations. Also at
Heathrow Express Tunnel the first section of permanent sprayed con-
crete lining with alkali-free accelerator has been carried out. Especially
in Scandinavia, but also more and more in other areas, permanent
sprayed concrete linings are being applied in a separate construction
phase, well behind the face area.
These examples could be summarized as Typical Situation II: The
practical situation is that of a systematic application on relatively large
areas, well behind the tunnel face, partly on mesh reinforcement and
48
lattice girders, but to a growing extent using steel fibres. Final layer
thicknesses may be large, but can be built in passes and a very high
early strength is therefore not required.
In Scandinavia (shallow tunnels) the standard support solution can be
termed as single-shell sprayed concrete lining or one-pass sprayed
concrete lining. This approach is clearly getting increased attention
also in other parts of the world. Basically, it means that the application
of sprayed concrete at the face is carried out under quality requirements
allowing it to be considered as part of the final and permanent sprayed
concrete lining. Single shell means a single structure, which may well
be produced in a number of steps (at the face and behind), see also
chap. 9. Road tunnels, railway tunnels, sub sea road and pipe tunnels,
hydro power tunnels, the Gjvik Olympic ice hockey rink etc. are exam-
ples of this approach in Norway.
In the case of single-shell permanent sprayed concrete linings both of
the two typical situations described above apply. The basic difference is
that the quality requirements are the same throughout the construction.
The different practical requirements may call for different accelerators
at the face and at later stages, depending on cement type and other
local requirements. It has therefore become quite clear from tests with a
range of different accelerators that it is not possible to cover all applica-
tion situations with a single product.
Properties
UGC International has made an important technology breakthrough
with the launch of a range of liquid alkali-free and non caustic accelera-
tors for both wet-mix and dry-mix sprayed concrete. With this step UGC
International puts itself ahead of the state of the art: Products in powder
form are very difficult to use in practice.
Unlike most traditional accelerators, the alkali-free and non caustic
products from UGC International cause no or only minimal decrease in
final strength. Requirements as demanded for HPS (durable sprayed
concrete), e.g. for single shell permanent sprayed concrete linings, can
be met more easily. But the most important innovation presented by the
alkali-free accelerators launched by UGC International is the safe work-
ing environment: Less danger of skin burns for the operators.
49
Table 3
MEYCO

SA160
MEYCO

SA162
MEYCO

SA167
MEYCO

SA180
Physical form (1) liquid liquid liquid liquid
Alkali cations (2)

< 0.5 % < 0.8 % < 0.5 % < 0.5 %
pH value at +20C (3) 2.53.5 2.43.4 2.53.5 3.04.0
Layer thickness (4) 300 mm 300700 mm 300700 mm 300500 mm
Dosage (5)
410 % 37 % 310 % 310 %
Early strength devel. (6) good extremely
good
extremely
good
very
good
Corrosiveness (7) high moderate moderate moderate
Equipment (8) stainless stainless stainless stainless
Effect on skin (9) Xi Xi Xi Xi
Handling (10) simple simple simple simple
Cement sensitive (11) no no no no
Comments on Table 3:
(3) MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA167 / SA180 have a pH value of 2.5 to 4.0

and are therefore acidic. MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA167 / SA180 are

aggressive to steel and this requires acid resistant steel quality for
equipment in direct contact with these products (before spraying).
Once the alkali-free accelerators have been added at the nozzle,
they are instantly neutralised by the alkali-rich cements. There is no
corrosion risk to steel reinforcement.
(4) Minimum layer thickness that can be applied in the roof in one pass,
provided a reasonably compatible cement quality has been chosen.
With well suited cement types, these thicknesses can be substan-
tially increased, although it is sound application technique not to
push the limit. MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA167 / SA180 have proven

to produce extremely large thicknesses, sometimes of up to 700 mm
in one pass.
(5) The dosage is given as percentage by weight of binder (cement
plus any pozzolanic additives). The lowest values indicated are
achieved with good cements (high compatibility), while the maxi-
mum dosage may be used with poorer cements or if high early
strength is required. It may be mentioned that dosages above the
50
given maximum will produce no added quality, but can cause trick-
ling and fall down and will reduce the final strength. Within the indi-
cated dosage range there will be no or only marginal final strength loss.
In some cases the final strength is substantially higher than for the
same concrete without accelerator.
(6) All products show excellent early strength development from about
1 hour upwards. The rating relates to the first few minutes and can
be seen as a parallel to the possible layer thicknesses applied in
the roof. MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA167 / SA180 are very good

with almost all cements and are partly excellent (meaning as good
as, or better, than best results of caustic aluminates).
(11) MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA167 / SA180 work with most cements.

Even with blended cement types causing problems with all other
accelerator types, they often work very well.
3.5.5.4 Alkali-free accelerators in powder form
The approach with powder products involves numerous practical limita-
tions and constraints:
<
Costs for an additional dosing unit
<
One additional man for the dispensing of the accelerator into the dos-
ing/dry spraying machine
<
Higher dosages: approx. 710 % by b.w.
<
More air to feed into the dosing unit (45 m
3
/ min)
<
Higher rebound. Experience from practical tests has shown that the
rebound is 1015 % higher as compared to liquid alkali-free accel-
erators.
<
The approach with powder products is not practical in modern
rapid tunnelling where wet-mix high performance steel fibre rein-
forced sprayed concrete plays an important role: The set up of the
equipment between each spraying cycle is too complicated and too
time consuming.
<
In addition to all these practical and economical limitations and con-
straints, powder products also raise environmental concerns: They
create a lot of dust and therefore cause a very bad working environ-
ment.
51
3.5.5.5 MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176

SA180 / SA181: Sensitivity to type of cement
MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181

can be used with most (also blended and sulphate resistant) cement
types (CEM I-IV). Compatibility tests with the cement(s) to be used are
recommended for every sprayed concrete application with MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 and be-
fore any practical concrete spraying.
Compatibility tests are carried out as follows:
Test of cement reactivity of alkali-free set accelerators
(MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 /

SA180 / SA181)
In a cement paste:
(Equipment: mixing pot with rounded spatula, manual Vicat needle,
stop-watch, testing cups)
1) Determine the water demand of cement (EN 196-3).
2) Weigh water according to the water demand of cement.
3) Weigh Glenium

T801 or similar superplasticizer (project related).
4) Weigh 300 g cement (+20C 1C).
5) Mix very intensively for 2 min until a homogeneous paste is obtained.
6) Add 310 g of accelerator (project related) and mix for max 5 s.
7) Immediately after mixing: fill up a test cup, place it under the manual
Vicat needle and start measuring the penetration.
8) Record initial set (needle stops 12 mm from the bottom of the
cement paste).
9) Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement paste).
Interpretation of results:
Initial set <2 min <4 min >4 min
Final set <5 min <8 min >8 min
Rating good acceptable not acceptable
52
In a mortar (according to EN 196, EN 480):
(Equipment: Hobbart mixer, manual Vicat needle, mortar prism forms)
1) Weigh water (according to w / c ratio, project related) and plasti-
cizer (Glenium

T801 or similar, dosage project related) in the bowl,

homogenize. Pour carefully 450 g cement (+20 C 1 C) in the bowl
and stir for 30 s on level I.
2) Add 1350 g norm sand within 30 s and mix for 30 s on level I.
3) Mix for 30 s on level II.
4) Stop for 90 s. During the first 15 s remove all mortar adhering to the
wall and place it in the middle of the bowl.
5) Mix again for 60 s on level II.
6) Check the flow of the mortar. Required flow: 19 1 cm. Adjust by w/c
ratio or the dosage of superplasticizer (project related).
7) Add 310 % bcw of accelerator (dosage project related) and mix for
max 15 s on level II.
8) Immediately after mixing: prepare the test prism.
9) Fill the prism form on a vibration table for 30 s to avoid bad compac-
tion.
10) Place it under the manual Vicat needle and start measuring the
penetration.
11) Record initial set (needle stops 12 mm from the bottom of the
cement mortar).
12) Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement mortar).
13) Measure the compressive strength at 6 hours and at 24 hours.
Interpretation of results:
Initial set < 2 min 25 min > 5 min
Final set < 6 min 813 min > 13 min
6-hour strength > 3 MPa 13 MPa < 1 MPa
24-hour strength > 15 MPa 1015 MPa < 10 MPa
Rating good acceptable not acceptable
Note:
If the setting times are bad, the 24-hour strength can still be good. Even
with a slow setting it is possible to spray 57 cm on the wall or 35 cm
overhead.
In most instances these tests do not work very well as the setting is too
fast for thorough mixing. UGC International has developed an equip-
ment to spray mortars for setting tests as a consequence.
53
3.5.5.6 Comparison of early strength results with traditional
aluminate based accelerators
The formation of compressive strength and especially early strength is
one of the most important parameters and properties of sprayed concrete
used for rock support. It is, as well, one of the most important properties
which can be changed by the addition of an accelerator. A series of
tests have been done in order to position the new alkali-free MEYCO

SA accelerators. The early strength of sprayed concrete during the first
24 hours was measured for MEYCO

SA160 and traditional sprayed
concrete accelerators used in the market (Delvo

crete Activator S71

(potassium aluminate) and S51 (sodium aluminate).
All accelerators were tested with the same mix design (w / c ratio, slump,
etc.), and the tests were all sprayed from the same truck load. All spray-
ing was done with MEYCO

Suprema and the same nozzle man. Curing
conditions and temperature were the same for all accelerators. Testing
of the early strengths was done with a MEYCO

Penetration Needle (up
to 0.81.0 MPa) and with Hilti (from 1.0 MPa). All testings were done by
the same person.
Results from the test
Compressive strength measurements (at +20C)
Type and dosage
of accelerator
Strengths measured at:
15 30 1 h 4 h 6 h 12 h 24 h
Delvo

crete Activator S71

4 %
5 %
1.2
1.0
1.4
1.0
2.0
1.2
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
8.0
7.5
10.2
10.6
Delvo

crete Activator S51

4 %
5 %
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
2.0
2.0
5.5
4.0
8.0
7.5
15.3
14.4
MEYCO

SA160
6 %
9 %
0.5
0.8
0.7
1.2
0.8
1.2
0.9
1.4
6.0
8.0
20.0
19.0
20.5
22.5
All results in MPa. MEYCO

Penetration Needle / Hilti.
10 measurements for each result.
54
Concrete mix design
Cement, type CEM I 42.5 (OPC) 425 kg
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 713 kg
Rheobuild

1000 1.5 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.2 %

w / c ratio 0.470.48
Slump 20 cm
Spread table 51 cm
There is no significant difference in the strength formation between the
different types of accelerators. It seems that the Delvo

crete Activators
S71 / S51 (aluminates) have a faster strength development in the first
12 hours but later the increase is much slower than that of the other
accelerators. All accelerators have a drastic increase of the strength
after 45 hours from 12 to 810 MPa. The highest 46-hour results
were achieved with MEYCO

SA160.
Early strength development
Figure 9: Early strength development of MEYCO

SA160 at +20C
55
Figure 10: Early strength development of MEYCO

SA160 at < +10C

Table 4: Comparison of early strength development of different alkali-
free accelerators from spraying trials at +20C with identical mix design
and cement type (CEM I 42.5, Holcim) and at different dosages
Type and dosage of
accelerator
Compressive strengths (MPa) measured at:
0.05 h 0.1 h 0.25 h 0.5 h 1 h 2 h 4 h 6 h 24 h
MEYCO

SA160
7 % bcw
9 % bcw
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.1
5.5
8.3
10.2
17.4
19.4
MEYCO

SA162
6 % bcw
8 % bcw
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.1
1.8
9.3
7.7
MEYCO

SA167
7 % bcw
9 % bcw
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
1.7
3.1
4.9
7.0
10.7
10.3
18.8
17.2
MEYCO

SA180
5 % bcw
7 % bcw
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.8
1.0
5.7
6.4
10.6
11.3
22.8
24.8
56
3.5.5.7 Dosing and equipment
Dosing guidelines
Product Dosage
(c.w./b.w.)
Spraying
method
Place to add
MEYCO

SA160 410 % wet Preferably at the nozzle

MEYCO

SA160 310 % dry At the nozzle together

with the water (same
as adding aluminate
based accelerators)
MEYCO

SA162 /
SA163 / SA167
39 % wet Always at the nozzle
MEYCO

SA162 37 % dry At the nozzle together

with the water (same
as adding aluminate
based accelerators)
MEYCO

SA175 / SA176 /
SA180 / SA181
37 % wet Always at the nozzle
MEYCO

SA180 / SA181
37 % dry At the nozzle together
with the water (same
as adding aluminate
based accelerators)
MEYCO

SA540 /SA545
510 % dry Manually or with a
special powder dosing
unit into the mix before
feeding it into the
spraying machine
Note: All equipment parts in immediate contact with MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 must be
made of stainless steel.
57
Cleaning of dosing pump with the use of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 /SA175 / SA176 / SA180 /
SA181
With the use of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 /

SA176 / SA180 / SA181, the dosing pump, incl. sucking hose (valve) and
accelerator hose, must be cleaned very well with water before spraying
is started. It must be 100% sure that the cleaning has been done (use
a lot of water).
Every day, the whole system has also to be cleaned with water.
Otherwise, there will be blockages in the dosing system. All people
involved in tests with and usage of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 /

SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 have to be informed about this.
Type of dosing system for MEYCO

SA160 / SA163 / SA167

MEYCO

SA160 / SA163 / SA167 are dispersions and therefore not all

types of dosing pumps will work properly. In order to achieve a good
result, it is of the utmost importance to secure a constant and adequate
dosage.
We recommend the following types:
work very well:
<
Mono pump
<
Squeeze pump (Bredel)
can be used:
<
Membrane pump
not to be used:
<
Piston pumps
<
All systems with seat valve system
<
Pressure tank
When changing from one to another accelerator / activator, the whole
dosing system must be cleaned properly (incl. sucking hose) in order to
avoid any chemical reaction and clogging of the system.
58
Note:
Do not use a filter on the sucking hose as this causes obstruc-
tions. Avoid suction directly off the bottom of the drum / con-
tainer.
Always use dosing equipment made of stainless steel
or of other non corrosive material with the use of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181.
3.5.5.8 Compatibility with other accelerators
Do not mix MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 /

SA180 / SA181 with other accelerators because this will cause immedi-
ate clogging of pumps and hoses.
Before using MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 /

SA180 / SA181, dosing pump, accelerator hose, nozzle and pulsation
damper must be 100 % clean and free of any old products.
The same procedure must also be followed when changing from
MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181

to other accelerators.
MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181

are compatible with each other, and no cleaning of equipment or hoses
is required when changing within this product range. However, storage of
mixed alkali-free accelerators is not recommended.
3.5.5.9 Special requirements for the use of MEYCO

SA160 /
SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 for
wet spraying
Mix design
<
Minimum cement content: 380 kg, preferably 450 kg
<
When used in wet spraying, the w / b ratio must always be in the
range of 0.4 to 0.5. Humidity (water) contained in the aggregates
must be taken into account!
59
The lower the w / b ratio, the better the results achieved:
- faster setting
- higher early strengths
- lower dosage
- spraying of thicker layers overhead
The results of a w / b ratio > 0.5 are:
- slower setting
- lower early strengths
- difficulty to apply layers of more than 57 cm; concrete will not
stick to the rock substrate
<
Temperature:
Slower strength development at low temperatures when compared
to other accelerator types.
Compatibility of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 /

SA175 /SA176 / SA180 / SA181
All types of admixtures, including Delvo

crete Stabilizer, can be used with

MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181.

Storage of MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 /

SA176 / SA180 / SA181
Always stir prior to use. Do not store MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 /

SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 in steel tanks.
Safety precautions
MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 / SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181

are non caustic products and contain no hazardous substances which
require labelling or special precautions.
3.5.5.10 Typical results from field tests
A) MEYCO

SA145
Heathrow Express, Contract C/D, London
OPC 42.5N 355 kg / m
3
Micro silica slurry 60 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 670 kg / m
3
Steel fibres (Dramix 30 / 50) 40 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

2000PF 9.6 kg / m
3
60
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 4 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.40
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA145 25 kg / m
3
Compressive strength:
Manipulator spraying Manual spraying
12 h 14.5 MPa 7.0 MPa
24 h 35.5 MPa 19.0 MPa
3 days 43.5 MPa 35.5 MPa
28 days 50 MPa
100 days 58 MPa
120 days 62 MPa
The application by manipulator has given substantially better strength
results (100, 87 and 23 % improvement at 12 h, 24 h and 3 days respec-
tively). In our opinion this is caused by the improved compaction due to
reduced work load and inconvenience for the nozzle operator in using
correct application distance and angle.
B) MEYCO

SA160
Hslen Tunnel, Switzerland
Cement 42.5 (Siggenthal), slow-setting 450 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

T3 (= superplasticizer 1.2 % (hydration

+ Delvo

crete Stabilizer) stop during 6 hours)

w / c ratio 0.41
Spread table 56 cm
Air temperature +13C
Thickness applied 150 mm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 5 %
Compressive strength:
12 h (Hilti) 18.5 MPa
24 h (Hilti) 23.5 MPa
3 days 45.0 MPa
7 days 49.0 MPa
28 days 61.0 MPa
61
NEAT Intermediate Access Tunnel, Sedrun, Switzerland
Cement, CEM I 42.5 450 kg / m
3
Micro silica slurry 50 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 644 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

T3 1.2 %
w / b ratio 0.47
Spread table 53 cm
Thickness applied 1015 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 5 %
Rebound < 8 %
Compressive strength:
4 h 3.7 MPa
12 h 11.3 MPa
1 day 27 MPa
7 days 36.5 MPa
28 days 42 MPa
91 days 48.6 MPa
The Sedrun tunnel, lot 350, is a key part of the St. Gotthard Alp Transit
Railway Project and consists of the four excavation faces of the one-lane
tubes going North and South, a turn-out and the multi-purpose point
in Sedrun.
The Gotthard Main Tunnel is designed to have a length of approx.
57 km, with two one-lane tubes without service tunnel. Its summit will be
at 549 m above sea-level and is located south of the Sedrun shaft. Turn-
outs are foreseen for service and maintenance purposes at Sedrun and
Faido. Connecting tunnels between the two tubes are planned at inter-
vals of 650 m; they will contain railway facilities and serve as emergency
escapes.
NEAT Shaft, Sedrun, Switzerland
CEM II A-S 32.5R cement 450 kg / m
3
Elkem MS silica slurry 40 kg / m
3
Sand (04 mm) 1 032 kg / m
3
Coarse aggregate (48 mm) 688 kg / m
3
Glenium

T803 (polycarboxylate) 5.4 kg / m

3
62
MEYCO

TCC780 2 kg / m
3
w / b ratio ~0.43
Spread table > 62 cm (after 4 h > 58 cm)
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 68 %
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.2 MPa
30 min > 0.5 MPa
1 h 1 MPa
4 h > 3 MPa
24 h > 15 MPa
28 days > 55 MPa
The Sedrun Shaft (depth 800 m, cross section 57 m
2
) serves as a trans-
port and access tunnel for the Gotthard Main Tunnel. Rock support:
5 000 m
3
of sprayed concrete (layer thickness 15 cm), dropped through
6 pipe. Lining: 7 000 m
3
of cast in situ concrete (layer thickness 30 cm),
dropped through 6 pipe.
Sedrun Shaft
Shaft head
Portal and
installation
area
Access tunnel
Ventilation shaft
Pipeline for pneu-
matic conveying
of cement
Transportation
by rail
Depth ~800m
Ready-mix plant,
silos
Shaft base
Kibble for conveying of:
- Personnel
- Excavated material
- Construction materials
Gotthard Main Tunnel
Headings North
Headings South
Transportation by rail
Counterweight
Figure 11: Sedrun Shaft
63
Sieberg Tunnel, Austria
Cement, Gmunder PZ375 (H) 425 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 680 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

T3 1.2 %
w / c ratio 0.45
Spread table ~60 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 810 %
Thickness applied 3040 cm
Rebound 1012 %
Compressive strength:
6 min 0.25 MPa
18 min 0.45 MPa
1 h 1.5 MPa
4 h 67 MPa
1 day 12 MPa
28 days 48 MPa
One of the first large projects in Austria where the wet-mix method
is used. Volume: 25 000 m
3
of sprayed concrete. The Sieberg Rail-
way Tunnel is 6.5 km long, mostly in soft marls, with little overbur-
den, sometimes only a few metres. Two intermediate access points
allow excavation at 6 different faces. Rock support is done with
3040 cm of sprayed concrete as primary lining and unreinforced cast
concrete as permanent lining. The tunnel was originally started with
dry-mix sprayed concrete, using a ready-mix of oven dried aggregates
and quick-setting cement, blown with compressed air. The system was
simple, but dust, rebound and cost went out of control.
Irlahll Tunnel, Germany
CEM I 52.5 cement 380 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 50 kg / m
3
Sand (02 mm) 763 kg / m
3
Crushed aggregate (28 mm) 950 kg / m
3
Woerment FM785 (polycarboxylate) 0.6 %
Woerment Lentan VZ31 (retarder) 0.3 % (workability 3 h)
w / b ratio 0.5
64
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 810 %
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.3 MPa
30 min 0.7 MPa
1 h 1 MPa
24 h > 15 MPa
28 days > 45 MPa
The Irlahll Tunnel is part of the High Speed Railway Nuremberg
Ingolstadt. Tunnel length: 7 260 m. Geology: limestone, sandstone, with
water table locally above tunnel crown. Excavation: drill & blast with top
heading, bench and invert, up to 11 headings in parallel; cross section
150 m
2
; advance length 0.82.0 m. Rock support: 2040 cm of sprayed
concrete using 10 MEYCO

Spraymobiles; with wire mesh reinforce-

ment, systematic rock bolting and face support when required.
Galleria di Orte, Italy
CEM 42.5 cement 500 kg / m
3
MEYCO

MS610 silica fume 15 kg / m

3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 650 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 (polycarboxylate) 0.8 %

w / b ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6.5 %
Thickness applied 2540 cm
Rebound < 8 %
Compressive strength:
24 h > 14 MPa
2 days > 23 MPa
3 days > 27 MPa
7 days > 36 MPa
28 days 45 MPa
Requirements of the job: 10 000 m
3
of sprayed concrete to be applied in
9 weeks; layer thickness 200300 mm. Results: Steel ribs were embed-
ded with single pass layers of 50 mm; final set achieved in 4 minutes.
65
La Palma de Santa Cruz Tunnel, Palmas de Gran Canarias,
Spain
CEM II 42.5 A - P cement 450 kg / m
3
Sand (06 mm) 1 430 kg / m
3
Aggregate (612 mm) 260 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

1000 EPS 7.6 kg / m

3
w / c ratio 0.40
Slump 1416 cm
Thickness applied 2030 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 79 %
Rebound 10 %
Compressive strength:
24 h 16 MPa
3 days (in situ cores) 22 MPa
28 days (in situ cores) > 30 MPa
North Downs Tunnel, Channel Tunnel Rail Link, UK
CEM I 52.5 360 kg / m
3
PFA 90 kg / m
3
Sand 1 038 kg / m
3
Crushed aggregates 692 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 (polycarboxylate) 3 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 4 kg / m
3
(workability 6 h)
w / b ratio < 0.40
Target slump 200 mm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 5 % (average)
(top heading 57 %, bench / invert 3.54.5 %)
Permeability (in situ) 1 x 10
12
m / s
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.18 MPa
30 min > 0.3 MPa
1 h > 0.5 MPa
24 h 19.5 MPa
3 days 26 MPa
28 days > 36 MPa
56 days > 42 MPa
66
The North Downs Tunnel is a single-bore twin-track tunnel; excavation
cross section 140 m
2
, length approx. 3.5 km. Characteristics: 120 year
design life; sprayed concrete primary layer; cast in situ concrete secondary
layer; waterproof and fire resistant; client and contractor adopting per-
manent sprayed concrete philosophy.
North Cape Tunnel, Norway
Cement, CEM I 52.5R 520 kg / m
3
Micro silica 25 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 700 kg / m
3
EE steel fibres (25 mm) 50 kg / m
3
Plasticizer (lignosulphonate) 2.5 kg / m
3
Superplasticizer (melamine) 45 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 2 kg / m
3
MEYCO

TCC735 5 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.45
Slump 2021 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Thickness applied 2550 cm
Rebound < 5 %
Compressive strength:
1 h > 2 MPa
4 h > 7 MPa
24 h > 30 MPa
28 days > 40 MPa
Half of the tunnel is in extremely poor shale, causing a lot of overbreak.
The original approach consisted of a full in situ concrete lining per round
(round length: 2 m), with an average concrete thickness of > 1 m. The
key to the success was that uninterrupted spraying of any thickness,
at high capacity, was possible. With the above mix design an aver-
age layer thickness of 250 mm was sprayed, at 3642 m
3
per round,
placed in 22.5 hours. This resulted in a 23 times faster advance rate
of 3045 m per week and face. The required 28-day strength of 30 MPa
was exceeded by far.
Station at Oslo National Theatre, Norway
Test. Contractor: Selmer ASA. Equipment: MEYCO

Roadrunner.
67
Cement 52.5 500 kg / m
3
Micro silica 25 kg / m
3
Aggregate (09 mm) 1 530 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 8.25 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 2 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.42
Slump ~20 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Compressive strength:
30 min > 1.0 MPa
1 h > 2.2 MPa
2 h > 4.5 MPa
4 h > 9 MPa
28 days > 50 MPa
Sveti Marko Tunnel, Slovenia
Cement, PC-30-45S 450 kg / m
3
River sand (01 mm) 260 kg / m
3
Crushed sand (04 mm) 780 kg / m
3
Gravel (48 mm) 690 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 (polycarboxylate) 0.42 %

Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.18 %

w / c ratio 0.48
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Compressive strength:
24 h 20 MPa
28 days 45 MPa
Completely weathered rock. Construction with continuous pipe roof
throughout the tunnel.
Bolu Tunnel, Anatolian Motorway Project, Turkey
CEM 42.5 cement 500 kg / m
3
Silica fume 25 kg / m
3
Aggregate (05 mm) 1 186 kg / m
3
Aggregate (512 mm) 474 kg / m
3
68
Steel fibres 50 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 10 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.42
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 35 kg / m
3
Compressive strength:
4 h (Hilti) 5.2 MPa
8 h (Hilti) 12.2 MPa
12 h (Hilti) 13.9 MPa
24 h (in situ cores) 15.5 MPa
3 days (in situ cores) 31.8 MPa
7 days (in situ cores) 42.5 MPa
28 days (in situ cores) 55.8 MPa
Difficult soil conditions clayey metasediments and blocky flyschoid;
unexpected extreme plastic behaviour of soil; deformations exceeding
limits; extended thrust faults from tectonic point of view required high
early and final strength.
Yadenitsa Hydro Power Project, Chaira Cascade, Bulgaria
Sulphate resistant CEM I / 32.5 (HS) 460 kg / m
3
Aggregate (05 mm) 1 150 kg / m
3
Aggregate (510 mm) 495 kg / m
3
MEYCO

FIB SP540 (structural PP fibres) 9 kg / m

3
Rheobuild

716 1.5 %
w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Compressive strength:
7 days 33 MPa
28 days 50 MPa
The project involves the enlargement of the Chaira downstream reser-
voir and the construction of the Yadenitsa Dam (concrete faced rock fill
embankment). Reversible pressure tunnel, 7 m diameter and 6 728 m
long. Tunnel for access to valve chamber, length 630 m, width and
height 5 m each. Contractor: Stanilov.
69
South Deep Shaft Sinking Project, Johannesburg, South
Africa
CEM I 52.5 cement 475 kg / m
3
Fly-ash (Super Poz) 75 kg / m
3
Silica fume 38 kg / m
3
Stella sand (river sand, 02 mm) 160 kg / m
3
Crusher sand 1 080 kg / m
3
Stone (6, 7 mm) 262 kg / m
3
Fibrin Monofilament fibres 0.9 kg / m
3
Dramix stainless steel fibres 40 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete 4.0 kg / m
3
MEYCO

TCC735 5.0 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 (polycarboxylate) 4.6 kg / m

3
w / b ratio 0.36
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 67 %
Compressive strength:
24 hours 15 MPa
2 days 30 MPa
3 days 56 MPa
7 days 76 MPa
28 days 86 MPa
56 days 95 MPa
Shaft sinking (final shaft depth 3 000 m, 9 m in diameter) through pre-
extracted and backfilled shaft pillar at 2 335 m to access massive ore-
body at depths of > 2 500 m. Special requirements: good slump reten-
tion for discharge from kibble; fast setting to apply up to 100 mm / pass
in very wet rain conditions; high durability in difficult maintenance
area; high ductility to prevent spalling due to ground movement; early
strength gain to prevent strain bursts.
Sondu Miriu Hydro Electric Power Plant, Kenya
Bamburi OPC Type 1 422 kg / m
3
River sand 966 kg / m
3
Crushed aggregate (510 mm) 655 kg / m
3
Glenium

T803 (polycarboxylate) 0.45 %

w / c ratio < 0.45
Slump 100 mm
70
Air content 5.5 %
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 7 %
Compressive strength:
24 h 11.5 MPa
3 days 22 MPa
28 days 32 MPa
The access to the project location is very difficult. Sprayed concrete is
used as temporary lining prior to concrete final lining.
Quarry Bay Station, MTRC Contract 680, Hong Kong
OPC 42.5 400 kg / m
3
Micro silica 40 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 60 kg / m
3
Aggregate (010 mm) 1 640 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

561 10 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.40
Slump 20 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6 %
Thickness applied 20 cm
Compressive strength:
8 h 13.5 MPa
1 day 23 MPa
7 days 35 MPa
28 days 52 MPa
Contractor: Nishimatsu Construction Company Ltd. Equipment: Aliva
Duplo 285 spraying machine, MEYCO

Mix 200 dosing unit and

MEYCO

nozzle system.
Blackhill Tunnels, MTRC Contract 603, Hong Kong
OPC 350 kg / m
3
PFA 110 kg / m
3
Crushed rock filler 1 065 kg / m
3
Aggregate (10 mm) 540 kg / m
3
71
Rheobuild

561 5.56 kg / m
3
w / b ratio < 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 67 %
Compressive strength:
7 days 25 MPa
28 days 3840 MPa
The contract involves approx. 8 km of drill and blast tunnel, with com-
plex centre sidings, cross-overs and enlargements.
Tai Lam Tunnels, KCRC West Rail Contract No. DB350,
Hong Kong
OPC 345 kg / m
3
PFA 115 kg / m
3
River sand 615 kg / m
3
Crushed rock fines 410 kg / m
3
Aggregate (10 mm) 565 kg / m
3
Dramix ZP305 steel fibres 45 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

561 5.5 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 2.04.0 kg / m

3
w / b ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 26 kg / m
3
Compressive strength:
24 h 12 MPa
28 days 28 MPa
Contractor: Nishimatsu Construction Company Ltd. Twin track single
tube railway tunnel, using MEYCO

Spraymobiles. Some 8 000 m

3
of
sprayed concrete reinforced with Dramix ZP305 steel fibres are antici-
pated.
Rock Caverns, Singapore
Cement 470 kg / m
3
MB-SF silica fume 20 kg / m
3
Sand 720 kg / m
3
Chipping 610 kg / m
3
72
Crushed rock filler 220 kg / m
3
Steel fibres 56 kg / m
3
Glenium

T803 (polycarboxylate) 3.4 kg / m

3
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 1.7 kg / m

3
(workability 3 h)
w / b ratio < 0.42
Target slump at batching plant 180 20 mm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 57 %
Steel fibre rebound 7 %
Compressive strength:
7 days (trials) 2932 MPa
28 days (trials) 3741 MPa
28 days (production) 4344 MPa
Dali Baoshan Highway, China
Cement 42.5R 420 kg / m
3
Aggregate (010 mm) 1 700 kg / m
3
Dramix steel fibres 50 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

561 1 %
w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 5 %
Compressive strength:
24 h > 25 MPa
28 days > 40 MPa
The main benefit by using MEYCO

SA160 is related to the geological

conditions of this project-swelling clay. Sufficient layer thickness can
be achieved in a one layer pass and the required early strength can be
gained.
Taiwan High Speed Rail Project C215 tender (20012003)
Type I Cement 450 kg / m
3
Slag 30 kg / m
3
Sand 1 165 kg / m
3
3 / 8 aggregate 501 kg / m
3
Glenium

78H (polycarboxylate) 4 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.40
73
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 48 %
Compressive strength:
8 h 8 MPa
28 days 38 MPa
Tunnel length 4.3 km. Wet-mix sprayed concrete applied using a
MEYCO

Spraymobile. Geology: loose sand. Contractor: Obayashi /

ITAI.
Taiwan High Speed Rail Project C230 tender (20012003)
Type I Cement 450 kg / m
3
Sand 1 005 kg / m
3
3 / 8 aggregate 677 kg / m
3
Glenium

78H (polycarboxylate) 4 kg / m
3
w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 48 %
Compressive strength:
8 h > 6 MPa
28 days 3542 MPa
Eight tunnels, total length 8 km. Application of wet-mix sprayed con-
crete with 2 MEYCO

Spraymobiles. Geology: loose sand. Contractor:

Hyundai.
Taiwan High Speed Rail Project C260 tender (20002002)
Type I Cement 450 kg / m
3
Slag 30 kg / m
3
Sand 1 165 kg / m
3
3 / 8 aggregate 501 kg / m
3
Glenium

78H (polycarboxylate) 4 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.40
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 48 %
74
Compressive strength:
8 h 8 MPa
28 days 4045 MPa
Tunnel length 7.4 km. Application of wet-mix sprayed concrete with
8 MEYCO

Spraymobiles. Geology: loose sand. Contractor: Bilfinger +

Berger / CEC.
Burnley and Domain Tunnels, Melbourne City Link,
Australia
OPC 430 kg / m
3
Micro silica 20 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 680 kg / m
3
BHP steel fibres (25 mm) 50 kg / m
3
Pozzolith

370 4.8 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 4.8 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.40
Slump 14 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Rebound < 10 %
Compressive strength (in situ cores):
1 day 18 MPa
7 days 34 MPa
28 days 48 MPa
The Burnley Tunnel will be 3.4 km long and at its deepest point 65 m
below ground. The Domain Tunnel will be 1.6 km long and 25 m below
ground at its deepest point. Upon completion, each tunnel will be 11.5 m
in width, with a height clearance of 4.9 m. The tunnels were supported
by pre-shaped steel arches and steel bolts grouted in pre-bored holes,
all covered with a temporary sprayed concrete lining, applied through
four MEYCO

Spraymobiles.
Cameron Run Tunnel, Virginia (U.S.)
Cement 420 kg / m
3
Sand 1 290 kg / m
3
Coarse aggregate 480 kg / m
3
Xorex 38 mm steel fibres 35 kg / m
3
75
Polyheed 997 0.8 %
w / c ratio 0.42
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Compressive strength:
24 h 13.7 MPa
Repair of overflow tunnel underneath live railroad tracks with shallow
overburden. The project includes jacking the steel lining back into origi-
nal shape and re-lining with steel ribs and steel fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete. Early strength development is crucial.
Dulles Airport Pedestrian Walkback Tunnel,
Virginia (U.S.)
Cement 470 kg / m
3
Sand 1 170 kg / m
3
Coarse aggregate 525 kg / m
3
Xorex 38 mm steel fibres 40 kg / m
3
Polyheed 997 0.8 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 1 %
w / c ratio 0.39
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6 %
Compressive strength:
10 h 14 MPa
24 h 19.3 MPa
The tunnel (diameter 5 m, length 300 m) will be excavated using the
NATM method. Due to its location underneath live taxiways, early
strength development is crucial.
NuMI Tunnel, Illinois (U.S.)
Cement 440 kg / m
3
Sand 1 150 kg / m
3
Coarse aggregate 565 kg / m
3
Xorex 38 mm steel fibres 60 kg / m
3
Rheomac SF100 30 kg / m
3
Polyheed 997 1 %
76
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.52 %

w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6 %
Compressive strength:
8 h 10.3 MPa
Fermi Laboratories is constructing an accelerator tunnel for the purpose
of splitting the atom. This TBM tunnel (diameter 7 m, length 1.8 km) will
utilize sprayed concrete for initial (with steel fibres) and final lining (with-
out reinforcement).
Kidd Creek Mine, Timmins, Ontario, Canada
Type 10 Portland cement 420 kg / m
3
Micro silica 45 kg / m
3
ACI gradation no. 2 1 750 kg / m
3
Novotex 0730 (steel fibers) 50 kg / m
3
Glenium

3030 FC (superplasticizer) 4 kg / m
3
Delvo

crete 29 (hydration control) 4 kg / m

3
w / b ratio 0.40
Slump 200 mm+
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 68 %
Compressive strength requirements:
2 h 2.5 MPa
4 h 4 MPa
28 days 40 MPa
Kidd Creek is a copper-zinc-silver mine. Construction of a new internal
underground shaft (from depth 2 070 m to depth 3 170 m) with hoisting
facilities and approximately 15 km of development required a system
that would be safe and economically feasible. Originally, the mine was
reluctant to use wet-mix sprayed concrete. However, with the above mix
design early strength requirements could consistently be maintained,
and the mine also decided for the use of 5 MEYCO

Allentown MSV
2 100E Spraymobiles built to the customers requirements. This lead
to a reduction of the ground support cycle times from 1012 hours to
77
4 hours, and thus to dramatically improved advance rates of the mine
development.
Weehawken Tunnel, New Jersey (U.S.)
Cement II 450 kg / m
3
Sand 1 085 kg / m
3
3 / 8 aggregate 530 kg / m
3
Novotex 0630 (steel fibres) 40 kg / m
3
Glenium

3030 1 kg / m
3
Delvo

1.8 kg / m
3
w / c ratio 0.40
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6 % (average)
Compressive strength requirements:
8 h 5 MPa
3 days 17 MPa
28 days 28 MPa
Rehabilitation of tunnel (length 1 275 m, width 7 m), final lining of under-
ground station cavern (12 m x 25 m), and elevator shaft. Equipment:
2 MEYCO

Potenza Spraymobiles. Geology: sandstones, quartzite and

shale. Contractor: Frontier Kemper / Shea / BuM.
Bergen Tunnel, New Jersey (U.S.)
Cement II 450 kg / m
3
Sand 980 kg / m
3
3/8 aggregate 640 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

1000 1.2 kg / m
3
w / c ratio 0.40
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 7 % (average)
Compressive strength requirements:
28 days 31 MPa
Rehabilitation of tunnel (length 1 340 m). Equipment: 1 MEYCO

Potenza
Spraymobile. Geology: sandstones, quartzite and shale. Two ventilation
shafts with sprayed concrete final lining were coated with Masterseal

MS340. Contractor: MERCO / Obayashi.
78
Belo Horizonte Metro, Brazil
OPC 400 kg / m
3
Aggregate (012 mm) 1 686 kg / m
3
Mastermix

390 1 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 3 kg / m
3
w / c ratio 0.45
Slump 10 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 8 %
Thickness applied 20 cm
Rebound < 10 %
Compressive strength:
3 days 19 MPa
7 days 24 MPa
28 days 32 MPa
Figure 12: The sprayed concrete in the Heliopolis tunnel,
which is part of the Belo Horizonte Metro, was applied through
a MEYCO

Roadrunner.
Buenavista Tunnel, Villavicencio, Colombia
OPC, CEM I 42.5 460 kg / m
3
Micro silica 19 kg / m
3
Aggregate (016 mm) 1 770 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 7.2 kg / m
3
79
w / b ratio 0.39
Slump 1820 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 6 %
Thickness applied 20 cm
Compressive strength:
10 min 0.7 MPa
24 h 14 MPa
28 days 39 MPa
Road tunnel with a length of 4.9 km. Sprayed concrete volume:
10 000 m
3
. Contractor: Recchi G.L.F.
Miel 1, Hydroelectric Power Project, Colombia
Cement 490 kg / m
3
Fine aggregate (04 mm) 900 kg / m
3
Coarse aggregate (512 mm) 750 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

716 1.2 %
Steel fibres 35 kg / m
3
w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 7 %
Compressive strength:
30 min > 0.5 MPa
1 h > 0.6 MPa
6 h > 1.9 MPa
14 h > 5.6 MPa
28 days (in situ cores) > 26 MPa
Lo Prado 2 and Zapata 2 Tunnels, Chile
Meln AR cement 400 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 760 kg / m
3
Dramix RC-65/35-BN steel fibres 40 kg / m
3
Pozzolith

322N 0.5 %
Rheobuild

1000 EPS 1.5 %

Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.4 %

w / c ratio 0.46
Slump > 15 cm
80
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 7 %
Rebound < 5 %
Compressive strength:
4 h > 1 MPa
24 h > 20 MPa
28 days > 40 MPa
To increase the capacity of the Ruta 68, between Santiago de Chile
and the cities of Valparaiso and Via del Mar, two new tunnels (cross-
section 72 m
2
, lengths 2 700 m Lo Prado 2 and 700 m Zapata 2) are
built parallel to the existing ones. Lining is carried out as a single-shell
sprayed concrete lining.
C) MEYCO

SA161
Lrdal Tunnel, Norway
Cement, CEM 42.5 439 kg / m
3
Micro silica 30 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 670 kg / m
3
Dramix steel fibres 30 / 50 44 kg / m
3
Glenium

T803 2.7 kg / m
3
MEYCO

TCC735 5 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.42
Slump 2022 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA161 7.5 %
Thickness applied 1015 cm
Rebound < 5 %
Compressive strength:
30 min 0.80.9 MPa
28 days ~42 MPa
With a final length of 24 km the Lrdal Tunnel is today the worlds
longest road tunnel. The tunnel has a very high overburden and some
substantial rock bursting occurred during the excavation. To overcome
these and other problems and to reduce cracks in the sprayed concrete,
81
the original mix design was adjusted and the performance of the con-
crete significantly improved.
Frya Tunnel, Norway
Cement, CEM 42.5 480 kg / m
3
Micro silica 33 kg / m
3
Aggregate (010 mm) 1 530 kg / m
3
Dramix 30 / 50 steel fibres 44 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 1.8 kg / m
3
MEYCO

TCC735 5 kg / m
3
w / b ratio 0.38
Slump 1617 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA161 7.5 %
Thickness applied 1525 cm
Rebound 56 %
Compressive strength:
1520 min 1 MPa
28 days (in situ cores) 47 MPa
Subsea road tunnel through extremely difficult zones with heavy water
ingress and extremely bad rock. Tunnel length: 7 km.
Hamaoka Nuclear Power Station, Japan
Cement 380 kg / m
3
Sand (04 mm) 1 124 kg / m
3
Aggregate (410 mm) 726 kg / m
3
NT 1000 (polycarboxylate) 1.25 %
w / c ratio < 0.50
Slump at batching plant 17 cm
Air content 4.5 %
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA161 5 % (average)
Compressive strength:
3 h > 1 MPa
24 h > 6.5 MPa
7 days > 24 MPa
28 days > 34 MPa
82
The construction of an additional nuclear reactor required a cable tun-
nel (cross-section 14.6 m
2
, length 400 m). Sprayed concrete at a layer
thickness of 150 mm was used for initial support.
Shirogane Dai Subway Station in Tokyo, Japan
Cement 450 kg / m
3
Sand (04 mm) 1 113 kg / m
3
Aggregate (48 mm) 500 kg / m
3
Bridgestone steel fibres 30 / 60 40 kg / m
3
NT 1000 (polycarboxylate) 1.7 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 1 %
w / c ratio 0.40
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA161 8 %
Compressive strength:
3 h > 3.6 MPa
24 h > 13.9 MPa
7 days > 32 MPa
28 days > 42 MPa
Sprayed concrete for corrosion and fire proofing of steel lining in the
station area. The layer thickness varied from 80400 mm, all concrete
being sprayed in a single pass onto the steel surface.
D) MEYCO

SA162
S. Giacomo Tunnel in Bolzano, Italy
II AL 42.5 cement 480 kg / m
3
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 560 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

5000 1.5 %
w / c ratio < 0.47
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA162 8 %
Thickness applied 4080 cm
Single layer thickness 1520 cm
Rebound < 5 %
83
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.4 MPa
10 min > 0.55 MPa
20 min > 0.7 MPa
30 min > 0.85 MPa
1 h > 1.2 MPa
5 h > 4.5 MPa
24 h > 12 MPa
28 days > 32 MPa
2.3 km road tunnel. Technical specifications in accordance with Austrian
Norms (SpB 25 56/II/J2). Very low temperatures in winter. Excavation
by drilling and blasting through igneous rock, with overbreaks of up to
80 cm and more. Work progress: 24 m
3
per hour.
E) MEYCO

SA170
Kienberg Tunnel, Austria
CEM II/A-S 42.5R cement 420 kg / m
3
Aggregates: 0.10.4 mm crushed 105 kg / m
3
04 mm round 650 kg / m
3
04 mm crushed 470 kg / m
3

48 mm crushed 525 kg / m
3
Glenium

51 (polycarboxylate) 0.5 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.5 % (workability 45 h)

w / c ratio 0.48
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 7 %
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.25 MPa
1 h > 0.8 MPa
24 h > 14 MPa
7 days > 28 MPa
28 days > 38 MPa
The 1.5 km twin tube two lane Kienberg Tunnel is part of the Pfyrn
Motorway in Upper Austria. It is driven through closely fractured and
jointed rock. Typical rock support for a 1.3 m round consists of forepol-
ing, lattice girder, double wire mesh, 20 cm of sprayed concrete and
46 m long fully grouted rock bolts.
84
The performance of the sprayed concrete was crucial due to the high
excavation speed (6 rounds per day) and the increased layer thickness
required by frequent overbreaks. Rock bolting and drilling for forepol-
ing took place immediately after the sprayed concrete application. The
early strength development had to fulfil the requirements of the Austrian
Norm J2.
Strengen Tunnel, Austria
CEM II/A-S 42.5R cement 420 kg / m
3
Aggregates: 04 mm crushed 1 380 kg / m
3

48 mm crushed 450 kg / m
3
Glenium

51 (polycarboxylate) 0.5 %
w / c ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 5.5 %
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.3 MPa
1 h > 0.9 MPa
24 h > 15 MPa
7 days > 36 MPa
28 days > 48 MPa
The 5.8 km twin tube two lane Strengen Bypass Tunnel is the last part of
the East-West motorway connection in Austria. Each tube has a typical
cross section of 80 m
2
, which is excavated as top heading and bench by
drilling and blasting. The rock mass consists mainly of highly metamor-
phic, laminated and sheared rock (quartz phyllite). Typical rock support
for a 1.5 m round consists of lattice girder, double wire mesh, 20 cm of
sprayed concrete and 46 m long fully grouted rock bolts.
The early strength development had to fulfil the requirements of the
Austrian Norm J2. The overall accelerator consumption could be kept
very low.
Blisadona Tunnel, Austria
PZ 375 cement 420 kg / m
3
Aggregate (02, 04, 411 mm) 1 750 kg / m
3
Glenium

T801 (polycarboxylate) 0.60.7 %

Delvo

crete Stabilizer 10 0.4 % (workability 7 h)

w / c ratio < 0.5
85
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 7.5 % (average)

Compressive strength:
6 min (Hilti) > 0.32 MPa
10 min (Hilti) > 0.42 MPa
30 min (Hilti) > 0.59 MPa
1 h (Hilti) > 0.78 MPa
3 h (Hilti) > 2.6 MPa
6 h (Hilti) > 5 MPa
12 h (Hilti) > 8 MPa
24 h (Hilti) > 20 MPa
7 days (in situ cores) 25 MPa
28 days (in situ cores) 31 MPa
2.4 km double track railway tunnel west of the Arlberg Tunnel. Heavy
water ingress called for use of extremely fast setting concrete mix.
Grbern Tunnel, Austria
CEM II/A-S 42.5R cement 420 kg / m
3
Round aggregate (04 mm) 1 380 kg / m
3
Round aggregate (48 mm) 300 kg / m
3
Glenium

51 0.4 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.2 %

w / c ratio 0.46
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 7 %
The Grbern Tunnel, length 2 100 m, is the second tube to an existing
highway tunnel on the A2 motorway in Carinthia. The geology is domi-
nated by highly metamorphic rock types with various shear zones. Rock
support in the top heading typically consists of spile bars, sprayed con-
crete face support, lattice girders and fully grouted rock bolts. Strength
development of sprayed concrete crucial for safety and excavation
speed. The early strength development had to fulfil the Austrian Norm
J2. Contractor: JV of stu-Stettin, Hinteregger and Porr.
86
Girsberg Tunnel, Switzerland
CEM I 42.5 cement 425 kg / m
3
Sand (04 mm) 1 060 kg/m
3
Natural round aggregate (48 mm) 640 kg / m
3
Rheobuild

T3 1 %
w / c ratio 0.47
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 6 %
Compressive strength:
6 min > 0.3 MPa
30 min > 0.8 MPa
1 h > 1 MPa
24 h > 15 MPa
28 days > 55 MPa
The Girsberg Tunnel is part of the Highway KreuzlingenConstance.
The rock conditions are very difficult, with fast weathering clayey marl
and heavy water ingress.
Nollinger Berg Tunnel (western tube), Rheinfelden,
Germany
CEM I 42.5 cement 380 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 90 kg / m
3
Sand 795 kg / m
3
Gravel 860 kg / m
3
Woerment FM 785 0.5 %
Lentan VZ 31 0.2 %
w / b ratio 0.48
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 56.5 %
Compressive strength:
12 h 12 MPa
24 h 16 MPa
7 days 26 MPa
28 days 30 MPa
Highway tunnel, length 1 260 m. Escape tunnel within tunnel profile,
sulphate resistant cement required for sprayed concrete. Early strength
87
development complied with Austrian Norm J2, sometimes approaching
J2 / J3. Contractor: stu-Stettin, Hinteregger, Jger.
Lohberg Tunnel, Darmstadt, Germany
CEM I 42.5 cement 400 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 50 kg / m
3
Sand 850 kg / m
3
Gravel 850 kg / m
3
Woerment FM 785 0.8 %
Delvo

1.2 %
w / b ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 56.5 %
Compressive strength:
12 h 7 MPa
24 h 13 MPa
7 days 30 MPa
28 days 41 MPa
Road tunnel, length 1 080 m, with escape tunnel. Early strength
development complied with Austrian Norm J2, sometimes approach-
ing J2 / J3. Sprayed concrete applied using MEYCO

Spraymobile.
Contractor: Max Bgl, Swietelsky.
Heidkopf Tunnel, Gttingen, Germany
CEM I 52.5 sb cement 380 kg / m
3
Pulverized limestone 40 kg / m
3
Sand 880 kg / m
3
Gravel 840 kg / m
3
Superplasticizer 0.6 %
Air entrainer 0.15 %
w / b ratio 0.45
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 56.5 %
Compressive strength:
12 h 8 MPa
24 h 14 MPa
88
7 days 30 MPa
28 days 39 MPa
Twin tube highway tunnel, length 1 720 m each. Early strength devel-
opment complied with Austrian Norm J2, sometimes approach-
ing J2 / J3. Sprayed concrete applied using MEYCO

Spraymobile.
Contractor: Beton- und Monierbau, Stutz, Rohde.
Schloberg Tunnel, Dillenburg, Germany
CEM I 42.5 R cement 380 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 50 kg / m
3
Sand 940 kg / m
3
Gravel 770 kg / m
3
Woerment FM 785 0.5 %
Delvo

0.8 %
w / b ratio 0.48
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 56.5 %
Compressive strength:
12 h 8 MPa
24 h 15 MPa
7 days 32 MPa
28 days 40 MPa
Road tunnel, length 782 m, with escape tunnel, located in city centre.
Early strength development complied with Austrian Norm J2, some-
times approaching J2 / J3. Sprayed concrete applied using MEYCO

Spraymobile. Contractor: Walter Bau.
Schlottenberg Tunnel, Meien, Germany
CEM II-AS 52.5 Rspb cement 340 kg / m
3
Fly-ash 70 kg / m
3
Sand 1 100 kg / m
3
Gravel 620 kg / m
3
Woerment FM 785 0.5 %
w / b ratio 0.50
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA170 56.5 %
89
Compressive strength:
12 h 7 MPa
24 h 12 MPa
7 days 30 MPa
28 days 38 MPa
Road tunnel, length 720 m, with escape tunnel, located in city centre.
Early strength development complied with Austrian Norm J2, some-
times approaching J2 / J3. Contractor: Zblin.
F) MEYCO

SA180
Leibenfeld Exploratory Tunnel, Koralm Railway, Austria
CEM I 52.5R cement 420 kg / m
3
Pulverized fuel ash 30 kg / m
3
Aggregate: 04 mm round 1 000 kg / m
3
Aggregate: 48 mm round 500 kg / m
3
Glenium

T803 0.90 %
w / b ratio 0.47
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA180 7 %
Compressive strength:
6 min. 0.3 MPa
1 h 0.95 MPa
6 h 4.5 MPa
24 h 13 MPa
28 days 38 MPa
The Koralm Railway which is planned through the mountains between
Styria and Karinthia, will consist of one major tunnel, with a length of
more than 30 km. With the Leibenfeld exploratory tunnel the eastern
side has been investigated over a length of approx. 2 km, starting from
a shaft near the city of Deutschlandsberg. The sprayed concrete had
to fulfil the requirements of the Austrian Norm J2. MEYCO

SA180
provided a good early, as well as an excellent overall, strength develop-
ment. In order to achieve high production rates, a MEYCO

Potenza was
used. Contractor: Strabag.
90
Henndorf Bypass Tunnel, near Salzburg, Austria
CEM II 52.5R cement 385 kg / m
3
Aggregate: 04 mm round 1 136 kg / m
3
Aggregate: 48 mm round 639 kg/m
3
Glenium

Sky 582 1.0 %

w / c ratio 0.48
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA180 5.5 %
Compressive strength:
6 min. 0.35 MPa
1 h 0.90 MPa
6 h 3.0 MPa
24 h 12 MPa
28 days 37 MPa
The Henndorf bypass tunnel, length 2 km, passes below the village of
Henndorf with a shallow overburden. The sprayed concrete had to fulfil
the requirements of the Austrian Norm J2. Special emphasis was put
on an economical solution. MEYCO

SA180 provided a very good early,

as well as very good overall, strength development at a low dosage. A
MEYCO

Potenza equipped with a MEYCO

Data system was used.

This allowed continuous control of the system performance, including
the accelerator dosage. Main contractor: Wayss & Freytag.
91
4. New advanced sprayed concrete
admixture systems
4.1 Synopsis
With urban land becoming scarcer and the environmental impact of
infrastructure projects being a prime consideration, more and more
public utilities and transportation systems are being constructed under-
ground. Because of this, the use of sprayed concrete is increasing on a
world-wide basis.
Traditional sprayed concrete is a compromise between early and final
strength values, flexibility and economic viability. However, the develop-
ment of new generations of admixtures has led to essential improve-
ments and to new application fields of sprayed concrete.
In the following, two new technologies will be presented, which have
been developed by UGC International:
<
The hydration control system Delvo

crete which has heralded the

way to a much greater flexibility and higher quality for the utilization of
sprayed concrete and has considerably furthered the wet-mix spray-
ing method, thus contributing to better working conditions and lower
cost through reduced dust and rebound.
<
A new system to secure efficient and reliable curing of sprayed con-
crete.
4.2 Delvo

crete
The supply and utilization of sprayed concrete mixes for infrastructure
projects in congested environments creates problems for both the con-
tractor and ready-mixed concrete supplier.
Sprayed concrete mixes, wet or dry, only have a useful pot-life of 1.5 to
2 hours and even less at temperatures above +20C. Material sprayed
after this time will exhibit lower strengths and increased rebound, due
to the commencement of hydration of the cement.
92
Long trucking distances from the batching plant to the site, delays in
construction sequences as well as plant and equipment breakdowns
ensure that much of the concrete actually sprayed is beyond its pot-
life.
In addition to this, environmental regulations may well impose restric-
tions upon the working hours of batching plants in urban areas, meaning
that a contractor who requires sprayed concrete mixes to be supplied
24 hours per day, may only be able to obtain material for 12 hours each
day.
Problems such as these create unnecessary additional costs of con-
struction for both the contractor and the client.
A chemical system for the controlling of cement hydration in both wet and
dry sprayed concrete mixes has been developed by UGC International,
enabling the working life of such mixes to be substantially increased.
4.2.1 Introduction
The development by Master Builders in US of a two-component, liquid,
chloride-free hydration control system for returned waste concrete and
the recycling of concrete truck mixer wash water in 1987 enabled many
concrete producers to eliminate the problems associated with waste
concrete from their batching plants. The first component of this system
is known as the Delvo

Stabilizer, which is capable of inhibiting the
hydration of Portland cements for periods of up to 72 hours. The second
component of the system is the Delvo

Activator, which is a hydration
accelerator that is added to the stabilized concrete before placing.
In 1989, UGC International adapted the hydration control system for
use in sprayed concrete. The Delvo

crete Stabilizer component is

similar to that used for returned concrete, and a range of Delvo

crete
Activators were developed for the initiation of cement hydration. The
Delvo

crete Activators are added to the sprayed concrete mix at the

spraying nozzle in exactly the same way as conventional aluminate or
silicate based accelerators for fast setting and high early strengths that
are required in rock support applications.
93
The Delvo

crete system, which was first used commercially in Europe

in 1990, enables the pot-life of sprayed concrete mixes, both wet and
dry, to be extended for periods of up to 72 hours. This eliminates many of
the problems and headaches associated with the production and appli-
cation of consistent, high quality sprayed concrete mixes encountered
by contractors, concrete producers and engineers.
The Delvo

crete hydration control system is able to give flexibility to

the production and spraying of concrete mixes in large underground
projects and, at the same time, offers considerable cost savings to
contractors, owners and concrete producers.
Figure 13: Hydration controlled dry-mix sprayed concrete
It also ensures that all sprayed concrete which is sprayed through the
nozzle contains a fresh cement that has undergone little or no hydra-
tion reactions.
Figure 14: Hydration controlled wet-mix sprayed concrete
94
The system brings revolutionary benefits to sprayed concrete (in par-
ticular wet-mix sprayed concrete) and is currently being used on a lot of
big projects in Europe, America, the Middle East and Far East.
4.2.2 Wet-mix sprayed concrete
Wet-mix sprayed concrete has a definite advantage over dry-mix sprayed
concrete in that it is a genuine concrete, and, as such, the w / c ratio is
controlled at the batching plant and is independent of the nozzle man.
Wet mixes also have a pot-life of approximately 1.5 to 2 hours. This
means that the concrete mix should be pumped and sprayed very
quickly after batching. On large underground construction projects, this
is not always possible. Long trucking times from the batching plant to
the point of spraying and application, as well as delays and breakdowns
of equipment at the excavation face, ensure that a very large proportion
of the sprayed concrete is beyond its pot-life when it is applied.
With wet-mix sprayed concrete in rock support jobs, an experienced
nozzle man, spraying a well designed, accelerated fresh concrete will
probably achieve rebound values of between 10 % and 15 % overall.
Similar figures can be obtained when mechanized spraying systems
are employed.
Traditional wet-mix sprayed concrete has therefore been a compromise
between high slump, low w/c ratio, long pot-life, fast setting and high
early strength. This has always created problems for contractors, con-
crete suppliers and clients. It creates large amounts of waste material
from rebound, the washing out of pumps and hoses and the dumping
of sprayed concrete quantities that have lost their workability (i.e. too
old). The waste material then has to be removed from the underground
excavation, carted away and dumped. All this creates unnecessary
additional costs to the contractor, who will have budgeted for a certain
percentage of rebound and overspray, but probably not for the hauling
and dumping of waste material, nor for the waste created when loads of
sprayed concrete have to be dumped, and pumps and hoses have to
be washed out, when equipment breakdowns and delays cause inter-
ruptions to spraying at the excavation face.
95
4.2.3 Batching and delivery of wet-mix sprayed concrete
The batching of sprayed concrete mixes itself should create no problem
for a good, experienced concrete supplier. However, the location of the
batching plant in relation to the project site is critical.
In many urban areas, the erection of concrete batching plants is not
permitted. Since most large underground infrastructure projects, such
as tunnels and metro systems, are in densely populated urban areas,
often concrete mixes have to be hauled for long distances from outlying
plants before delivery on site. Consequently, much of the pot-life of the
sprayed concrete has already expired before it arrives on site and is dis-
charged. Add to this, the time taken to spray a full truck load of sprayed
concrete, as well as any delays that may occur on site, then it is easy to
see that a great deal of sprayed concrete applied in underground urban
infrastructure projects is of questionable quality.
12 hours
372 hours
Manufacturing + Delivery + Consumption
MEYCO

accelerator
accelerates the process
Delvo

crete Stabilizer
controls hydration
Delvo

crete Activator S
reactivates and
accelerates the process
Manufacturing + Delivery + Intermediate storage + Consumption
Figure 15: Delvo

crete for total flexibility in sprayed concrete

Even if an urban underground project has obtained the space and per-
mission to erect a site batching plant, local environmental restrictions
may well limit the working hours of such a plant to day time only. In such
a case, it will be impossible for a project that is working 24 hours per day,
seven days per week, to obtain supplies of sprayed concrete at night.
96
In order to solve some of the logistical problems associated with the
delivery of sprayed concrete to underground projects and ensure that
a fresh concrete mix is supplied to be sprayed at the rock face, some
equipment manufacturers have developed transportable mixers, or
trixers.
In simple terms, trixers constitute a mini batching plant mounted on
the back of a suitable carrier vehicle or truck. Trixers contain separate
compartments for storing cement, aggregates and water. The trixer is
loaded with materials at a batching plant, or storage location, and then
driven into the underground excavation. Upon arrival at the excavation
face, the materials are batched and mixed together to produce a fresh
sprayed concrete mix. This can either be a wet or dry mix.
A limitation of the trixer is that it can normally hold only enough material
to batch approximately 6 m
3
of sprayed concrete. It follows then, that
in any project in which say 10 m
3
of sprayed concrete is being sprayed
per hour with a spraying manipulator, a minimum of two trixer units will
be required to service the manipulator. If more than two faces are being
worked on at the same time, then even more trixers will be required.
4.2.4 Control of cement hydration
The setting, hardening and strength characteristics of Portland cement
are achieved by the reaction of the cement with water. The product of
this reaction is a rigid material known as calcium silicate hydrate (or
CSH) gel.

Figure 16: As concrete or sprayed concrete sets, hydrates formed by
cement hydration flocculate.
97
This reaction is known as hydration, which, in simple terms, produces
a rapid release of calcium ions into solution and forms a CSH gel shell
around the cement grains. As concrete sets, hydrates formed by cement
hydration flocculate, and it is this process which turns plastic, workable
concrete into a stiff material (Figure 16).
By adding the Delvo

crete Stabilizer to a concrete mix, the hydration of

cement may be completely controlled for periods of up to 3 days. The
Delvo

crete Stabilizer, when dispensed and thoroughly dispersed into a

concrete mix, controls the rate of hydration of the cement by complexing
calcium ions on the surface of the cement grains (Figure 17).
Figure 17: The Delvo

crete Stabilizer, when dispersed and thoroughly

mixed into a freshly batched concrete mix, stops cement hydration by
forming a protective barrier around the cementitious particles.
The Delvo

crete Stabilizer functions in a dual role by stopping cement

hydration by forming a protective barrier around cementitious and poz-
zolanic particles and acting as a dispersant, thus preventing hydrates
from flocculating and setting.
The stability provided by the Delvo

crete Stabilizer is such that even

returned concrete may be stabilized and kept in plastic for a few min-
utes, several hours, overnight or even over a weekend.
The Delvo

crete Stabilizer is composed of carboxylic acid and phos-

phorous containing organic acids and salts. It is capable of retarding
all cement minerals and reduces the rate of calcium sulphate mineral
solution. Its action is different to that of conventional retarding admix-
tures which, at normal dosages, is complex and can accelerate one
mineral component of the cement, whilst retarding others. At higher
98
dosage rates, conventional retarding admixtures may even cause severe
concrete stiffening, flash set and low strength performance. Thus, by using
conventional retarding admixtures at dosages high enough to achieve
the same degree of retardation as the Delvo

crete Stabilizer, detrimental

effects to both the plastic and hardened concrete can occur.
The Delvo

crete Stabilizer, therefore, may be used to control cement

hydration for periods of up to 72 hours. It predominantly affects C
3
S
hydration, but can also delay the initial C
3
A reaction with water and sul-
phate if it is added with the mix water.
Normal setting and hardening characteristics of the concrete may be
achieved in two ways. One is to allow the action of the Delvo

crete
Stabilizer to wear off. The other is to add Delvo

crete Activator to the

concrete to break down the protective barrier surrounding the cement
grains (Figure 18).


Figure 18: The Delvo

crete Activator, when dispersed and thoroughly

mixed into a stabilized sprayed concrete mix, breaks down the protec-
tive barrier around the stabilized cementitious particles.
As soon as this protective barrier is broken down, the treated concrete
will react in the normal way (Figure 19).
Because of the various requirements of setting, high build and early
strengths of sprayed concrete for rock support, a range of Delvo

crete
Activators are available when the hydration control system is used in
this application. These Delvo

crete Activators break down the protec-

tive barrier created by the Delvo

crete Stabilizer and then react with the

99
cement to give the fast setting and early strengths normally associated
with accelerated sprayed concretes.

Figure 19: Once the Delvo

crete Activator has broken down the protec-

tive barrier surrounding the cementitious particles, normal cement
hydration, setting and strength development take place.
4.2.5 Performance
The technical performances of hydration controlled concretes and
sprayed concretes treated with the Delvo

crete system exhibit qualities

equal or superior to reference concretes manufactured conventionally.
In sprayed concrete applications, hydration controlled mixes have shown
improved compressive, tensile and flexural strengths when compared
with reference mixes. Kinney observed that the Delvo

crete Stabilizer
appears to slow CSH nuclei formation when added with the mix water
and slows both CSH and CH when added during or after the induction
period. It is suggested that this ability to affect nucleation and crystal
growth leads to the formation of finer CH and denser silicate hydrates,
resulting in beneficial physical paste properties.
4.2.6 Setting times
The setting times of stabilized and activated sprayed concretes, both
wet and dry mixes, are shown in Figure 20.
100
Figure 20: Setting times of hydration controlled sprayed concretes
The Delvo

crete Activators have a dual role in that they:

<
Neutralize the effect of the Delvo

crete Stabilizer on the cement,

and,
<
Accelerate the hydration of the cement to give the very fast setting
and high early strength characteristics required in support works.
4.2.7 Strengths
The ultimate strengths and bearing capacity of sprayed concrete for
rock support often have to take secondary importance to the require-
ments for fast setting and high early strength. To achieve the latter
101
characteristics, sprayed concretes have accelerators added to them in
the spraying nozzle. These accelerators are mostly based upon salts
of aluminates or silicates, and cause strength losses at 28 days, the
greater strength losses mostly being experienced with aluminates. In
reality, strength losses do not generally occur, but rather a lack of strength
gain after 3 days takes place, when compared with the same unacceler-
ated mix as a reference.
With the hydration control system, stabilized and activated sprayed con-
cretes can also exhibit depressed or marginal strength gains between
3 and 28 days similar to conventionally accelerated sprayed concretes.
However, there are several types of Delvo

crete Activators for rock sup-

port. The choice and dosage of a particular type is dependent upon
cement quality as well as early strength and setting time requirements.
It is interesting to note that the hydration controlled mix requires a lower
dosage of Delvo

crete Activator than the dosage of accelerator a nor-

mal mix would require. This is probably due to the fact that because
the cement in the stabilized mix was well dispersed and still fresh (i.e.
unhydrated), the Delvo

crete Activator is able to act more efficiently than

the accelerator used in the normal mix.
4.2.8 Rebound
The rebound of sprayed concrete mixes is a large add-on cost in an
underground construction project and it is in the interests of the contrac-
tor and owner to keep these costs to a minimum. In field tests in Europe
and Asia, it has been found hydration controlled sprayed concrete mixes
exhibit lower rebound than plain mixes. This is probably due to the fact
that in such mixes, no pre-hydration of the cement has taken place and,
consequently, fresh cement is being sprayed continually, regardless
of the time elapsed between batching and spraying.
In the Flurlinger Tunnel project in Switzerland measured rebound tests
comparing normal sprayed concrete with a hydration controlled sprayed
concrete showed that the rebound of the stabilized mix was up to ten
percentage points lower than that of the normal mix.
102
Mix design (per m
3
) of sprayed concrete, Flurlinger Tunnel, Switzerland:
Cement 425 kg
Aggregate (016 mm) 1 730 kg
Superplasticizer 0.8 %
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.6 %

Delvo

crete Activator S51 5.0 %

w / c ratio 0.45
Workability (DIN Flow Table):
At batching 600 mm
After 4 hours 580 mm
After 9 hours 560 mm
Compressive strength (28 days):
Required minimum 25 MPa
Average achieved 33.5 MPa
Measured rebound (mechanized spraying): 8 to 10 % (average)
Originally, the contractor started to use stabilized sprayed concrete at
night because local environmental legislation restricted the operation
of the site installed concrete batching plant to between 7:00 a.m. and
10:00 p.m. This meant that the contractor could not obtain concrete
mixes after 10:00 p.m. To overcome this problem, several truck loads
of stabilized sprayed concrete were batched into truck mixers before
10:00 p.m. and then driven into the tunnel and sprayed, as required,
throughout the night. However, due to the positive experiences in
rebound reduction and improved quality and efficiency, the contractor
eventually opted to use stabilized concrete mixes in the daytime spray-
ing operations as well, the cost of the hydration control system chemi-
cals being more than offset by the reduction in rebound. This resulted in
substantial savings on the project.
4.2.9 Economics
The estimating and costing of the various components relating to the
final in-place price of sprayed concrete in a large underground infra-
structure project is a difficult and complex task. Many of these costs
are overlooked or underestimated by contractors. They may be sum-
marised as follows:
<
The cost of the sprayed concrete mix per m
3
103
<
The cost of in-place applied sprayed concrete, allowing for rebound
and overspray. (This may be 100 % higher than the delivered
m
3
cost.)
<
The cost of collecting, loading, carting away and dumping of rebound
from a project to a suitable approved site (environmental legislation)
<
The cost of returned sprayed concrete that has to be rejected
because it is too old to use
<
The cost of waste sprayed concrete that has to be washed out of
pumps and hoses when breakdowns and delays cause interruption
to spraying operations, and at the end of spraying shifts
<
The cost of breaking out, removal and replacement of areas of defec-
tive sprayed concrete resulting from the application of material that
may have been too old
<
The cost and maintenance of sprayed concrete pumps and equipment
<
The cost and maintenance (per m
3
) of a trixer unit if being used on
a project
<
The cost of setting up a site batching plant on the project if the near-
est ready-mix concrete plant is too far from site, and the 24-hour
operation of the plant
<
The cost of down time in equipment and personnel when deliveries
of sprayed concrete are delayed, or interrupted
Many of these costs are difficult to quantify and estimate at the tender
stage of a project and consequently get overlooked. It may be seen,
however, that a reduction in rebound alone has far more cost advan-
tages to a contractor than by merely having to purchase less material.
By utilizing the Delvo

crete hydration control system in large volume

wet-mix sprayed concrete projects, cost savings may be made in the
following areas:
<
Reduction in rebound
<
Less rebound to be carted away and dumped
<
No sprayed concrete deliveries have to be rejected because they are
too old
<
Waste sprayed concrete in pumps and hoses does not have to be
washed out and disposed of when interruptions occur, nor at the end
of a spraying shift
<
Less defective in-place sprayed concrete due to the fact that all
applied sprayed concrete contains cement that has not undergone
any pre-hydration and has not expired its pot-life
104
<
The necessity for trixer units is eliminated
<
Site batching plants may be eliminated (dependent upon other con-
crete requirements on the project)
<
The cost of overtime and down time in plant and personnel may
be reduced by ensuring adequate sprayed concrete deliveries are
always available at the excavation face
Table 5
Material Unit cost
(US$)
Conventional
mix
Hydration
controlled mix
Cement $ 80.00 / ton 420 kg $ 33.60 420 kg $ 33.60
Silica fume $ 450.00 / ton 40 kg $ 18.00 40 kg $ 18.00
Aggregate (0 10) $ 15.00 / ton 1 680 kg $ 25.20 1 680 kg $ 25.20
Water 210 kg 210 kg
Plasticiser $ 0.70 / kg 3 kg $ 2.10 3 kg $ 2.10
Super-
plasticiser
$ 1.10 / kg 4 kg $ 4.40 3 kg $ 3.30
Delvo

crete
Stabiliser (0.6%)
$ 3.50 / kg 2.76 kg $ 9.66
Slump 200 mm plus 200 mm plus
Conventional
accelerator (5%)
$ 1.80 / kg 21 kg $ 37.80
Delvo

crete
Activator (5 %)
$ 2.00 / kg 21 kg $ 42.00
TOTAL US$ 121.10 US$ 133.86
The costs of using the Delvo

crete hydration control system in sprayed

concrete can therefore be extremely economical. The dosage of the
Delvo

crete Stabilizer is in the range of 0.4 to 2.0 % (b.w.). This will

stabilize the cement for between 34 hours and 3 days. The dosage of
Delvo

crete Stabilizer will obviously depend upon the requirements of

the contractor, but, generally, a dosage of 0.6 % by weight of cement is
used in most works.
105
The dosage of Delvo

crete Activators is normally equal to (or slightly

less than) the dosage of accelerator that would be required by the same
sprayed concrete mix that contains no Delvo

crete Stabilizer.
Table 5 shows the cost comparison of conventional and hydra-
tion controlled wet-mix sprayed concretes for rock support with
coarse aggregate (016 mm). If the conventional mix had 20 %
rebound, then the in-place cost of the sprayed concrete would be
US$ 121.10 / 0.8 = US $ 151.38 / m
3
. In order to make the in-place cost
of the hydration controlled sprayed concrete of the same order, then
the rebound of that mix should be (1133.86 / 151.38) X 100 = 11 %.
It is not unusual for rebound reductions of this magnitude (4050 %)
to be achieved, as was done by the contractor in the Flurlinger Tunnel
project.
In the case of higher cost steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete (which
may cost in excess of US $ 200 per m
3
), an even smaller reduction in
rebound will be required to offset the cost of the hydration control sys-
tem chemicals.
Apart, however, from rebound savings, the contractor will also make
cost savings by eliminating return and waste sprayed concrete, being
able to reduce down time of sprayed concrete pumps and personnel
and generally being assured that every cubic metre of sprayed concrete
applied will be of a consistent quality.
4.2.10 Summary
<
Hydration controlled sprayed concrete mixes are an economical
and efficient development for use in rock support for large under-
ground infrastructure projects.
<
By suspending the hydration of the cement (and pozzolans) in a
sprayed concrete mix until it is reactivated and accelerated at the
spraying nozzle, a consistent quality of applied sprayed concrete
may be assured.
<
Cost savings in rebound reduction alone can offset the additional
costs of the hydration control system.
<
Other cost savings, resulting from reduced rebound and eliminating
waste sprayed concrete may be achieved by contractors.
106
<
Hydration controlled sprayed concrete mixes enable greater flexibility
in the scheduling and programming of spraying operations in under-
ground construction projects.
4.2.11 Selected case studies
The flexibility and advantages of modern high performance wet-mix
SFRS is directly and tightly lined to the correct use of admixtures and
proper equipment. Some examples follow, where a selection of features
has been made, to demonstrate some of the more important aspects of
practical life sprayed concrete application.
A) Wet-mix spraying with Delvo

crete
Athens Metro
The civil construction part of the project comprises 20 stations and
18 km of tunnels. In the tender documents, the dry-mix method was
specified. It was, however, possible to convince the contractors that
wet-mix spraying is beneficial in all aspects.
From a central mixing plant, the concrete is distributed by truck mixers
to a number of sites. The individual sites have a buffer storage for con-
crete, holding about 12 m
3
maximum. The buffer is also an agitator that
can be operated when necessary. The concrete goes from the agitator
into a concrete pump, delivering through a pipe system down the shaft
(typically 20 m deep) into the tunnel, ending in the MEYCO

Suprema
spraying pump. To the spraying nozzle it is normally 100 to 150 m.
A normal work sequence means application of 3 to 4 m
3
of sprayed
concrete and then a full stop of 3 to 4 hours until the next application.
During this time, the whole system from day-buffer to the sprayed con-
crete nozzle is left untouched with concrete inside. A full cleaning of the
delivery system is carried out about once a week.
This logistics system is only possible due to the Delvo

crete Stabilizer. By
adding a maximum of 2 % drawn on the cement weight, it is possible to
prevent any hydration for up to 72 hours. When Delvo

crete is used for

sprayed concrete, an activator must be used in the nozzle to start the
hydration process.
107
Some key data of the sprayed concrete:
<
Mix design containing 400 kg of cement, aggregate 08 mm,
Rheobuild

716 superplasticizer (1.2 %), Delvo

crete Stabilizer
(1 %), w/c ratio < 0.45, slump 1820 cm at the batching plant and
Delvo

crete Activator S71 (56 %) added at the spraying nozzle.

<
This is producing a rebound rate < 10 %, early strength development
better than the class J3 according to the Austrian Sprayed Concrete
Norm, 24-hour strength of 1317 MPa and 28day strength of
30 MPa.
London Underground, Jubilee Line Section 102
From a mixing plant on surface, the concrete is dropped about 35 m
down a vertical shaft, from where it is transported in 4 m
3
remix trucks.
The trucks deliver it into the MEYCO

Suprema concrete pump, which
is located from 45 to 100 m behind the nozzle, depending on advance
during the week.
A normal work sequence means application of 4 to 5 m
3
of sprayed
concrete and then a break of 2 to 3 hours until the next application.
Meanwhile, the equipment is cleaned once a week or occasionally
if blockage occurs. The about 5 m diameter tunnel in London clay is
advanced about 30 m / week on five 24-hour days.
Some key data of the sprayed concrete:
<
Mix design containing 440 kg of cement, aggregate 010 mm,
Rheobuild

3520 superplasticizer (1.15 %), Delvo

crete Stabilizer
(0.9 %), slump 20 cm at the batching plant and 13 cm underground
(flow measure according to DIN is more relevant using this super-
plasticizer) and Delvo

crete Activator S51 (45%) added at the nozzle.

<
This is producing a rebound rate of 5%, a 24-hour strength of
2024 MPa and 28-day strength of 30 MPa.
It is interesting to note that Delvo

crete was not used at the beginning.

This caused a loss of about 2 m
3
of concrete for every 4 m
3
sprayed,
due to cleaning out of equipment between application phases.
108
Bianya Tunnel, Spain
The Bianya Tunnel with a length of 1 800 metres is part of the Andorra
Highway to France. Contractor is Dragados y Construcciones. The
isolated area shows several impediments to conventional tunnelling
operations. The nearest ready-mix plant is 25 km away from the job site
and can only be reached across an ancient mountain pass. More than
1.5 hours are needed to reach the Northern end, and 50 minutes to reach
the Southern end of the tunnel.
During a period of 20 months, continuous night and day shifts require guar-
anteed non-stop supply of 15 000 cubic metres of sprayed concrete mixes,
also under severe weather conditions, for the use in rock support.
With the Delvo

crete system the sprayed concrete mixes are stabilized

at the batching plant for an average of 14 hours. They are delivered to
the job site and stored until utilisation. This allows continuous avail-
ability of fresh mixes.
Some key data of the sprayed concrete:
<
Concrete properties:
- Initial slump 23 cm
- Slump after 14 hours 19 cm
- Compressive strength 1 day: 9 MPa
3 days: 18 MPa
7 days: 27 MPa
28 days: 40 MPa
<
Rebound: <

6

%
<
Output: 9 m
3
/ hour
<
Mix design (per m
3
):
Cement 500 kg
Microsilica 16 kg
Sand (01 mm) 150 kg
Sand (06 mm) 1 400 kg
Gravel (612 mm) 20 kg
Rheobuild

561 5 kg
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 35 kg
Dramix steel fibres 40 kg
Water 225 kg
Delvo

crete Activator S61 30 kg

109
A-14 Highway, Paris
A twin road tunnel of 1

700 m was driven with the Perforex system
underneath the city of Paris. Perforex is the name of the equipment for a
new tunnelling method that consists in continuous saw cutting of vaults
on the extrados of the tunnel. The voids are immediately filled with high
early strength sprayed concrete, thus building a preliminary shelter
before the actual excavation works (e.g. road header) start. This new
technique is specially suited for full face driving in unstable and loose
areas below densely populated zones. Perforex requires simple and reli-
able materials that are easy to handle and to place and can be adapted
to non-anticipated situations.
Some key data of the sprayed concrete:
<
The Stabilizer of the Delvo

crete system provided the required flex-

ibility of sprayed concrete placing.
<
The Activator of the Delvo

crete system provided the required high

early strength; at 4 hours an average of 1113 MPa was reached
instead of the required 6 MPa; at 7 hours 17 MPa were reached.
<
Reduced production time: overall tunnelling works proceeded faster.
<
Mix design (per m
3
):
Cement 425 kg
Aggregate (08 mm) 1 660 kg
Water 190 litres
Rheobuild

2000 PF 1 % (c.w.)
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.4 % (c.w.)

Delvo

crete Activator S71 5 % (c.w.)

Ditschardt Tunnel, Germany
The Dischardt Tunnel is part of the by-pass road around the city of
Altenahr, 40 km south of Bonn. The tunnel length is 565 m and the
excavated cross section is 145 m
2
. The tunnel was excavated by drill
and blast and supported by sprayed concrete, rock bolts, welded wire
fabric and arches, according to the principles of NATM. The tunnel align-
ment passed heavily jointed graywacke which partly caused substantial
overbreaks. The concrete mix needed for wet-mix spraying had to be
hauled from a ready-mix plant 25 min off the jobsite. Variable timing of
tunnelling activities created additional waiting times.
110
Some key data of the sprayed concrete:
<
The Stabilizer of the Delvo

crete system provided the required flex-

ibility of sprayed concrete placing, without quality loss. The concrete
delivered to the site was kept in a site truck mixer until the moment
of application. A plasticizer was added to bring the spread table flow
measure up to 50 cm.
<
Mix design (per m
3
):
Cement CEM I 32.5R 380 kg
Sand (02 mm) 880 kg
Aggregate (28 mm) 980 kg
Water 200 kg
Woerment FM21 (plasticizer) 0.5 % (c.w.)
Delvo

crete Stabilizer 0.8 % (c.w.)

Delvo

crete Activator 6.1 % (c.w.)

<
The Delvo

crete hydration system was equally reliable during the

cold winter of 95 / 96 and during summer.
B) Dry-mix spraying with Delvo

crete
Brighton & Hove Stormwater Relief Tunnel, UK
The Brighton & Hove Stormwater Relief Tunnel was driven along the
foreshore, 3040 m beneath the surface, between Brighton and Hove
on the South-East coast of the United Kingdom. The main tunnel is
5.3 km long with an excavated diameter of 6 m, and was to be bored by
a full-face TBM. Lining was by pre-cast concrete segments.
The main shaft combines pre-cast concrete with a sprayed concrete
section for TBM erection and spoil handling, built in accordance with
NATM design criteria. Due to the environmental requirements of the
area a famous year round bathing and pleasure resort the erection
of a ready-mix concrete plant had to be avoided and the concrete mixes
required to be sprayed at various times throughout the day, had to be
hauled 12 km.
To ensure a regular supply of quality sprayed concrete, the Delvo

crete
system was chosen by Taylor Woodrow Civil Engineering, the main
contractor. The dry-mix sprayed concrete, stabilized with Delvo

crete
Stabilizer, was applied via two MEYCO

GM 90s and, due to the wet con-

ditions in the shaft and tunnel, activated / accelerated with Delvo

crete
111
Activator S51. Concrete some 15 hours old had been sprayed with
excellent results.
4.3 Concrete improving (internal curing)
Tunnels and other underground construction projects have some of the
worst conditions for curing due to the ventilation that blows continuously
dry (cold or hot) air into the tunnel. It can be compared with concrete
exposed to a windy area. One would think that tunnels have ideal cur-
ing conditions with high humidity (water leakage), no wind and no sun
exposure. However, this is not the case.
4.3.1 Background
Curing is one of the basic and most important jobs in sprayed concrete
because of the large cement and water content of the mix and the con-
sequent high shrinkage and cracking potential of the applied concrete.
Another reason is the danger of rapid drying out due to the heavy ven-
tilation as is usual in tunnels, the fast hydration of accelerated sprayed
concrete and the application in thin layers. Therefore, sprayed concrete
should always be cured properly by means of an efficient curing agent.
However, the use of curing agents involves several restrictions: They
must be solvent-free (use in closed rooms), they must have no nega-
tive influence on the bonding between layers and they must be applied
immediately after placing of the sprayed concrete. Most of the in-place
sprayed concrete around the world has no bonding and many cracks,
due to the fact that no curing is applied.
With the use of sprayed concrete as permanent final lining, long-term
quality and performance requirements have built up significantly. These
requirements are: good bonding, high final density and compressive
strengths to ensure freeze / thaw and chemical resistances, watertight-
ness and a high degree of safety.
When curing sprayed concrete with a curing agent, one has to be very
careful with the cleaning procedure of the substrate before applying a
subsequent layer. Cleaning must be done with high pressure air and a
lot of water (use spraying pump and nozzle, adding air at the nozzle).
112
Another problem with curing agents is to be able to apply them quickly
enough after finishing of spraying. To secure proper curing of sprayed
concrete, the curing agents must be applied within 15 to 20 minutes after
spraying. Due to the use of set accelerators, the hydration of sprayed
concrete takes place a very short time after spraying (5 to 15 minutes).
The hydration and temperature are most lively during the first minutes
and hours after the application of the sprayed concrete and it is of great
importance to protect the sprayed concrete at this critical stage.
Application of curing agents requires two time consuming working
operations: Application of curing agent and cleaning / removal of the
curing agent from the sprayed concrete surface between the layers in
the case of multiple layers. In many countries with experience in wet-
mix sprayed concrete like in Norway and Sweden and in big projects
world-wide, there is an obligation to cure the sprayed concrete with a
curing agent.
Very good experiences have been made with the use of a special curing
agent for sprayed concrete (Masterkure

112). This product is solvent-

free and easy to apply and remove. It is used in many big projects and
in different countries, everywhere with very good results. The use of
specially designed curing agents for sprayed concrete improves bond-
ing by 3040 % compared to no curing (air curing), reduces shrinkage
and cracking and also gives a slightly higher density and compressive
strength (at 28 days). These results are confirmed by several laboratory
tests and field trials. However, in order to achieve these results, proper
cleaning is required before subsequent layers of sprayed concrete can
be applied. Even with easy-to-apply products, curing of sprayed con-
crete remains a time consuming job and is often felt as a hindrance to
other tunnelling operations.
4.3.2 Concrete improving with MEYCO

TCC735
UGC International has developed a new system for more efficient and
secure curing of wet-mix sprayed concrete, repair mortars as well as
concrete.
Concrete improving (internal curing) means that a special admix-
ture is added to the concrete / mortar during batching as a normal
113
admixture. This admixture produces an internal barrier in the con-
crete which secures safer hydration and better resistances than the
application of conventional curing agents. The benefits resulting from
this new technology are impressive:
<
The time consuming application and, in the case of various sprayed
concrete layers, removal of curing agents are no longer necessary.
<
Curing is guaranteed from the very beginning of hydration.
<
There is no negative influence on bonding between layers.
As a consequence of this optimum curing effect, all other sprayed con-
crete characteristics are improved: density, final strengths, freeze / thaw
and chemical resistances, watertightness, less cracking and shrinkage.
In addition, MEYCO

TCC735 has a beneficial effect on pumpability

and workability of sprayed concrete, even with low-grade aggregates.
It particularly improves the pumpability of steel fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete mixes, and also the fibre orientation, thus reducing rebound
and raising toughness values.
4.3.3 A proven technology
The concrete improving system with MEYCO

TCC735 has been

tested with good results both in laboratories and on big jobsites.
Comprehensive investigation programmes were carried out in Norway
(SINTEF), in Switzerland (LPM Institute) and in Austria (University of
Innsbruck). Bond strengths were higher than 2.0 MPa with failures dis-
covered in the concrete only and not in the bonding area. Density and
mechanical strengths at 28 days were more than 10 % higher than in
conventionally cured reference sprayed concrete.
Example results from a large jobsite in Middle East:
<
Increased bonding compared to no curing: > 100 % (from 0.50.7 to
> 2.0 MPa)
<
Increased bonding compared to curing with special curing agent:
>3050 % (from 0.71.2 to > 2.0 MPa)
<
All cores of sprayed concrete treated with MEYCO

TCC735 show
bond > 2.0 MPa. Failures were discovered only in the concrete and
not in the bonding area.
114
<
Increased density (> 15 %) compared to sprayed concrete treated
with external curing agents
<
Increased strength (28 days) compared to air cured sprayed con-
crete or treated with external curing agent (> 10 %)
<
No signs of cracking

Figure 21: Water absorption of a drilling core [g / cm
2
]
(Ref: M. Testor, Masters degree at the University of Innsbruck, 1997)
Figure 22: Bonding of sprayed concrete drilling cores on sprayed
concrete substrate [MPa]
(Ref: LPM test results from internal spraying trials)
115
4.3.4 Benefits of concrete improving with MEYCO

TCC735
<
No influence on bonding between the layers. Always good bonding,
high security
<
No additional work operation for the application of curing agents or
other curing methods
<
No need for additional work operation for cleaning and removal of
curing agents
Table 6: Cost comparison per m
3
of concrete improver, external curing
and water curing from one of the biggest sprayed concrete works ever
carried out: > 200 000 m
3
of wet HPS sprayed concrete applied in a
period of 2.5 years
Water curing External
curing
Concrete
improver
(internal curing)
Material SFr. 14. SFr. 15.
Application
man hours
machine costs
SFr. 25.20
SFr. 280.
SFr. 1.
SFr. 18.


Removal
man hours
machine costs


SFr. 10.80
SFr. 80.


Total costs m
3
SFr. 305.20 SFr. 123.80 SFr. 15.
<
Curing from the first second and therefore during the critical time
<
Less cracking
<
Better chemical resistance
<
Improved watertightness (less cracks)
<
Improved freeze / thaw resistance
<
Improved workability and especially pumpability
<
Works independently from aggregate quality, grading and lack of
fineness
<
Works particularly well with steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete;
better fibre orientation, reduced fibre rebound and increased tough-
ness values
116
<
Less time per m
3
/ m
2
due to increased production and less work
operations. Time is money!
<
Increased density
<
Improved final compressive strengths
4.3.5 A safer and cheaper solution
<
With MEYCO

TCC735 overall savings of the spraying job are

achieved: the elimination of additional work operations for applica-
tion of curing compounds and preparation of substrate, as well as
the reduced rebound and fibre rebound more than offset the extra
material cost.
<
MEYCO

TCC735, whilst guaranteeing safer curing, provides a new

state of the art application procedure of curing agents in the easy-to-
apply form of a concrete admixture.
4.3.6 Results from some spraying tests
In the tests a great number of parameters have been fixed in order to
evaluate the real performance differences of the three mixes and sys-
tems.
Table 7: Mix design per m
3
Reference
(no curing)
External
curing
Concrete improver
(internal curing)
Cement 42.5 II A-L (c) 450 kg 450 kg 450 kg
Silica fume (s) 22.5 kg 22.5 kg 22.5 kg
w / c+s 0.45 0.45 0.45
Sand 04 mm 1 700 kg 1 700 kg 1 700 kg
Rheobuild

561 7.125 kg 7.125 kg

Masterkure

112 0.5 kg / m
2

Rheobuild

3520 9.5 kg
MEYCO

TCC735 5 kg
Rheobuild

700 1 kg
MEYCO

SA430(by b.w.) 8 % 8 %
MEYCO

TCC765 (by b.w.) 5 %

Slump 23 cm 23 cm 16 cm
117
Table 8: Mechanical performances of the three mixes
Reference
(no curing)
External
curing
Concrete improver
(internal curing)
Flexural strength tests on concrete beams (10 x 10 x 40 cm), UNI 5133, MPa:
7 days
28 days
3.8
5.54.5
5

4.54.5
4.5
5.96.1
6.0
6.46.8
6.6
Pull-out test Rilem / CEB/FIP RC6, MPa:
7 days
28 days

1.5

2.01.8
1.9
2.11.9
2.0
2.42.2
2.3
Adhesion on concrete (*), MPa:
7 days
28 days
0.92 (P)
1.02 (I)
0.9 (P)
1.5 (I)
1.5 (P)
2.8 (P)
Cracks on beams:
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days
cracks
cracks
breakings
breakings
no cracks
no cracks
superficial cracks
cracks
no cracks
no cracks
no cracks
no cracks
Static modulus of elasticity, UNI 6556, MPa:
7 days
28 days
17 150
2 650

19 100
22 400
Dynamic modulus of elasticity, MPa:
7 days
28 days
28 500
36 600
28 000
37 300
39 400
39 600
(*): The values are the average of two tests.
P: The breakings have occurred in the application, i.e. in the product.
I: The breakings have occurred at the interface between the applica-
tion and the concrete slab.
118
4.4 Conclusion
Delvo

crete, the alkali-free set accelerators MEYCO

SA160 / SA162 /
SA163 / SA167 / SA175 / SA176 / SA180 / SA181 and the concrete improv-
ing system are the new generations of advanced sprayed concrete
admixtures which set new standards in the world of sprayed concrete.
They contribute to improve quality and increase production, while at the
same time lowering costs per cubic metre of in-place sprayed concrete
and thus further promoting sprayed concrete as a construction mate-
rial.
119
5. Fibres in sprayed concrete
Fibre concrete is a new material undergoing fast development with new
and better fibres, hand in hand with improved concrete technology and
application techniques.
Figure 23: Steel fibres as used for reinforcing of sprayed concrete
for rock support
The use of steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete has advanced sub-
stantially in the last few years. It has been accepted for rock support by
engineers, specifiers, owners and contractors around the world.
5.1 Why concrete needs reinforcement
Concrete is a brittle material. For a variety of reasons most of all applied
concrete and sprayed concrete cracks. The cause of concrete cracks
can be structural or economical, but most of the cracks are due to the
inherent tensile weakness of the material. As concrete shrinks, and at
the same time is restrained, it will crack. To avoid this the concrete has
to be reinforced with wire mesh and bars, or by adding fibres.
Steel fibres have clear advantages over wire mesh as reinforcing
agents. The most important advantage is that they are small and
that steel fibres are evenly distributed in the entire concrete layer.
The improved distribution of cracks and tension thus obtained makes
steel fibre reinforced concrete a viscous material.
120
5.2 How steel fibres work in sprayed concrete
To a large extent the mechanical properties of sprayed concrete are
determined by the w / c+s ratio, the silica fume content, the dosage of
sprayed concrete accelerators and the curing conditions.
The main reason for using steel fibres in sprayed concrete is to increase
the ductility of the material. Whereas high flexural strength can be
produced without fibres, ductility is a function of the type and amount
of steel fibres. Long fibres (> 25 mm) and rather high dosages (40
75 kg / m
3
) are preferable.
As a secondary effect steel fibres improve the final flexural strength of
sprayed concrete. Tests on large scale specimens show that after hard-
ening the flexural strength of plain sprayed concrete was reduced by half
because of shrinkage and microcracking whereas steel fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete maintained its flexural strength.
Additional benefits obtained by using steel fibres in sprayed concrete
are:
<
Increased resistance against impact
<
Increased abrasion and erosion resistance
<
Increased watertightness and frost resistance due to the conversion
of shrinkage cracks into microcracks
<
Increased bonding capacity as compared to plain or wire mesh rein-
forced sprayed concrete
Steel fibres should never be used in dry-mix spraying because of the
high fibre rebound (> 50 %).
5.3 Types of fibres
5.3.1 Glass fibres
Glass fibres cannot be used as a permanent material because, after
some time, they will become brittle and be destroyed by the basic part
of the concrete matrix. Therefore, they have to be avoided in all types of
concrete, sprayed concrete and cement based mortars.
121
5.3.2 Polymer fibres
Normal short polymer fibres are resistant and durable in the concrete
environment. Yet, their mechanical properties are similar to those of
concrete and therefore cannot improve them or make concrete more
viscous. This makes this type of polymer fibre unsuitable for the use
in rock support. However, for applications where only reinforcement
against shrinkage, and in particular plastic shrinkage, is asked for, as
in sprayed concrete repair, polymer fibres are well suited: They are
very efficient at distributing microcracks during the plastic phase of
hardening and they also help reduce rebound in wet-mix spraying. In
addition, polymer fibres have a positive influence in cases of fire as they
reduce spalling of concrete.
Recently, a new type of polymer fibre has been developed. These
structural polymer fibres (SP fibres) are more similar to steel fibres in
terms of shape and length. They are produced from high quality materi-
als and typically delivered in lengths of 30 to 50 mm. Numerous test
results and applications in Australia, Canada, South Africa, Norway and
other European countries have shown that this type of fibre can reach
adequate toughness if dosed in the range of 510 kg / m
3
. Tests with this
dosage range show that SP fibres can reach approximately 9001 200
Joules according to the EFNARC plate test. This result is more or less
equal to the result achieved with 3040 kg/m
3
of high quality steel fibres.
The new SP fibres are already widely used in the mining industry around
the world and are now increasingly applied for sprayed concrete linings
in civil tunnelling.
The advantages of the new SP fibres over steel fibres in sprayed con-
crete are:
<
Higher level of load bearing capacity (SP fibres absorb more defor-
mation)
<
Reduced fibre rebound rates
<
Easier logistics
<
Lower wear and tear on spraying parts (wear plate, pump cylinders,
inside of pump, hoses and nozzle)
<
No corrosion
<
More economical
122
UGC International promotes its SP fibres under the name of
MEYCO

FIB SP530 / SP540 / SP550 (lengths 30 mm, 40 mm, and

50 mm, respectively; nominal cross section area 0.75 mm
2
; melting
point 170 C; tensile strength 250 MPa, elongation yield 24.4 %). The
author believes that these new SP fibres will be the future of rein-
forced sprayed concrete.
A combination of normal / short (fibrin) polymer fibres with the new SP
fibres is probably the ideal reinforcement for sprayed concrete in terms
of mechanical performances (reduction of plastic shrinkage, improved
bond, reduced spalling in case of fire, improved ductility / load bear-
ing capacity) and economical advantages (less cost per m
3
applied,
improved durability).
Table 9: Results from a comparison test made with Novotex 0730
steel fibres (dosage 65 kg/m
3
) and MEYCO

FIB SP550 fibres (dosage

9 kg / m
3
). Identical mix design, w / c ratio, spraying equipment, nozzle-
man and accelerator type used for all three mixes (Mix 1 using MEYCO

SA160, Mixes 2 and 3 using MEYCO

SA170). All panels stored under

identical curing conditions.
Mixes Panel
no.
Mean
thickness
(mm)
Peak
load
(N)
Energy
at 25 mm
(J)
Mix 1:
MEYCO

FIB SP550
(9 kg / m
3
), MEYCO

SA160
1
2
Mean
99
98
65 927
70 229
68 078
1 068
1 095
1 082
Mix 2:
MEYCO

FIB SP550
(9 kg / m
3
), MEYCO

SA170
1
2
Mean
99
100
66 333
78 282
72 308
1 149
1 315
1 232
Mix 3:
Novotex 0730 steel fibres
(65 kg / m
3
), MEYCO

SA170
1
2
Mean
102
101
94 560
92 341
93 451
1 459
1 522
1 491
The most common argument against the use of SP fibres in civil tunnel
linings is the concern about the magnitude of creep related deflections
123
likely to occur in the long term under gravity loading. The creep behav-
iour of SP fibres and of steel fibres (also steel fibres are subject to creep-
ing!) has been studied by Dr Stefan Bernhard in a long-term investigation
programme. The test is described in his paper (see References), where
he concludes that SP fibres are designed and have been shown to
provide similar resistance to load deformation as steel fibres. Creep only
becomes an issue if and when the sprayed concrete cracks. If a crack
develops in steel fibre reinforced concrete, it creates the opportunity for
corrosion and loss of performance in ductility. If the load continues, the
load energy will continue to be absorbed, but there is a risk of sudden
rupture. If a crack develops in SP fibre reinforced concrete there is no
corrosion risk. If the load continues, the fibres will stretch rather than
suddenly fail, and in doing so will continue to absorb the load energy.
The cracked sprayed concrete can be observed and action taken to
remedy the cause of the problem before this capability is exhausted.
Table 10: Results from a comparison test made with Enduro SP fibres
in three different dosages: 5, 7, and 9 kg / m
3
. Identical mix design,
accelerator (MEYCO

SA162) and spraying equipment (manipula-

tor) used for all three mixes. Toughness test performed according to
EFNARC plate test.
Fibre
dosage
Energy absorption
Fibre
content
Compressible strength
kg / m
3
Measured
Joules
Energy abs. class*
(EFNARC plate test)
Measured
kg / m
3
Measured
MPa
Compressive
strength class
(NS-EN206-1)
5
7
9
745
1 072
1 112
E 700
E 1000
E 1000
5.4
9.6
12.6
54.4
48.5
58.3
B 55
B 50
B 60
* = Norwegian Concrete Association, Sprayed Concrete Publication, no. 7
5.3.3 Carbon fibres
From a technical point of view the mechanical properties of carbon
fibres should be ideal for rock support, but in practice they are not used
because of their high price.
124
5.3.4 Steel fibres
Steel fibres are the most commonly used fibres in sprayed concrete.
There are several types and qualities available on the market, but only
a few types meet the requirements set for fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete.
Critical and important parameters of the steel fibres are:
<
Geometry
<
Length
<
Length/thickness ratio (L / D)
<
Steel quality
In practice, we are looking for a thin and long fibre with high steel
quality (same or higher than ordinary reinforcement). Most of the
steel fibres available on the market have an insufficient steel quality.
Typical fibres that can meet the requirements for steel fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete are Dramix 30 / 50 and 40 / 50 as well as Novotex
0730 (0.7 x 30 mm).
5.4 Technical advantages of steel fibres
Rock support includes the constant risk of unexpected loads and defor-
mation. The best possible safety margin is achieved by the highest pos-
sible fracture energy (ductility) of the sprayed concrete layer.

Steel fibre
reinforced
Unreinforced
Deformation
L
o
a
d

P
Figure 24: The 2 curves show the deformation under variation of the
load P of an unreinforced sprayed concrete layer and a sprayed con-
crete layer reinforced according to modern steel fibre technology.
The area below the curve is the fracture energy.
125
Whereas the addition of ordinary steel fibres doubles the fracture ener-
gy of unreinforced sprayed concrete, modern steel fibre technology
improves it 50200 times, see Figure 24. In practical terms this means
that with modern steel fibre technology a sprayed concrete layer may
crack and deform and still have a lot of bearing capacity left, so that
under normal circumstances there is ample time that the cracks / defor-
mations are noticed and measures taken.
The fracture energy of steel fibres is also higher than of wire mesh. This
has been proven by a large scale test run at the beginning of the eight-
ies by the independent Norwegian Technical Research Association
(NTNF), see Figure 25.
Figure 25: Fracture energy of steel fibres vs. wire mesh
The test simulates a block falling on a 10 cm sprayed concrete layer.
a) Sprayed concrete with 1 % steel fibres
b) Sprayed concrete with centric applied wire mesh
Both types of reinforced sprayed concrete layers were applied with a
10 cm thickness on three granite stone blocks (see Figure 26). After
28 days the middle block was exposed to various loads (P). The result-
ing deformation was measured.
The test shows that the fracture energy of the steel fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete is much higher than that of traditional wire mesh rein-
forced sprayed concrete.
126
Figure 26
Theoretically, wire mesh reinforced sprayed concrete may produce
similar results if the layer thickness is above 15 cm and the steel quality
is good. However, commonly used wire mesh is produced from cold
drawn wire. This mesh will break already under very small deformation
and is therefore dangerous since in rock support deformation has to be
taken into consideration constantly.
Reinforcing sprayed concrete by WWF also creates a quality problem.
The shadow effect may produce voids behind the bars. This is often a
serious problem, because it will eventually cause reinforcement corro-
sion and concrete spalling.
The danger arising from the insecurity about the wire mesh quality
actually used and the problem of the shadow effect can be easily avoid-
ed by using steel fibre reinforcement which lends itself so well to wet-mix
sprayed concrete, and at a lower cost, too. In rock support where one
always has to allow for deformation, this feature is a very strong quality
asset of the wet-mix method.
5.5 Economical advantages of steel fibres
By replacing welded wire mesh with steel fibres a time-consuming and
dangerous operation can be avoided. This makes fibre concrete able to
compete with traditional wire mesh.
Steel fibres save money and time:
<
Savings on direct costs:

Direct cost of steel fibres is 50 to 60 % of the direct cost of wire mesh
(labour plus material).
<
Savings on indirect costs:

Indirect costs due to the application of sprayed concrete in two
layers which the use of wire mesh makes necessary, can be avoided,
and no delay is caused in other tunnelling operations.
127
<
Savings on sprayed concrete used:

With steel fibres the required thickness of sprayed concrete can be
applied over the whole surface, independent of the irregularity of the
substrate.
The increased rebound caused by wire mesh as well as the effect
of shadows behind the mesh are avoided.
5.6 Mix design for steel fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete
Steel fibres require the knowledge and skill of practical mix design.
<
Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete requires the use of microsilica and
admixtures, in order to cancel the negative effects of the fibres on
pumping and spraying. Furthermore, it is important that the bond-
ing (adherence) between steel and concrete matrix is optimal, and
this is achieved by the addition of microsilica and with a maximum
aggregate grain size of 8 mm.
<
A higher content of fine material (min 400 kg) is required.
Figure 27: Modern sprayed concrete: Mechanized spraying with
advanced admixtures and steel fibres
128
<
The slump has to be increased to a minimum of 1014 cm. This
means that fibre reinforced sprayed concrete requires a higher dos-
age of superplasticizers.
<
For anchoring (gluing) reasons the fibres should be at least twice as
large as the largest aggregate granule.
<
The fibre length should not exceed 50 to 60 % of the pumping hose
diameter. This means that for manual spraying the normal maximum
fibre length is 25 mm and for manipulators with 65 mm hoses, it is
possible to spray with a fibre length of up to 40 mm.
<
Steel fibres can be added before, after or during batching of the
concrete materials. If balling occurs, it is usually eliminated by alter-
ing the batching sequence.
129
6. Durability of sprayed concrete
As a consequence of the growing application of sprayed concrete as
a permanent construction material, demands on its durability have
increased likewise. The use of traditional accelerators in high dosages
has led to serious damages of sprayed concrete, even within a short
time after its application.
The durability of a tunnel lining should be such that the lining remains
safe and serviceable for the designed life, without the need for a high
degree of maintenance expenditure. To attain durability, the designer
needs to assess the exposure environment of the structure during both
construction and operation, as structural degradation normally occurs
with unforeseen environmental changes.
With this in mind, the term durability may be related to structures that
are designed to resist loads during a construction period before a sec-
ondary lining is placed. However, more often, with the use of sprayed
concrete for permanent single shell linings (see chap. 9), the durability of
the concrete should consider a design life of 100 years or more.

Durable
sprayed concrete
structure
Future
environment and
load conditions
Site control
Monitoring
and action
Ground and H
2
O
conditions acting
on structure
Curing method
Correct
mix design and
accelerator
choice
Hand or
mechanized
application
Wet or dry-mix
method?
Capable, and
trained applicators
Modern, relevant
specifications
Buildable design
Figure 28: Durability parameters of a sprayed concrete structure
As can be seen from Figure 28, the durability of a sprayed concrete
structure is established via a total of many possible parameters. In
130
sprayed concrete construction, the correct concrete mix design and
cover to reinforcement are not sufficient as with traditional cast con-
crete. The main reason behind this is that the material is spray applied,
and consequently the quality is significantly reliant on human skills
and spray equipment performance. The main durability issues listed in
Figure 28 are briefly discussed in this chapter.
6.1 Buildable designs
With respect to existing concrete tunnel structures, the major durability
problems are not directly related to the concrete itself, but more often
to the corrosion of steel reinforcement elements that have been insuffi-
ciently protected against water ingress or humidity. Tunnels constructed
with permanent sprayed concrete create other durability concerns, par-
ticularly in terms of providing the required material properties such as
<
Monitoring, review and implementa-
tion during construction
<
QA / QC
<
Risk Assessment
<
Competence
<
Supervision
<
Training
<
Mix design
<
Accelerator type
<
Application methods
<
Equipment choice and performance
<
Curing methods
<
Ground improvement
<
Independent design check
<
Design review during
construction
<
QA / QC
<
Risk Assessment
<
Competence
Design Team Construction Team
Communication
<
Construction sequences
<
Permanent ground
reinforcement
<
Joint and inter-layer details
<
Physical and chemical exposure
<
Tunnel design life and purpose
<
Design parameters and time effects
<
Reinforcement or fibres
<
Waterproofing methods
<
Profile geometry
<
Material properties
Figure 29: Human and structural factors
Human
Factors
Structural
Factors
131
compaction, and with the unknown stability concerns associated with
the necessary amount of admixtures used for modern wet-mix sprayed
concrete application methods.
As summarised in Figure 29, to address the durability requirements,
a holistic approach to the design and construction of durable sprayed
concrete tunnel linings is required. In essence, the sprayed concrete
lining method is heavily reliant on human competence during construc-
tion, and therefore the design should reflect this by considering the
buildability of tunnels using sprayed concrete.
6.2 Specifications and guidance
Unfortunately, too often in the sprayed concrete industry, specifications
and guidance documents tend to be cut and pasted into new con-
tracts year after year, without much in depth research as to the current
advanced state of the sprayed concrete business. The recent increase
in wet-mix sprayed concrete has provided an opportunity to re-examine
the old specifications, and now new documents are emerging which
reflect the current state-of-the-art in sprayed concrete technology (e.g.
the European Specification for Sprayed Concrete (1996) by EFNARC,
see chap. 10.5).
6.3 Construction competence
The construction team should be made aware of the design elements
that are key factors in determining the safety and durability of the tunnel
structure. To ensure the quality of the concrete lining is achieved, qual-
ity review systems should be adequate to control the production. It is
of paramount importance that the communication link between design
and construction teams should be maintained from pre-design stage
to project completion so that the above processes are promoted (see
chap. 10.5 for more details).
6.4 Sprayed concrete mix design
The main factor that determines the durability of a concrete structure
is achieving a low permeability which reduces the ingress of potentially
132
deleterious substances, thereby inhibiting chemical reactions such as
those involving the cement and thus preventing chemical changes. Low
permeability is achieved in sprayed concrete applications by the follow-
ing means:
<
A well graded material suitable for the sprayed concrete application
system in terms of pumpability, workability, rebound reduction and
good compaction (see Figure 5 in chap. 3.5.2). All aggregates should
be checked for alkali-silica reaction.
<
Adequate cementitious content, typically 400 to 500 kg. The cement
content should not be less than 350 kg.
<
Low, pre-defined water / cement ratio less than 0.45, achieved using
water reducing agents / superplasticisers. Modern superplasticisers,
referred to as hyperplasticisers can provide w / c ratios between
0.35 and 0.4, whilst maintaining a slump of 20 cm.
<
Use of pozzolanic materials such as silica fume and PFA. Silica fume
has a definite filler effect in that it distributes the hydration products
in a more homogeneous fashion in the available space. This leads to
a concrete with reduced permeability, increased sulphate resistance
and improved freeze-thaw durability.
<
Control of micro-cracking to 0.2 mm by fibre reinforcement instead
of mesh, thereby allowing autogenous healing.
<
Controlled, low dosages of alkali-free accelerators for reduced reduc-
tion in final strength compared to base mix, significantly reduced
Donates range of data
for MEYCO

alkali-free and
modified sodium
silicate accelerated
sprayed concrete
Figure 30: Permeability test and results for sprayed concrete using
UGC International alkali-free and modified sodium silicate accelerators
133

leachates, reduced rebound and dust, and most importantly, to pro-
vide safe working conditions.
<
Hydration control admixtures to prevent premature hydration of the
mix before it is applied to the substrate. Pre-hydration may cause
significant deleterious effects to the hardened physical properties
of the sprayed concrete, such as low strengths and densities, and
increased permeability.
<
Applicable curing methods (see chap. 4.3).
A range of permeability tests for site testing are defined in the Concrete
Society (UK) Technical Report No. 31: Permeability testing of site con-
crete (1988). Included are three concrete classes having high, average
and low permeability based on typical results from the test techniques.
The permeability tests and ranges for sprayed concrete are identi-
fied in Figure 30, and the test result ranges for samples using UGC
International technology are also illustrated, clearly demonstrating
sprayed concrete as a durable lining material.
6.5 Sulphate resistance of sprayed concrete with
alkali-free accelerators
In terms of sulphate resistance, a number of tests have been carried
out by SINTEF, Norway and the results are summarised in Table 11, with
high denoting excellent sulphate resistance.
A number of comments can be made regarding these results:
<
Alkali-free accelerators can be used to produce sulphate resisting
sprayed concrete up to dosages of 10 %.
<
Alkali-free accelerators perform better than modified sodium
silicate accelerators with OPC cements.
<
The use of 6 % microsilica provides comparable sulphate resistance
with OPC as sulphate resisting cement (SR). This is important as it is
preferential to use OPC rather than SR cement in sprayed concrete
due to the faster setting and early strength development.
<
The lower the water-cement ratio, the higher the sulphate resisting
performance. It is recommended to have a w / c ratio below 0.45 and
preferably, with the aid of new hyperplasticisers, to attain a w / c ratio
of less than 0.4.
134
Table 11: Sulphate resistance of sprayed concrete (SINTEF, 1999)
Cement Type OPC OPC OPC OPC SR
Aggregates:
alkali-silica reactivity reactive reactive non reactive non reactive slightly reactive
Microsilica 0 % 6 % 0 % 6 % 0 % and 6 %
w / c ratio 0.45 0.47 0.52 0.48 0.45 to 0.48
Accelerator & Dosage
Modified sodium
silicate 5 %
moderate high none high high
Modified sodium
silicate 10 %
none high none high high
alkali-free 5 % high high none high high
alkali-free 10 % moderate high none high high
none (no sulphate resistance): greater than 0.1 % expansion
moderate sulphate resistance: between 0.05 % and 0.1 % expansion
high sulphate resistance: less than 0.05 % expansion
6.6 Chemical stability of new accelerators
Recent microanalyses have shown that the sprayed concrete samples
comprising accelerating admixtures contained similar mineral phases
to those present in a control concrete. Additionally, both the control and
admixture samples showed similar microcracking patterns. The studies
concluded that the lack of differences, both chemically and structurally,
posed no adverse implications for long term durability of sprayed con-
crete containing accelerating admixtures. Furthermore, petrographic
studies of permanent sprayed concrete demonstrate that early-age ther-
mal microcracking is a temporary feature removed by the onset of autog-
enous healing. No evidence has been found through permeability, com-
pressive and flexural strength tests, that early age microcracking causes
any detrimental effects to the stability or durability of the concrete.
6.7 Durability of steel fibre reinforcement
The main durability benefit of steel fibre over weldmesh reinforced
concrete, in severe environments, is that it will not support the common
galvanic corrosion cells which often lead to considerable damage to
135
conventionally reinforced tunnel linings. The risk of concrete spalling
due to corrosion is eliminated as the increase in volume due to the cor-
roded fibre is insufficient. Additionally, the fibres, which are discrete,
are protected by an alkali matrix. There is, therefore, no mechanism for
the propagation of corrosion activity, as reviewed by numerous case
histories and research studies of structures exposed to highly saline and
freeze-thaw environments. It is therefore unnecessary to opt for stain-
less steel fibres to achieve durability.
Plain steel fibres exposed at the concrete surface will tend to leave rust
spots. Therefore, for cosmetic and safety reasons, it is recommended
that permanent steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete linings are pro-
tected by a thin finishing mortar layer containing the new Enduro /
MEYCO

FIB SP540 polymer fibres for thermal cracking control.

6.8 Application requirements
Quite often, the benefits of a well engineered mix design to achieve the
durability requirements of the structure are negated by poor application
processes (see chap. 10 for more details).
6.9 Conclusion
<
To achieve durable sprayed concrete linings, the development of
the concrete mix design is only but one facet that needs to be
accomplished. The production of durable sprayed concrete is signifi-
cantly reliant on human skills during spraying and equipment that is
fit for the purpose.
<
The designer also has a key role to play. The important issues in this
case are to understand the sprayed concrete application process
and not to overspecify material properties. The key to achieving
durability is through buildable designs by keeping details as simple
as possible.
<
Wet-mix sprayed concrete applied using modern, high perform-
ance, environmentally safe admixtures and equipment provides the
tunnel industry with an economical tool to construct permanent,
durable single shell linings. The construction process has become
highly automated thereby significantly reducing the degree of human
136
influence that has, in the past, prevented clients from considering
sprayed concrete as a permanent support.
<
Modern sprayed concrete specifications now address the issues of
achieving a quality controlled modern mix design, providing guidance
on promoting durability and effective execution of the spraying proc-
esses. As an example, the new European Specification for Sprayed
Concrete (1996) by EFNARC, provides comprehensive systems to
attain permanent sprayed concrete.
<
With the increased use of durable sprayed concrete linings, new
technologies to promote and maintain their use have entered the
market recently. These systems enhance watertightness and provide
high performance fire resistance.
<
Further implementation of durable sprayed concrete for tunnels and
other civil engineering structures is increasing, with a marked change
during the mid 1990s. This trend is set to increase further as design
and construction teams become more familiar with modern sprayed
concrete technology and the durable concrete that can be pro-
duced.
6.10 Example of C-45
Cement 450 kg
Microsilica 20 kg
Fine gravel 08 mm
Glenium

T803 2.53 kg
Polymer fibres 7.510 kg
w / c+s 0.40
Spread table > 55 cm
Addition at the nozzle:
MEYCO

SA160 / SA161 48 %
This mix is stabilized for more than 34 hours (thanks to Glenium

T803).
The final strength of the concrete must be higher than the specified
strength. Provided materials, mix design and execution of spraying are
correct, a rough estimate should aim at obtaining one strength class
higher for the final strength than the specified requirement.
137
6.11 Consequences of using different mix designs
To obtain soft consistencies (> 25 cm) is very critical. The high dosage
of accelerator needed gives a big decrease in final strength, and there
is a risk of segregation and clogging.
Low cement dosages (< 400 kg) give a very small margin with regard
to sub-standards and require a firm control of the accelerator dosing
and hardening conditions; lower production capacity and dramatically
increased rebound.
Overdosing of microsilica (1215 %) gives a very sticky concrete which
is very difficult to pump. This must be compensated for with a higher
slump.
A high content of coarse aggregates (for instance 20 % larger than
4 mm), gives a higher rebound loss.
Crushed aggregates cause heavy wear on pumps and hoses and large
losses through rebound. There is also a risk of dehydration and clog-
ging.
Large amounts of fibres (long fibres) create pumping and compaction
problems: cavities around fibres, poor mechanical properties, poor
resistances and inferior adherence to the surface. A reduction of the
fibre length helps.
138
7. Sprayed concrete equipment
Typical for the underground environment are numerous technical solu-
tions, high risks and time pressure. Consequently, the contractor needs
a competent and reliable partner. However, quality products alone are
not enough. Only with a balanced utilisation of reliable equipment, high
performance products and competent service can the required quality
and efficiency be achieved.
Parallel to the development in material technology there has been a
constant innovative development in the equipment sector to produce
machines suited for the new products and that are adaptable to the
everchanging conditions in the construction business. The result is a
wide range of systems that cover all sprayed concrete works: from huge
tunnelling jobs with large quantities of concrete mixes to be sprayed
down to small volume repair works. Common to all developments in
equipment is the tendency toward integrated and automated systems
which ensure higher production output, consistent and controllable
quality, as well as safer and more operator-friendly working conditions.
7.1 Manual application
7.1.1 Equipment / systems for dry-mix spraying
Machines that work on the rotor principle are the type most generally
used nowadays.
7.1.1.1 Operating principle (e.g. MEYCO

Piccola, MEYCO

GM)
The dry mix is filled into the feed hopper (1); see Fig. 31. As the rotor
revolves the mix alternately falls, by its own weight, through a feed
slot into one of the rotor chambers (2) placed below. While one of the
chambers is being filled, compressed air (p) is blown from above into
the other (full) chamber. The mix is discharged into the outlet opening
(3) and blown at a pressure of 36 bar through the conveying pipeline to
the spraying nozzle where the mixing water is added. Top and bottom
of the rotor are sealed with rubber discs.
139
1 = Feeding hopper
2 = Rotor
3 = Outlet
p = Pressurized air
Figure 31: Operating principle of rotor machine for dry spraying
Figure 32: MEYCO

Piccola / MEYCO

GM: Typical rotor dry-mix

spraying machines
The essential advantages of this machine are simple operation, sturdi-
ness and adaptability to the specific conditions of the site. Depending
on the diameter of the outlet and the conveying tube as well as the type
of rotor, practical outputs range from ~0.5 m
3
/h to ~10 m
3
/h.
If the spraying output is raised by increasing the chamber volume and
the revolving speed, the conveying tube has to be redimensioned
accordingly. For spraying, the maximum diameter is 65 mm, whereas
for conveyance only, e.g. for placement behind formwork etc., diam-
eters of up to 80 mm can be used. With growing tube diameters, the
compressed air consumption will also increase.
140
There are more parameters determining the size of the conveying tube:
the granulometry of the dry-mix, the grain shape of the aggregates,
compressed air supply, the conveying distance and height.
Figure 33: Various nozzles for dry-mix spraying
7.1.1.2 Developments
Developments in dry-mix spraying equipment are going towards
improved dust-proofing, low filling height of the rotor chambers to
ensure an even flow of the mix, and improved wear resistance.
There are also advances in nozzle technology. The MEYCO

membrane
nozzle, for example, is used for high quality applications where oven-
dry material is sprayed requiring an absolutely correct water distribu-
tion. Under extreme conditions, dust and rebound may also be reduced
using this type of nozzle.
7.1.2 Equipment / systems for wet-mix spraying
7.1.2.1 Developments
MEYCO

Suprema
In wet-mix spraying the professional applicators trust in double-piston
pumps.
To ensure even spraying, the latest equipment developments aim at
realizing a pulsation-free conveyance of the wet-mix from the pump
to the nozzle. This is put into practice with MEYCO

Suprema from
MEYCO

Equipment: The electronically controlled push-over system

141
that is integrated into the output adjustment brings the pulsation of the
material flow to a minimum which is hardly noticeable at the nozzle. An
integrated memory programmable control system (PLC) supervises,
coordinates and controls all functions of the machine. The PLC sys-
tem allows checking and controlling of operational information (dosing
quantity, concrete output, etc) which can also be downloaded and
analysed separately using the MEYCO

Data system. The MEYCO

Dosa TDC system guarantees exact regulation of dosing relative to the
spraying volume.
Main and important features:
<
Three independent oil pressure circuits, each of them fed by a sepa-
rate pump.
<
S-shaped quick selector valve with special high pressure control
system (auxiliary pump with topped accumulator).
<
To prevent blockages, the direction of the feed pistons is reversible.
When the maximum conveying pressure is exceeded, the pistons
reverse automatically.
<
The hydraulic cylinders have an automatic stroke adjustment.
<
Special push-over system through a proportional valve in coordina-
tion with the PLC control system. As the electronically controlled
push-over system is linked with the material output adjustment, the
pulsation over the full range of the material flow is reduced to a mini-
mum and hardly noticeable at the nozzle.
<
The PLC system supervises, coordinates and controls all functions
of the machine. It also allows checking and controlling of data which
can also be printed out, e.g. dosing quantity of admixtures, output
capacity etc. Errors within the hydraulic or electrical systems will be
indicated on the display, the causes of malfunctions can be deter-
mined through the help program of the PLC and will be indicated on
the display.
<
MEYCO

Dosa TDC dosing system for liquid admixtures. This inte-

grated proportioning unit is an infinitely variable mono pump (screw
pump), with flanged-on electric motor (frequency controlled) which
is connected to the drive of the feed (concrete / hydraulic) pistons
through the PLC system. This guarantees a forcible regulation of the
dosing amount relative to the spraying volume.
142

Figure 34: Working principle of the MEYCO

Dosa TDC (Total Dosing

Control) system
Technical data of MEYCO

Suprema
Max. conveying capacity, theoretical 214 m
3
/ h or 330 m
3
/ h
Conveying distance, horizontal 300 m
Conveying distance, vertical 100 m
Air consumption at nozzle
hand spraying: 57 m
3
/ min at 56 bar
manipulator spraying: 1015 m
3
/ min at 7 bar
Dimensions L = 2 500 mm,
W = 1 520 mm,
H = 1 950 mm
Feeding height approx. 1 100 mm
Weight, empty approx. 2 200 kg
Max. concrete pressure 75 bar or 50 bar
S-tube 150 / 125 mm
143
Conveying tube 50 mm, 65 mm or 100 mm
Integrated dosing unit mono (screw) pump
Figure 35: MEYCO

Suprema: pulsation-free spraying, computerized

control system (PLC), integrated dosing system to allow automated
regulation of the dosing to the spraying capacity
MEYCO

Data
The MEYCO

Data system enables data exchange by means of a com-

piling unit in the electrical control box (e.g. of a MEYCO

Suprema) in
combination with an external data reader. The operational parameters of
the machine will not only appear on the display, but can easily be trans-
ferred onto a PC by using an industrial grade PC-card or a USB memory
stick. The evaluation macro included in the delivery package allows
the analysis and presentation of recorded data in various formats.
Recorded operational information can include:
<
Date
<
Machine no.
<
Time
<
Type of accelerator
<
Cement content
<
Accelerator density
<
Accelerator percentage
<
Concrete temperature (option)
<
Pumping time
<
Record no.
<
Volume of concrete
<
Action
<
Quantity of accelerator
<
Shift
<
Operating time
<
Tunnel metres from / to
Along with the above, 16 different equipment faults and incidents
together with associated details such as time and date are automati-
cally recorded, for example:
144
<
Oil pressure too high,
<
Oil level low,
<
Required dosing amount not reached,
<
Emergency stop has been pressed,
<
Dry running of dosing pump, etc.
Thus, a comprehensive machine operation history can be established.
This will enable the site management to analyse the spraying operation
very accurately over a defined period of time and provides an invaluable
tool that can lead to advances in cost management, quality control, shift
performance comparison and even safety matters.
Machines equipped with MEYCO

Data are MEYCO

Suprema,
MEYCO

Potenza, MEYCO

Cobra, MEYCO

Roadrunner, MEYCO

Logica.
Figure 36: MEYCO

Data
7.1.2.2 Equipment for manual application
The MEYCO

Altera sprayed concrete pump has been specifically con-

structed as a cost effective unit for spraying in areas where compact-
ness and ease of handling are critical. The unit has an output of approxi-
mately 6 m
3
/ hour and contains a mono pump for accelerator dosing.
The total weight of the skid mounted version is 950 kg whilst railcar and
trailer mountings are also available.
145
Figure 37: MEYCO

Altera double piston pump
7.2 Mechanized spraying
7.2.1 Spraying manipulators
The following will give an overview of the range of spraying manipulators
that MEYCO Equipment can offer as equipment in their own right or as
part of a system.
7.2.1.1 Classic spraying manipulators of different ranges
MEYCO

Robojet
The MEYCO

Robojet is the classic MEYCO

spraying manipulator
and has been tried and tested, proving itself on hundreds of sites over
the last two decades. Thanks to its robust construction the MEYCO

Robojet has a long service life considering the tough conditions in which
it is set to work. The operating principles are simple to understand, and
handling is easy. The nozzle movements follow the movements on the
remote control, and operators are quickly familiar with the system. It
allows even spraying also of large sprayed concrete quantities while
maintaining at all times the correct angle and distance of the nozzle.
It has 16 movement functions plus nozzle oscillation, and its most
important feature, cherished by nozzlemen, is the parallel spraying
movement, whereby the lance to boom angle is automatically compen-
sated to allow a flowing spraying action parallel to the floor along the
146
wall. This operation is further simplified by the automation of the lance
movement. Flexibility in the design of the MEYCO

Robojet has lead to

its being mounted onto a host of various carrier vehicles, from trucks to
rail cars and from excavators to TBMs. It is possible to have the full unit
with turntable, boom, lance, spraying head and electro-hydraulic power
pack, or just individual components.
Figure 38: MEYCO

Robojet spraying range

MEYCO

Maxima
The MEYCO

Maxima is a specially developed manipulator which

has the range advantage of a large spraying manipulator such as the
MEYCO

Robojet, but is also designed so that it can be easily extended

from, and retracted to, the parking position in a relatively small tunnel
profile. Figure 39 shows the spraying range, and it can be seen that the
manipulator has the ability to imitate a long parallel lance movement
despite having no lance. This is made possible due to new develop-
ments in control technology. The MEYCO

Maxima is available as an
option for the MEYCO

Potenza spraying mobile and is standard equip-

ment for the MEYCO

Roadrunner.
147
Figure 39: MEYCO

Maxima spraying range

MEYCO

Rama
MEYCO

Rama 4 + Rama 6 are spraying manipulators that can be

fitted onto almost any type of carrier vehicle or mounting stage; typi-
cally, they are used within a TBM system or mounted on a locally
obtained truck or tractor chassis. Applications are for wet-mix and
dry-mix spraying, in tunnels of smaller profile, for slope protection or
in the overbreak area of a large diameter TBM. They are of robust and
simple construction and they vary only in that each model has a dif-
ferent maximum spraying range, derived from their respective boom
extensions.
They have standard MEYCO

spraying heads with two hydraulic oscil-

lating motors with nutation device, transmitting the required wobble
movement to the spraying nozzle and allowing optimum nozzle posi-
tioning. Around their boom extensions a sheet steel rebound protec-
tion is installed. The MEYCO

Rama 4 is the standard manipulator

found on a MEYCO

Oruga spraying unit.
148
Figure 40: MEYCO

Rama 4 manipulator on a MEYCO

Oruga mobile
spraying unit being used for slope protection
MEYCO

Minima
The MEYCO

Minima is mainly used in mining, and its kinematics is

very different from that of a manipulator used in large profile tunnels.
The great advantage is that it is very compact when packed away for
tramming around restricted roadways and tight corners. To make this
possible, a sophisticated roll-over system was designed whereby the
spraying movements and reach harmonise with the usual working envi-
ronment. The MEYCO

Minima is the standard manipulator found on a

MEYCO

Cobra spraying mobile.

Figure 41: MEYCO

Minima spraying underground in an Austrian mine

149
7.2.1.2 Spraying manipulators for shaft sinking
The mounting of shaft manipulators has a lot in common with ring con-
structions made for TBM manipulators. The big difference is the angle
and direction in which the carrier vehicle, in this case a stage, is either
lowered or raised within a vertical bore-hole. As in the case of TBM ring
constructions, the manipulator must be an integral part of a coordinated
sprayed concrete system. Depending on the diameter of the hole, a cen-
trally mounted lance or a ring running around the stage would be used.
Figure 42: Example of a MEYCO

spraying manipulator for shaft sinking

150
Figure 43: Layout of a MEYCO

spraying manipulator for shaft sinking

151
7.2.1.3 Spraying manipulators for TBM ring constructions
A TBM can also be viewed as a carrier vehicle. Manipulators on TBMs
should be, of course, part of an integrated system. TBMs vary greatly
in their individual construction depending on the geological structure of
the ground. This in turn influences the design of the manipulator. Space
is at a premium and the logistics are difficult, meaning that a manipulator
must have the greatest possible range of movement, without, however,
cluttering up the already crowded back-up rig. MEYCO Equipment
manufactures both ring construction type manipulators and centrally
placed lance units according to the specific parameters. These units are
always tailor-made, but contain all the basic principles and components
to enable movement, dexterity and ease of handling for the nozzleman.
A large ring would be similar to the equipment used in the Ltschberg
Project in Steg and Raron (AlpTransit, Switzerland) where double lances
run on rings, and sprayed concrete is supplied by tailor-made MEYCO

Suprema twin pumps installed at a considerable distance from the
spraying location.
Figure 44: Tailor-made solution by MEYCO Equipment: The MEYCO

Robojet spraying manipulator is integrated into a small diameter TBM.
152
Figure 45: Tailor-made solution by MEYCO Equipment: The MEYCO

Robojet spraying manipulator is integrated into a large diameter TBM.
7.2.1.4 Computer controlled spraying manipulators
The MEYCO

Logica 15 is a relatively new type of machine and is

based on the well-known kinematic principles of the MEYCO

Robojet.
Recently, market demands have also lead to the introduction of the
MEYCO

Logica 10 for mining. Both machines have been developed in

co-operation with the tunnelling industry and academia.
The MEYCO

Logica 15 is an electro-hydraulically driven spraying

manipulator, mainly for tunnel construction works. It is used for the
application of wet-mix sprayed concrete, passive fire protection and
sprayable membranes.
Its eight degrees of freedom enable the operator to use the manipulator
in various modes, from purely manual to semi-automatic and fully auto-
matic, within selected underground areas. The fully automatic mode
can be vital where conditions are extremely dangerous. The calculation
of the kinematics is performed by the control system. A laser scanner
sensor measures the heading geometry, and this information is used for
the automatic control of the spraying distance and of the speed and the
angle of the nozzle.
153
Figure 46: Application of MEYCO

FIX Fireshield 1350 with a MEYCO

Logica 15
Todays demand for an accurate layer thickness be it for a minimum
of sprayed concrete for rock support, or for a very accurate thickness
as required in the application of fire protection materials can easily be
achieved with the MEYCO

Logica technology. The aim of this system

is not primarily to automate the whole job of spraying, but to simplify the
task and enable the operator to use the robot as an intelligent tool and
to work in an efficient way to achieve a high level of quality. With the cor-
rect angle of application and constant spraying distance, a remarkable
reduction in rebound and therefore cost savings can be achieved.
Working modes
The handy remote control together with the computerized heart of
the machine enables the operator to use the machine in the following
modes:
Manual mode:
The operator uses two joysticks to control the nozzle. Of importance
is that he only needs to guide the jet of the sprayed material and is not
required to look after the individual joint movements of the machine. This
results in an enormous simplification of the work, and training require-
ments are vastly reduced.
Semi-automatic mode:
After the machine has been positioned and stabilized at the required
location, the spraying area is marked by the operator using the joysticks
154
and a red laser beam. The laser scanner sensor situated next to the
spraying head measures the distance to the rock surface. The computer
now registers the tunnel data in the form of a 3-dimensional grid and
calculates from this information the perpendicular position of the nozzle
as well as the position to maintain the correct nozzle distance from the
rock surface. Now the operator starts the spraying process and uses
one joystick to lead the manipulator over the desired area on the sur-
face. In this working mode the machine automatically keeps the correct
spraying distance and angle. Rebound due to a poor spraying angle or
an incorrect nozzle distance thus becomes an issue of the past.
Automatic mode:
Automatic spraying is possible by defining the additional parameters of
speed and row gap. The operator only has to mark the desired spraying
area. The machine performs the spraying process fully automatically, at
constant speed, spraying distance and angle along the surface. In order
to override the automatic mode, the operator simply intervenes by using
the joystick (semi-automatic mode). As soon as the operator releases
the joystick, the spraying process will continue in the automatic mode.
Figure 47: Radio remote control of the MEYCO

Logica
Remote control
The ergonomically designed radio remote control has two joysticks
and a luminous text display showing the operating parameters of the
machine. It allows controlling of the most important functions of the
manipulator and of the concrete pump.
155
Operator panel and onboard visualization
An intuitive graphical operator level touch screen (GUI) provides visual
information of the measured tunnel data and records any failure of the
machine. It also allows entering of information such as spraying distance
and speed of the nozzle and concrete pump parameters.
Figure 48: GUI Graphic User Interface of the MEYCO

Logica
Measuring of layer thickness
After finishing spraying of any layer, the operator returns to the measur-
ing mode to establish the new tunnel heading profile. Comparison with
the profile measured before the application of the sprayed concrete
layer can now be achieved, and the thickness of the sprayed mate-
rial determined. This will be presented in false colour (comparison of
is / should be profile) and can be used to identify areas with insufficient
layer thickness. The job can then be completed to the desired profile in
the semi-automatic mode or, for documentation and quality manage-
ment, a record of the operation can be saved.
Smart planner and filling function
Depending on the sprayed concrete application, it is vital for material
support to spray bottom-up or, if this is not necessary, to spray the com-
plete profile in one go. An integrated smart planner helps speed up the
spraying process while maintaining a constant quality on the surface;
at the operators command the computer can interrupt the flow of con-
crete and air and proceed independently to the next start position.
156
A selectable automatic equalization of overbreaks and underbreaks is
possible through the computer reviewing the scanned surface for such
inconsistencies and adjusting the speed of the lance appropriately in
these areas during the spraying process.
Simulation
Training of new operators can be done without risk by means of a fully
functional 3D-simulation of the complete MEYCO

Logica system, using

the original radio remote control and operator panel, and in the profile
dimensions of the tunnel where the application will take place.
Figure 49: Graphic simulation of the operation of the MEYCO

Logica 10
Remote Access
Remote diagnosis and operation through network connection is pos-
sible. This allows online support for troubleshooting, and even online
updating of the system software.
Advantages of the MEYCO

Logica system
<
Cost savings: reduction of time, labour, rebound material and opera-
tor training, and through using only one machine for measuring of
tunnel profile and spraying.
<
Increased output: continuously high output, independent of the
operators skill, of rock surface conditions and of the visibility.
<
Improved working conditions: With the simplified and ergonomic
remote control the operator focuses more on quality control than on
manipulator movements, due to automated spraying.
157
<
Increased and constant quality: The nozzle is automatically kept at
the correct distance and angle, even in bad visibility areas. Sprayed
concrete layer thickness and tunnel geometry are measured continu-
ously.
The mining version
The MEYCO

Logica 10 features the same overall control technology

as the MEYCO

Logica 15, but with very different kinematics. It is of

extremely robust construction and all design features are specifically
aimed at surviving in conditions typically found in mines.
Figure 50: MEYCO

Logica 10 as part of a MEYCO

Cobra spraying
mobile
7.2.2 Spraying mobiles
MEYCO

Potenza
The MEYCO

Potenza is the result of utilizing the experience gained

on hundreds of projects and over more than 20 years of manufacturing
spraying mobiles as we know them today. The essential feature of a
MEYCO

spraying mobile is that all necessary equipment is installed to

allow the works to be carried out in the most efficient and cost effective
way possible. Paramount, of course, is that the equipment makes it pos-
sible to achieve the highest possible sprayed concrete quality.
The standard components on a MEYCO

Potenza are:
<
MEYCO

Robojet spraying manipulator

<
MEYCO

sprayed concrete machine for wet-mix spraying

158
<
Integrated MEYCO

Dosa TDC accelerator dosing pump

<
Chassis, 4 wheel drive and steer, with stabilizers
<
Cable reel with hydraulic drive
<
Electric supply cable
Figure 51: MEYCO

Potenza spraying mobile with MEYCO

Robojet
spraying manipulator
<
Air compressor (rotary vane or screw type)
<
MEYCO

nozzle system
<
Liquid accelerator tank
<
Water storage tank
<
Working lights
<
MEYCO

HP012 water pump

<
High pressure water cleaner
<
Release oil pump
Options:
<
Central lubrication
<
Radio remote control
<
MEYCO

Maxima spraying manipulator

159
Figure 52: MEYCO

Potenza spraying mobile with extended MEYCO

Maxima spraying manipulator
Other spraying mobiles from MEYCO Equipment include MEYCO

Roadrunner and MEYCO

Cobra. They are completely equipped, but

individually designed to suit their intended working situations and mar-
kets.
MEYCO

Roadrunner
The MEYCO

Roadrunner features a special type of power-take-off

that makes the unit independent of local power supplies, and spraying
operations can be started within minutes of arrival at site.

Figure 53: MEYCO

Roadrunner spraying mobile with extended

MEYCO

Maxima spraying manipulator

The unique design of the MEYCO

Maxima spraying manipulator, which

is standard equipment for the MEYCO

Roadrunner, combines a huge

160
spraying range with the ability to be packed away compactly for trans-
port without requiring a wide tunnel to spin the spraying arm around.
MEYCO

Cobra
The components of the MEYCO

Cobra are mounted on an extremely

strong articulated mining chassis. The articulation and the overall dimen-
sions of the complete vehicle make it ideal for the tight mining tunnels.
The MEYCO

Minima spraying manipulator, which is standard equip-

ment for the MEYCO

Cobra, has been constructed purely for small

profile tunnels. It can be packed away very compactly and can be easily
extended, without requiring additional room. The spraying head has a
fold-back feature to reduce the vehicle length for tramming. Additional
attributes of the MEYCO

Cobra include heated electrical components,

central lubrication and a compressor with double soft start.

Figure 54: MEYCO

Cobra spraying mobile with MEYCO

Minima
spraying manipulator for mining
MEYCO

Oruga
The MEYCO

Oruga is a mobile spraying unit for the mechanized

application of sprayed concrete. It is equipped with a MEYCO

Rama 4
spraying manipulator and an electro-hydraulic power source, and is
mounted on a very robust tracked carrier vehicle. It is suitable for both
wet-mix and dry-mix spraying. The MEYCO

Oruga can increase the

output to an extent impossible to obtain by manual spraying, and safety
standards for the nozzleman are vastly improved.
The MEYCO

Oruga can be used in virtually all types of wet-mix and dry-

mix sprayed concrete applications: Out in the open for slope protection,
or in tunnels where the profile may dictate that a smaller manipulator be
used or when the tunnel advance is too dangerous for manual spraying.
161
Although compact, its strength and reach give it a real advantage over
manual spraying, both in performance and safety.
Figure 55: MEYCO

Oruga mobile spraying unit with 80 mm high-

output nozzle system
7.2.3 Benefits of mechanized spraying
<
Shortened work cycles due to higher spraying volumes.
<
Elimination of time-consuming installation and removal of scaffold-
ing, particularly in tunnels with variable profiles.
<
Cost savings through rebound reduction leading to less material
wastage and cleaning time.
<
Improved accuracy of the finished sprayed concrete surface topol-
ogy, through use of manipulators designed for easier spraying opera-
tion.
<
Increased end product quality through more even spraying.
<
Better working conditions for nozzleman and team due to protective
distance from collapses, rebound, dust and accelerators.
<
Spraying less labour-intensive due to integrated systems and opera-
tional control through remote control.
162
7.3 Dosing systems
When wet-mix spraying it is vitally important to use a very accurate and
pulsation free dosing system which is fully integrated into the concrete
pumping cycle, whenever possible. Dosing must be uniform in relation
to the binder weight and remain such, despite changing conditions
of pumping volume or pressures, etc. The MEYCO

Dosa TDC (Total

Dosing Control) system fulfils these demands and, in addition, provides
the possibility to fine-tune the dosage according to prevailing conditions
(see also chap. 7.1.2.1). An independent pump cannot possibly cope
with the demands for an exact distribution of accelerator, and its use
would inevitably produce loss of quality and waste.
If a fully integrated system is not available, it is important to ensure that
the pump used can deliver a predetermined amount of accelerator as
accurately and constantly as possible, e.g. MEYCO

Mixa. This type of

pump is popular in dry-mix spraying.
Figure 56: MEYCO

Mixa 15
163
7.4 Nozzle systems
Nozzle systems are an important part of the spraying equipment.
Nozzles essentially contribute to providing:
<
Lower rebound
<
Improved bonding
<
Improved compaction
through:
<
Proper mixing of accelerators / activators and air in the case of the
wet-mix spraying method
<
Proper mixing of accelerators/activators and water in the case of the
dry-mix spraying method
Only with the correct nozzle system (e.g. from MEYCO Equipment)
adapted to the type of application (wet-mix/dry-mix method, mecha-
nized/hand application) and the accelerator/activator used can low wear
and outstanding quality of the in-place sprayed concrete be obtained.
From a safety point of view it is important that wet-mix spraying hoses
and couplings are of the highest quality. They should be high pressure
tested and certified. Do not compromise!
Figure 57: Nozzle system (10080 mm) for modified silicate based and
alkali-free accelerators, for mechanized application
164
Figure 58: Typical nozzle for wet spraying; for use with manipulator and
for manual application
7.5 Systems for strength development measurements
7.5.1 Penetration needle
The penetration needle measures the early strength curve up to about
2 hours. It is an indirect test method, using a needle of defined dimen-
sions which is pushed with a defined force to a defined depth into the
fresh sprayed concrete. The resistance measured is an indication of the
compressive strength of the sprayed concrete.
To be precise, this method actually measures a combination of com-
pressive and shear strengths, or the resistance to local plastic defor-
mations. The aggregates contained in the sprayed concrete and the
support behaviour of the granulometry strongly affect the results.

Figure 59: MEYCO

Penetration Needle
165
7.5.2 Pull-out test
The pull-out test determines the strength development from 3 to 24
hours. This method measures the force that is needed to pull out a draw
bolt imbedded in the sprayed concrete. From this force and the surface
area of the torn-out, truncated cone specimen, it is possible to calculate
the shear tensile strength and consequently the compressive strength
of the green sprayed concrete at the time of testing.
Figure 60: MEYCO

Kaindl early strength measuring instrument

166
8. Rock support design
One of the typical features of sprayed concrete as a support method,
is the extremely good usage flexibility, as compared to formwork and
poured concrete lining, or any other possible alternative. The only way
of fully getting the benefits of this property, is to use sprayed concrete
as part of the final lining of the tunnel, adapted to the varying rock con-
ditions. The important subject of rock support design gives the basis
for what can be achieved in this context. The subject is therefore being
presented in this Chapter, to establish what we consider the right prin-
ciples to apply.
Rock support design is a specialised field, and it is fundamentally differ-
ent from the design of other civil structures. The design procedure for
rock support therefore has to be adapted to this situation. The reasons
are the following Facts of Life:
<
The primary building material is rock; thus, the material properties
are given and yet only partly known.
<
The building material is highly variable, sometimes within short
distance.
<
There are severe limitations in what information can be provided by
means of geological investigations.
<
There are limitations in accuracy and relevance of rock material
parameters that can be tested.
<
There are severe limitations in calculation and modelling methods.
<
The behaviour of openings is time dependent, and also influenced by
changes in water conditions.
<
There is an incompatibility between necessary time for parameter
testing for calculations and modelling, compared to available time:
Progress of excavation is far higher than the capacity in the men-
tioned activities.
It is therefore quite obvious that any successful design approach for
underground openings must be, or should be, adapted to this situation.
Some sort of design as you go system is the only reasonable basic
method.
In real life, many tunnelling projects are still designed in a different
way. The designers sometimes produce a support design based on
167
pre-investigations of the rock mass and the traditional load / capaci-
ty / safety-factor approach. This unavoidably leads to a worst case
design, which may be necessary in only a small part of the tunnel.
Analytical and numerical calculations
Calculation tools are an important part of rock support design. To be
able to calculate loads, stresses, deformations, support capacity, etc.,
input parameters must be established and the formulas and numerical
modelling programs must be available. To a varying degree, this will
require:
<
Sampling and testing for a number of different rock material param-
eters
<
Testing of discontinuity (joint) parameters
<
Measurement of in situ rock stresses, often in long boreholes
<
Investigations of ground water conditions
<
Analysis of geometrical data (tunnel shape, intersections etc)
<
Analysis of scale effects on laboratory parameters
<
Analysis of the openings to be excavated and the excavation
sequences
<
Identification of rock support material parameters
Analytical calculations can be quickly performed and are well suited for
rough preliminary estimates. The possibilities are quite limited in more
complex situations.
Numerical analysis (Finite Element Modelling) is normally run as 2-
dimensional models in computers. Even relatively simple situations may
take days of preparation and run-time, before results are available. Once
some basic work for a given project has been carried out, sensitivity
analysis and re-calculation based on new, or updated information, can
be more quickly performed.
Numerical 3-dimensional modelling is normally so demanding that only
mainframe computers can cope with such tasks.
Evaluation of empirical and calculation design methods
Empirical methods for the design of rock support can be used as
a design tool by classifying the rock immediately upon exposure.
The classification systems recommended rock support can then be
installed. This approach takes care of the variation in rock quality as
168
it is actually encountered and is not dependent upon presumptions
concerning rock quality. The Q-method developed by the Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (Dr. Nick Barton et al.) is probably the best estab-
lished method of this kind.
Calculation methods on the other hand are generally too slow to cope
with tunnelling progress and the often quick variation in rock quality.
Sampling, testing and calculations for a given situation in the tunnel,
would take days. Obviously, the tunnel support works and face advance
cannot wait for a completion of these steps. In the case of a more specific
location like a cavern for a powerhouse, railway station, etc., calculations
can be very useful and can more easily fit into the job site progress.
The basic limitation still remains that all input data, formulas and numeri-
cal models contain a lot of uncertainties and approximations. The accu-
racy of results is therefore sometimes very poor and it is hard to tell when
and where that will be the case.
A special feature of blasted rock surfaces is the extremely complicated
geometry. A relatively thin (50 to 200 mm) layer of sprayed concrete can-
not smoothen this contour into a defined arch geometry. The complicated
interaction of ground response over time, compared to the sprayed
concrete hydration and strength gain over time, variation in sprayed
concrete thickness and variation in bond strength, also increase the
complexity of calculations.
The Observational Method
The Observational Method has in reality existed since man started tun-
nelling. In the beginning, and also today, this approach is being used
out of common sense and sometimes bare necessity and it reflects the
consequences of the above described Facts of Life.
The basic elements of the method are as outlined below:
<
Rock support shall be designed for expected rock condition variations
as a rock support prognosis. In this design work, any and all kinds of
empirical and calculation methods can be used, as considered nec-
essary and useful.
169
<
Verification of the prognosis shall take place after excavation and
support installation, by visual inspection, monitoring of deformations,
stresses, loads, water pressure and any other means as considered
necessary. Adjusted or added support may become necessary,
locally, also subject to verification.
<
The prognosis shall be updated by feedback of data from previous
steps, to decide upon possible design adjustments.
The advantages of the Observational Method are obvious. The mountain
is being used as a full scale laboratory, where known and unknown
parameters are involved and covered. It allows a flexible work proce-
dure, immediate action when necessary and support adapted to the
actually encountered conditions. Normally, this gives more balanced
and less costly solutions.
In a major part of modern tunnelling activity, the Observational Method is
today the accepted basic approach. As presented above, it is of course
only a framework that needs a lot of detailed decision-making in a real
tunnelling case. It is still important to understand why this approach
is the only reasonable way of making design underground. The pre-
designed solutions based on a normal structural design approach with
codes and standards, as for steel and concrete structures like bridges
and buildings, are simply not applicable (although their use is still very
widely spread).
The very well known New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM), is a
procedure covered by the more general approach of the Observational
Method.
8.1 Active mechanisms of sprayed concrete on rock
Even when applying the Observational Method for rock support, it is
useful to understand why and how thin layers of sprayed concrete can
have such an outstanding stabilising effect. Such understanding is
also an important basis for evaluating combinations with other support
measures and the limitations of the solutions.
There are some important characteristics of the sprayed concrete appli-
cation process which one should keep in mind:
170
<
Concrete is blown against the rock surface at a high velocity of 20 to
100 metres per second, depending on method and equipment.
<
The rebound consists mainly of coarse particles. The amount of
rebound is greatest at the first hit. At a later stage of spraying, when
semi-soft concrete covers the surface, more will stick. The effect of
this is an increase of fines directly on the rock surface.
<
The applied concrete is compacted by the immediately following
impacts (layers), provided that the accelerator does not cause a
flash set.
<
The sprayed concrete layer will stick to the surface with a bond
strength (adhesion) of up to 3 MPa.
<
The rock surface is completely encapsulated.
<
Fines are, to some extent, squeezed into cracks and joints.
The stabilising effects which can be identified from the above charac-
teristics, are:
<
Mortar and fines squeezed into the cracks and joints in the rock con-
tour produce a wedging effect like mortar between bricks in a wall or
arch.
<
Punching resistance, which means that a loose block can only fall by
shearing through the sprayed concrete layer.
<
Arching effect; sometimes only local arches are actually working.
<
Insulation against changes of moisture, effects of air and temperature,
washing effect from running water etc.
<
Maintenance of the existing stability at the time of application.
<
Simultaneous and combined effect of the above mentioned mecha-
nisms.
For thin sprayed concrete layers, it is obvious that the mode of oper-
ation is much more like a rock reinforcement than a rock support.
On the rock surface there will be a composite action between the rock
substrate and the hardening concrete. Practical experience shows that
even a 30 mm sprayed concrete layer is very effective in some situations.
This observation supports the basic idea of a composite action.
171
8.2 Sprayed concrete on jointed hard rock

Figure 61
During the seventies and beginning of the eighties, a number of large
scale model tests were carried out in Scandinavia and North America.
It is beyond the scope of this Publication to present all these results.
However, some simple tests and their results may be very illustrative.
Figure 62
172
Dr. Jonas Holmgren in Sweden used a test rig as shown in Fig. 61. The
sprayed concrete layer was flat (no arch effect) and concrete material
was prevented from entering the opening between the blocks (no brick
mortar effect). By varying the layer thickness of sprayed concrete and
measuring loads and deformations, Holmgren was able to pinpoint
some important facts.
Up to a layer thickness of about 30 mm, the moving block would simply
punch through (shearing through) the sprayed concrete. This result is
not surprising and the load taken is directly linked to the shear strength
of the sprayed concrete and its thickness.
For layer thicknesses above about 30 mm (basically irrespective of the
thickness), the tests showed that the bond strength was decisive. The
basic behaviour of the model is illustrated in Fig. 62 (refer to the detail on
Fig. 61). For normal, sound granitic rock, back-analysis of the test results
indicated that the width of the loaded bond zone at peak load, was about
30 mm. For a quite normal bond strength of 1.0 MPa, this can be used
for an illustrative calculation:
Volume weight of rock can be, = 27 000 N / m
3
A cubical block of rock is chosen, with edge length, meters
Bond strength as mentioned above, = 1.0 MPa = 10
6
N / m
2
Bond zone width at peak load, = 0.03 m (as found by Holmgren)
Driving force is the weight of the block, W =
3
(see Fig. 63)
Resisting force is created by the bond zone along the four edges of the
block, F = 4
At peak load, the driving force equals the resisting force and we may
calculate the maximum theoretical block size, that can be held by the
bond strength alone:
173
Expressed in terms of volume and weight, a block of more than
9 m
3
, weighing 25 tons, could be kept in place. The effects of local
arching, brick mortar effect and existing friction within the rock, has
not been considered. Obviously, this calculation is just an example to
illustrate an order of magnitude and should not be taken as a state-
ment that 35 mm of sprayed concrete is sufficient to safely support
such a block.

W =
3
= F/4
Sprayed concrete layer

Figure 63
8.3 Sprayed concrete on soft or crushed rock
In many cases it is not possible or correct to envisage single blocks
and wedges, locked in place by a thin layer of sprayed concrete. When
tunnelling is carried out in generally crushed and weak materials, expe-
rience again still shows a remarkable short term effect of stabilisation,
even with thin layers. In such situations the block and wedge theory and
support mechanisms are not applicable. It is a bit more complicated to
illustrate why and how it works under these conditions.
The most obvious reason for the immediate and short term effect is
the maintenance of existing stability. Sprayed concrete produces a
skin effect on the rock surface, preventing to a great extent differential
movements in the contour. An inward deformation (convergence) will
take place generally and evenly, not as local, differential stepwise defor-
mations. As the contour moves inwards, the length of the contour tends
to decrease, which means compressive forces in the rock/sprayed
concrete composite. In this way the sprayed concrete is helping the rock
174
material to carry itself. Again, we are looking at a reinforcement effect,
rather than a load support. For this process to take place, the sprayed
concrete shell needs to be of reasonable compressive strength with a
good bond to the rock surface.
If the relation between rock stresses and rock strength does not allow
a thin-layer, composite-action support solution, a structural sprayed
or cast concrete ring may become necessary. The example of a TBM
tunnel with a full, circular sprayed concrete lining is given in Fig. 64. In
this case, the arch effect can be calculated and the bond strength is no
longer a factor.
Sprayed concrete compr. strength
c
= 35 MPa
Thickness of sprayed concrete t
c
= 0.15 m
Tunnel radius R
i
= 2.0 m
Radially distributed load P = ?


Maximum support pressure:

[ ]
P =
c
1-
1
2
( R
i
- t
c
)
2
R
2
i

= 2.53 MPa = 253 t / m
2
Figure 64
8.4 Basic rock mechanics
Excavating a tunnel will initiate changes in the stress field around the open-
ing. If the stress is high enough and/or the rock is weak enough, the sur-
rounding rock will move slowly into the free space (in addition to the small
effect of elastic relaxation). This inward radial deformation (convergence)
may be controlled and stopped by support measures, or it may continue
until a broken zone of rock collapses into the tunnel.
175

Figure 65
Fig. 65 shows a circular tunnel in a stress field where
h
=
v
= P
0
. The
radial stress
r
and the tangential stress
t
just before excavation are
also shown. The rock material is considered as elastic.

Figure 66
A short time after excavation, the stress situation will have changed
and if the rock is weak enough, a crushed zone will develop as shown
in Fig. 66. The radial deformation resulting from such crushing (plastic
deformation) is also termed squeezing. In this simplified case the plastic
zone is circular and concentric to the tunnel. If some support is estab-
lished, the P
i
of the figure represents the support pressure against the
rock surface.
176
The magnitude of deformation and the thickness of the plastic zone
depend on the inner friction and other strength parameters of the rock
material. The stress magnitude is also an important factor.
When designing the rock support necessary to limit and stop deforma-
tion, the ground reaction curve and the support response curves are
useful. This is a different way of illustrating what is happening, from
what is shown in Figures 65 and 66. A ground reaction curve is shown
in Fig. 67. This is an idealised load/deformation curve, describing the radial
deformation depending on the support pressure. The ground reaction
curve expresses in a given point the necessary support pressure to bal-
ance the load and stop further deformation. Line no 3 in Fig. 67 shows a
case where the rock is overloaded and a plastic zone is created.


C
u
r
v
e

3
P
0
P
i
P
i max
1: Elastic deformation only, stable
2: Some plastic deformation, stable
3: Thick broken zone, unstable
G
r
o
u
n
d

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
S
u
p
p
o
r
t

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
Elastic
Stable Unstable
Plastic
1
2
3
u
Deform.
S
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 67
In the elastic part the load decreases when deformation is allowed
to take place. At a low stress situation, the straight elastic line could
continue to zero load, as shown by the broken line no 1. In this case, no
support would be necessary.
At a slightly higher stress level a thin plastic zone would develop, indi-
cated by the broken line no 2. If the stress level is high, we may follow
the solid line no 3. The reason for the load increase is the weight of the
broken material in the plastic zone of the roof. This gravity effect does not
apply to walls and floor.
177
Installed support measures will be loaded by the rock deformation along
a given response curve. Figure 67 illustrates that the support has been
installed after some initial deformation has already occurred. The maxi-
mum load and deformation capacity of the support is also shown. The
intersection point between ground and support reaction curves defines
the final support load and the total rock deformation.
The diagram demonstrates the combined effect and interaction between
the rock itself and installed support measures. It is important that sup-
port measures be installed at the right time, with sufficient load capacity
and with the correct stiffness.

High capacity,
too stiff, failing
Lower capacity,
less stiff, stable
Optimum
solutions
Too soft,
too late
Deformation, u
P
i
P
0
S
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 68
Figure 68 shows some support characteristics which illustrate the prin-
ciples. A strong and stiff support may be overloaded, while a weaker
and more ductile support is satisfactory. It is also possible that the stiff
support works well, if installed at a later stage. The focus should be on
optimising the support, which means letting the rock material carry as
much potential load as possible.
8.5 Some points on NATM
NATM can be classified as an Observational Method. This becomes
evident through the practical steps normally performed when using
NATM:
178
<
Collection of geological data, rock mechanics data and processing of
this material in combination with tunnel dimensions etc. Processing
means producing a load and deformation prognosis for a set of rock
quality cases, covering the tunnel alignment. Any calculation tool
which is regarded as helpful may be used in the prognosis develop-
ment.
<
A preliminary support plan is produced based on the previous step.
Thickness of sprayed concrete, number, length and strength of rock
bolts, type and spacing of ribs etc., is part of this plan. Prognosis of
deformation speed and magnitude for different situations is important
information in order to decide on the excavation / support sequence
and the interpretation of monitoring data.
<
The tunnel excavation proceeds according to the preliminary plan
with necessary adjustments for observed rock quality.
<
Monitoring instrument sections are installed at intervals in the
excavated tunnel. These may include extensometers, convergence
measurement bolts, load cells in the lining, load cells on rock bolts
etc. The behaviour of the support members and the combined sys-
tem of rock and support shall be constantly monitored.
<
The final support is decided after monitoring the tunnel for a sufficient
time. Depending on the design requirements and philosophy, this
might give no additional support or in some cases a full concrete
lining.
The NATM philosophy aims at allowing a controlled deformation to take
place, so that the support system carries a load as small as possible. In
practical terms this will normally lead to using sprayed concrete as a first
support measure. Normal thickness may vary between 50 and 300 mm.
It is normal that also sprayed concrete reinforcement (wire mesh or steel
fibres) and rock bolts are used. In weak rock and/or in tunnels of more
than 50 m
2
light steel ribs or lattice girders are frequently mounted.
One very important detail in the NATM application is the closed ring sup-
port. As can be easily understood, a closed ring of anchored sprayed
concrete support is a lot stiffer than a horse shoe shape. The total load
capacity is also higher. The same applies to all kinds of rib support.
Again the timing of such a ring closure against deformation speed and
magnitude, is very important.
The discussion of mechanisms and principles of sprayed concrete for
rock support (Sections 8.1 to 8.5) is only meant as a limited illustration
179
from a very wide and complex subject. Regardless of which name tag
(Q-method, NATM, RMR etc) the designer will use for a chosen set of
principles and procedures, we can only recommend using the general
principles of the Observational Method.
In urban areas, tunnelling often means very shallow excavation depths
with severe consequences in cases of failure. It may therefore be nec-
essary and reasonable to shift the design focus in the direction of pre-
decided support solutions, with less or no emphasis on load transfer to
the ground itself. In many cities the ground conditions are well known in
advance and will, more often than not, be some type of soil rather than
rock. Due to the possible negative consequences of surface settle-
ments, the target under such conditions will be zero deformation around
the tunnel.
8.6 Important properties of sprayed concrete for
rock support
The relative importance of different material parameters for sprayed
concrete depends on the type of stability problem. Thin layers applied to
hard rock to prevent loose stones and wedges from falling out, depend
mostly on adhesion. The compressive strength in such a case is of
minor importance. The compressive strength, on the other hand, is the
main factor when a thick closed ring support of soft ground is consid-
ered. In this situation the adhesion is of no interest at all.
Compressive strength can be used as an indirect indication of durabil-
ity factors. The concrete shall be of satisfactory long term durability in the
environment where it is applied. There may be a difference between
a road tunnel with heavy traffic and a water transport tunnel in this
respect. In most cases the sprayed concrete must meet a 35 MPa
strength class according to a normal national standard test procedure.
In Norwegian sub sea road tunnels this requirement is now a grade
45 MPa concrete.
Adhesion to the rock surface is generally an important parameter. The
problem is that it is complicated to measure accurately and it varies a
lot within short distances. Very often people are reluctant to specify
the required adhesion in a contract, because the control results may
cause more problems than is worth while. In our opinion the control
180
focus should be kept on compressive strength, application technique and
cleaning of the surface in advance. In this way, the best possible adhe-
sion that the surface allows, can be achieved.
The tensile strength of sprayed concrete is not so important. In design
considerations this strength cannot be included anyway, because there
is always a chance of shrinkage cracks in critical sections. Across a
crack there is naturally no tensile strength. The same applies to the
flexural strength of the sprayed concrete material itself.
It is important that the required compressive strength is achieved by a
mix design that gives a minimum shrinkage. There are two reasons for
this:
<
Low shrinkage improves adhesion.
<
Low shrinkage reduces cracking and improves durability.
To produce a low shrinkage, the content of fines and cement should be
low, the w/c ratio should be low (generally less than 0.45) and applica-
tion technique must be correct (good compaction and spraying at right
angles). A curing compound after application, water spraying, or the use
of a concrete improver (such as MEYCO

TCC735) should be a routine
part of the work.
The thickness of the sprayed concrete layer is a design question. The
contractor shall distribute the necessary concrete volume to meet the
requirement as closely as possible. This is a practical problem, espe-
cially if the specified thickness is large (200 mm and more) and the full
thickness is placed on a limited area during one operation. Under such
circumstances the tendency is that the walls get more concrete than
required and, of course, the roof gets less. This is the opposite of what
is wanted, from a stability point of view.
This leads to a very important parameter in sprayed concrete applica-
tion, the short-time strength development. Safety and economy are
improved if the strength gain within the first minutes and hours is high.
High early strength is possible when using accelerators. Economy is
improved to a maximum if it is possible to build full thickness in one
continuous operation, even on a limited area.
181
8.7 Reinforcement
The traditional reinforcement in sprayed concrete is steel wire mesh
(normally 3 to 6 kg / m
2
and square openings of 100 to 150 mm). It is
also named welded wire fabric (WWF). This product should never be
replaced by the kind of nets used for fences (chain link mesh). Chain link
mesh usually has a wire thickness of 2 to 3 mm and openings of 50 mm.
Chain link mesh must not be used in sprayed concrete, due to the small
openings and fluffy behaviour, which causes high rebound, a build-up
on the net, and leaves voids behind it.
Shing Mun Tunnels, Hong Kong
Contractor: Gammon, Dragages, Skanska
Drilling
Charging/blasting
Sprayed concrete 1st layer
Mucking out
Installation WWF
Sprayed concrete 2nd layer
(and last layer)
50 m
2
tunnel
Cumulative hours
One cycle
SFRS, 6.5 h
One cycle
WWF, 14.0 h

Figure 69
Installing WWF is highly manual work, and it is very hard to improve on
its efficiency. The cost of reinforcement by WWF is hence constantly
increasing, because the production capacity is fixed. The direct erection
cost for WWF per m
2
is in the range of USD 16 to 24. The substantial
increase in overall tunnelling capacity by switching from WWF to steel
fibre reinforced sprayed concrete (SFRS) is shown in Fig. 69.
It is important to be aware of the purpose of reinforcement in sprayed
concrete. In rock support there is the constant possibility of unexpected
loads and deformations. The best possible safety margin is achieved
by the highest possible fracture energy in the sprayed concrete layer.
The fracture energy (toughness) is represented by the area below the
load deformation curve, when testing beams and panels under flexural
182
loading, see Figure 70. Today, modern test procedures, such as the
EFNARC and the ASTM C 1550 test methods, are based on sprayed
panels testing.




Steel fibre
reinforced
Unreinforced
Deformation
L
o
a
d

P
Figure 70
8.8 Tunnel support methods
Sprayed concrete has traditionally been considered a temporary sup-
port in most countries. Due to increasing pressure on economy, the
interest for one pass tunnel linings based on sprayed concrete, has
increased substantially during the last few years. High performance
wet-mix sprayed concrete, where necessary combined with steel fibres,
has become the first choice for this approach.

Figure 71
183
The most commonly used support combinations are: Rock bolts (some-
times with steel straps), sprayed concrete (usually steel fibre reinforced)
and cast concrete using steel shuttering.

Rebars
Rock bolts
0.51.0 m
2.05.0 m
150 mm
Figure 72: Support with ribs of fibre reinforced sprayed concrete

Spacing between rock bolts
Q=0.1 Q=1.0 Q=10 Q=30
Areas without sprayed concrete 1.2 m 1.4 m 2.0 m 3.4 m
Areas with sprayed concrete 1.3 m 1.6 m 3.0 m 45 m
In recent years it has become more and more common in very poor
rock conditions to replace the traditional cast concrete by steel fibre
reinforced sprayed concrete combined with rock bolts and steel bar
reinforced ribs of sprayed concrete, see Figure 72. This is a more adapt-
able solution than the pre-made lattice girders. In cases of substantial
overbreak, the volume of sprayed concrete will be far smaller, and one
layer of typically 16 mm bars is much easier to spray over with a good
compaction. Net effect is saved time, better durability and improved
economy.
184
9. Permanent sprayed concrete
tunnel linings
9.1 Development of permanent sprayed concrete
tunnel linings
Conventionally, tunnels constructed using sprayed concrete have been
based on a temporary sprayed concrete lining to stabilise the opening
after excavation and to contain short to medium-term loads. When this
lining has fully stabilised, a permanent cast in situ concrete lining has
been installed to contain long-term loads, and provide durability and
watertightness, either by the use of a waterproof membrane between
the temporary and permanent linings, or by the use of steel reinforce-
ment to reduce crack widths to 0.2 mm to allow autogenous heal-
ing. This shall be referred to as the double shell method. Since 1994,
sprayed concrete technology has improved dramatically in terms of
stable admixtures and application methods, particularly with the wet-
mix process to give a durable, high performance concrete.
In 1996, both the Jubilee Line Extension and Heathrow Express Rail
Link projects constructed tunnel linings using permanent steel fibre
reinforced sprayed concrete instead of conventional in situ concrete
within the temporary sprayed concrete linings, lowering costs and sig-
nificantly reducing the construction time, particularly in sections of
complex geometry.
The current state-of-the-art sprayed concrete technology equips the
tunnelling industry with a considerably more economic tunnel lining
system in the form of a single pass of permanent sprayed concrete, pro-
viding a structural lining that is also durable, watertight and can be sur-
face finished to a degree that is similar, if not equal, to cast concrete.
The essence of the Single Pass Tunnel Lining method (SPTL) as
described in this chapter, will be to maintain the design philosophy
of the temporary sprayed concrete lining, but to enhance the mate-
rial performance and construction control. This will permit the primary
SPTL sprayed concrete lining to be considered as a permanent, durable
structural element that will fulfil the structural requirements both during
construction and throughout the designed life of the structure. This can
185
be performed either as a true single shell, or, if required, acting mono-
lithically with an additional sprayed concrete layer installed later during
the construction process.
9.2 Cost effectiveness of single pass tunnel linings
SPTL can offer significant savings over the conventional double shell
approach, by considering no part of the lining as a temporary support,
and by the reduction in excavation volume and required lining material,
which leads to a reduction in construction time.
The SPTL one layer method can achieve a cost saving of 20 to 40 %
over a double shell structure, depending on tunnel cross section and
length as well as rock conditions. When considering the cost of a tunnel
constructed using the SPTL two layer method, there is a considerable
difference between opting for a sprayed or cast in situ second layer
due to the high project start-up cost of a steel shutter for a cast in situ
second layer, as opposed to the non-shuttered option of a second layer
of permanent sprayed concrete.
Further future savings could be envisaged through adoption of the
Observational Method, once confidence in the SPTL method has been
acquired, and through further understanding of ground-structure inter-
action, particularly with composite materials such as with steel fibre
reinforcement. Additionally, the increased performance of state of the
art sprayed concrete admixtures and equipment will reduce construc-
tion material costs and project duration.
9.3 SPTL options
Two general systems can be considered as SPTL methods. The first is
a true one pass application method for small diameter tunnels, or tun-
nels founded in stable, dry ground conditions. The second approach is
a two layer application process as shown in Figure 73, where the first
sprayed concrete layer achieves tunnel stability, whilst the second layer
(acting monolithically with the first) enhances durability and watertight-
ness. This method is considered necessary for large diameter tunnels
with multiple construction joints in the primary layer, and for tunnels
founded beneath the water table. For both systems, the reduction of the
186
amount of reinforcement steel is crucial, either by steel fibre replace-
ment, or by optimisation of the tunnel profile and lining thickness. In all
cases, the emphasis should be on buildability, where simplicity is the
key to success, particularly with a method dependant on construction
team performance.
Figure 73: SPTL two layer method cross and longitudinal section
Figure 73 illustrates the SPTL two layer method and suggests where the
design emphasis should be placed for each layer. Of note is the timing
of the installation of the second layer: This should be when the first layer
has stabilised, and when there is no negative impact on the construc-
tion activities at the tunnel face. In some instances, it may be prudent for
187
the construction of the first layer to be completed throughout the entire
length of the tunnel before the second layer is placed.
9.4 Tunnel geometry
To reduce lining cracking to a minimum, the design should be such that
the line of hoop thrust should be as close to the centre of the lining sec-
tion as possible. This enables the extreme concrete stress to be kept
close to the average and most of the linings load capacity is mobilised.
The role of the tunnel profile geometry is crucial in providing a means to
reduce the adverse effects of bending moments, and in general, near
circular geometry should be adopted, especially for the crown section
of the tunnel. Bending moments produced by flat invert profiles may
be catered for by the use of steel reinforcement installed in an in situ
concrete invert.
9.5 Lining reinforcement
9.5.1 Steel reinforcement bars and weldmesh
From experience, water ingress is associated with sections of the
sprayed concrete lining that contain large diameter steel reinforcement,
such as lattice girders, lattice girder connection bars, and excessive
overlaps of steel weldmesh. Therefore the design emphasis should be
to minimise the quantity of steel reinforcement by:
<
Optimisation of the tunnel cross-sectional profile to reduce moment
influences
<
Increasing the thickness of the tunnel lining to maintain the line of
thrust to the middle third of the concrete section
<
Where structurally possible, using the more favourable option of steel
fibre reinforcement.
Should mesh or bar reinforcement be required for structural reasons, it
should be designed with ease of installation in mind, and evenly distrib-
uted. The reinforcement must allow full encapsulation by sprayed con-
crete and permit sequential installation. Under no circumstances should
sprayed concrete be applied through full reinforcement cages.
188
9.5.2 Steel fibre reinforcement
In sprayed concrete, the use of conventional reinforcement to impart
tensile capacity to the structure, such as with steel weldmesh or bars,
can promote inhomogeneous structural elements due to the following:
<
The need to build the required design thickness in a series of layers
to encapsulate the reinforcement has a tendency to reduce the bond
strength between layers.
<
Corrosion of steel reinforcement can cause significant concrete
spalling and cracking due to the volumetric expansion.
<
Cracks produced by conventional steel reinforcement tend to be fewer,
but of greater width than with fibre reinforced concrete, leading to a
decrease in watertightness and durability, as illustrated in Figure 74.
Figure 74: Cracking control through steel fibre reinforcement
Steel fibres have been used successfully in permanent sprayed
concrete tunnel projects to reduce cracking widths to 0.2 mm. The
advantage over conventional anti-crack reinforcement is that the
fibres are randomly distributed, and discontinuous throughout the entire
tunnel lining structure allowing uniform reinforcement that evenly re-
distributes tensile loads, producing a greater quantity of uniformly dis-
tributed microcracks of limited depth, as illustrated in Figure 74. Steel
fibres also transform the concrete from a brittle into a highly ductile
material giving the lining a higher load bearing capacity, post initial
189
cracking through the effective redistribution of load, thereby increasing
the safety of the structure during construction.
Figure 75: Polymer fibres
More recently, polymer fibres have been introduced (see Figure 75),
having the added benefit of being corrosion resistant, whilst offering
similar performance to steel fibres.
9.6 Ground reinforcement
Rockbolts, dowels and spiles should be considered as permanent sup-
porting elements. As they are installed in the ground, there is potential
for them to act as channels to groundwater and therefore, the installa-
tion should ensure that they are centred in the drill hole and fully encap-
sulated in grout. This achieves two functions, firstly to reduce the risk
of corrosion of the bolt, and secondly to prevent water passing to the
inside face of the tunnel lining.
An example of a permanent rockbolt or spile is given in Figure 76, where
the installation sequence of the Ground Spile Anchor (GSA) developed
by the Dr Sauer Company is illustrated. The principle of the system is the
boring of the hole and insertion of the rockbolt or spile in one step, being
particularly beneficial in poor ground conditions that previously may
have caused borehole collapse before bolt installation. Additionally, the
rockbolt or spile is fully encapsulated in grout as the flushing medium
is exchanged for grout approximately half a metre from the end of the
190
borehole. The rockbolt or spile is centred in the hole by the drill rod bar-
rel, thereby ensuring optimum corrosion protection.
Figure 76: GSA anchor for permanent ground support particularly in
loose ground
In all grouted rockbolt (CT bolt or similar) and spile systems, the mix
design of the cement grout should be geared toward the reduction of
thermal cracking, and preferably to be thixotropic to prevent washout
during initial setting. These grout properties can be achieved by the use
of admixture products, such as MEYCO

Fix Flowcable giving a mean

28 day compressive strength of 70 MPa, chloride-free, and with little or
no thermal shrinkage or cracking.
9.7 Construction joints related to excavation sequence
Figure 77 illustrates the common excavation sequences adopted for
the construction of sprayed concrete lined tunnels. As stated above,
the reduction of steel reinforcement from the sprayed concrete lining is
one key method to significantly reduce the degree of water ingress. All
joint design details require connection reinforcement from the sprayed
concrete lining of one excavation sequence to the other, such as the top
heading lining connection to the bench portion. Therefore to reduce the
191
risk of water ingress, the design philosophy should be to minimise the
number of joints in the tunnel lining profile, and also to simplify as far as
possible the connection detail.
As can be seen from Figure 77, the top heading, bench invert exca-
vation sequence, with or without the initial pilot drive, offers the best
solution to this problem. Of particular concern with the single and
double sidewall drift methods is the complexity of the connection detail
between sidewall and main tunnel lining. These joints contain lattice
girders from the main and temporary sidewall, in addition to consider-
able connection reinforcement to provide the required structural per-
formance of the complete profile, all exacerbating the water ingress
problem. The typical location and number of such joints are indicated in
Figure 77 by the black circles.
With respect to the SPTL method, where the top heading, bench invert
construction sequence is not possible due to ground stability, and a need
to sub-divide the face further is required, the pilot enlargement method
(Figure 77) may be regarded in favour of the sidewall drift methods.
Figure 77: Joint types for sprayed concrete lined tunnel excavation
methods (only joints in final lining indicated)
192
9.8 SPTL two layer method second layer
construction joints
The second layer of the SPTL two layer method is formed of sprayed
concrete as discussed earlier. The system should have no longitudinal
joints apart from the connection to the invert concrete slab. The bay
lengths for the sprayed concrete lining should be approximately 4 to 5 m
long as this is the typical lateral extent of a spraying manipulator (Figure
78). The circumferential joints at the bay ends should be staggered by
a minimum of 0.5 m in relation to the construction joints of the first layer
to reduce the potential water path to the inside tunnel surface.
As one of the primary functions of the second layer is to produce a
watertight structure, further security can be achieved by the installation
of waterbars or joint sealing systems at the joint interfaces.
Figure 78: SPTL two layer method: 2nd layer sprayed concrete
For sprayed concrete linings, a robust system is required. An economi-
cal solution is the Masterflex

900 Fuko system that consists of a

PVC injection tube securely fixed to a semi-circular rebate formed at
the joint surface during the construction of the previous bay by means
of a leading edge shutter. The Fuko tube is perforated along its length,
with four neoprene strip pads covering the perforations over the entire
length of the tube. These PVC pads act as one-way valves. The entire
tube and pads are bound by an open webbed nylon mesh. The Fuko
injection tube can be injected with either MEYCO

MP308 injection resin

or Rheocem

microfine cement should water ingress occur during the

operational life of the tunnel. It is advisable that the first injection proc-
ess occurs one year after completion of the tunnel so that any potential
193
water paths that may establish can be identified and the respective
joints targeted for treatment, rather than the unnecessary blanket injec-
tion of all joints.
The Fuko system enables re-injections to be performed during the life of
the structure if required. The injection tubes should be positioned at a
minimum of 50 mm from the intrados face of the tunnel lining.
9.9 SPTL two layer method first and second layer bond
In order to provide a monolithic structure, the bond between the first
and second layers must be frictionally tight and form fitting to permit the
transfer of shear forces across the bond. Shear reinforcement between
the two layers should be avoided as it will aid the development of water
paths to the inside surface of the tunnel and a consequential reduction
in durability. The shear and tensile bond between layers can be ensured
by the surface roughness of the first layer to provide an effective, inter-
locking surface as indicated in Figure 79.
Figure 79: SPTL two layer structure indicating shear forces acting along
bond interface
Additionally, the lining surface to receive the new layer should be suitably
prepared following the precautions listed below.
<
Removal of any damaged and disintegrated sections of the first
layer
<
Cleaning by high pressure air and water jetting to remove dust, soot
and curing membrane applied to first layer. This is most effectively
achieved using the sprayed concrete equipment
194
<
Removal of grease or oil using a detergent
<
Surfaces should be damp, not saturated, before installation of sec-
ond layer.
Bond strength is also enhanced by a concrete mix design that promotes
a reduction in drying and early thermal shrinkage by lowering the heat of
hydration, and also by the necessary process of concrete curing. Once
this bond has been achieved, the monolithic behaviour of the first layer
to the second layer can occur.
To aid this structural requirement UGC International has developed
the concrete admixture MEYCO

TCC735. This product ensures effi-

cient homogeneous cement hydration from the moment of spraying,
and throughout the sprayed or cast in situ layer. This internal curing
action substantially reduces initial shrinkage, increases both strength
and density, resulting in enhanced bonding characteristics to previous
layers. A crucial benefit to the working cycle, is that the introduction of
MEYCO

TCC735 to the mix design eliminates the need for external

curing agents to be both applied, and removed, prior to the installation
of the next layer.
9.10 Surface finish
Depending on the intended role of the tunnel structure, several surface
finishes can be provided with the SPTL method varying from a sprayed
concrete finish, to float finished surface.
9.10.1 Screed and float finish
Sprayed concrete linings can be surface finished by screeding and
hand floating to produce a surface finish similar in quality to that of a
cast in situ lining. This process is performed on a sprayed mortar layer
applied to the final structural sprayed concrete layer, and is typically
25 mm thick. Polymer monofilament may be included in the mix design
to control surface crazing produced by thermal and surface drying
effects, such as with Emaco

S88C sprayable mortar. The screeding

process is relatively simple to perform using 25 mm diameter screed
rails bent to the finished profile of the tunnel, and if required, further
improvement to the surface finish can be attained by hand float work.
195
In the case of highway tunnels as shown in Figure 80, the required sur-
face reflectance for the tunnel sidewalls up to a height of 4 m from road
surface should have a smooth finish, have a high reflectance and be an
average light colour. Above this zone, the crown sections of the tunnel
are dark coloured and of low reflectance.
This reflectance and colour coding provides the following benefits:
<
Avoids the claustrophobic effect of a reflective tube, and allows a
more visual rectangular appearance, giving width to the tunnel
<
A reduction in the power consumption for ventilation and luminaires
<
Obscures services and hardware in the crown of the tunnel
<
Provides a limit for the cleaning machine and hides a soiled appear-
ance where the surface is not cleaned
<
Aides the distribution of light onto the road surface
To achieve these surface finishes, it is recommended that the 4 m wall
sections are initially screeded to the correct profile and finished by hand
float work. To provide the high reflectance and light colour require-
ment, the application of a pigmented cementitious fairing coat such as
Masterseal

333, or an epoxy coating such as Mastertop

1211 to the
colour required is proposed. For the crown sections, the surface can be
left as screeded and a similar painted treatment as above can be applied
with a black pigment.
Figure 80: Surface reflectance requirements for a dual lane highway
tunnel (UK)
196
9.10.2 Cladding systems
The alternative to the above approach to provide the required surface
finish is to install sidewall cladding. Cladding systems composed of
vitreous enamel on steel plate are generally acknowledged to be the
most suitable for tunnel environments. Vitreous enamel (VE) cladding is
durable, impact resistant, easy to clean, chemically inert and fire proof.
The particular benefit of VE is that it is not a coating, but it is fused to the
steel plate, forming a robust integrated surface, with a permanent col-
ourfast finish. Such cladding systems can provide a method to screen
and protect communication and electrical services, and allow a lower
surface finish to be specified for the sprayed concrete tunnel linings.
9.11 Achieving sprayed concrete lining durability
The factors influencing the durability of sprayed concrete structures are
dealt with in detail in chap. 6.
9.12 Construction recommendations
9.12.1 Application requirements
Figure 81: Mechanized spraying provides superior sprayed concrete
quality.
197
To obtain a durable sprayed concrete, and to ensure that the material
properties satisfy the requirements of the designer, the application
process should conform to the following criteria:
<
To provide a high performance concrete with minimal variance in
quality.
<
The system should have a controlled, pre-defined water/cement
ratio of 0.45 maximum, to ensure reduced shrinkage, provide high
compressive strengths and to significantly reduce permeability.
Robojet boom
keeps parallel to
sprayed concrete
surface during
spraying
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
n
o
z
z
le
d
is
t
a
n
c
e
360 Revolution
Automatic nozzle
oscillator for smooth
finish
Figure 82: Mechanized spraying facilitates nozzle operation.
198
<
Thoroughly mixed (including fibres), homogenous concrete should
be produced at the nozzle, and should be free from pulsation effects
and blockages.
<
Measured aggregate rebound should be below 10 % providing the
tunnel lining with a suitably graded material. This has the critical
effect of reducing delaminations, shadows behind steel reinforcement,
shrinkage cracking and poor microstructure.
<
Measured steel fibre rebound should be less than 20 % so as to pro-
vide efficient crack control and structural performance thereby
imparting improved durability to the tunnel lining.
<
Automated accelerator dosing unit that works in synchronisation with
concrete output to allow accurate, consistent dosage rates. Dosing
pumps should be capable of dispensing liquid suspensions of non
caustic alkali-free accelerators.
<
Thick concrete layers up to 150 mm are capable of being placed in
one pass permitting a more homogenous structure.
<
Low dust levels to allow greater visibility for nozzlemen to perform
better control of spraying.
<
The aim of the system should be to reduce the risk of human influ-
ences negatively affecting the quality of the sprayed concrete. For
example, spraying manipulators, such as the MEYCO

Robojet,
should be used where possible, allowing superior quality sprayed
concrete to be applied in a safer, more economic manner (see also
chap. 10.4).
<
A ready supply of sprayed concrete should be available to apply
as a contingency support when excavating the tunnel. This can be
facilitated by controlling the cement hydration using Delvo

crete
Stabiliser.
<
In the case of loose ground and running ground water, the system
should be adjustable to provide sprayed concrete with immediate
setting characteristics (flash setting).
<
The method of sprayed concrete application should allow effective
concrete curing that will not adversely influence the bond strength
between subsequent layers, such as with the incorporation of
MEYCO

TCC735 concrete improving admixture.

199
Figure 83: Wet-mix process
In view of the requirements above, it is strongly recommended that only
the wet-mix sprayed concrete process be used for the construction of
durable linings (Figure 83). The wet-mix process is currently the only
viable method to achieve quality, particularly with respect to controlling
the water-cement ratio that is vital for concrete durability and long term
strength. Additionally, the wet-mix process has also demonstrated sig-
nificant economical benefits over the dry-mix process.
9.12.2 Guidance on choice of modern application systems
It is strongly recommended, in view of the requirements in 9.12.1, that
only wet-mix process for sprayed concrete be used for the construction
of Single Pass Tunnel Linings. This should ensure good safety, quality
and productivity, leading to durable, permanent tunnel linings.
200
9.13 Risk management systems
Figure 84: Simplified model to illustrate how risks associated with
design uncertainties can be managed by active construction control
As with all ground engineering problems, there are inherent uncertain-
ties in the design of tunnels, particularly where structures rely heavily
on competent construction and satisfactory material performance. The
design uncertainties, or risks, as simplified in Figure 84 can be sum-
marised as follows:
<
Geological uncertainties may include unpredictable changes in geol-
ogy between boreholes or features not identified during the site
investigation.
<
Structure, or tunnel lining performance uncertainties may include
inadequate sprayed concrete strength development, delayed instal-
lation or incorrect profile geometry: these are frequently attributable
to human influence with sprayed concrete linings.
<
Ground treatment uncertainties may be due to additional loading
imposed by ground treatment operations, such as compensation
grouting, particularly over fresh sprayed concrete sections of the
tunnel drive. These ground treatment measures may be capable of
inducing full overburden or even higher loads onto tunnel linings.
In response to these risks, the success of the SPTL method should
be assured by providing a well tested risk management system dur-
ing construction to provide feedback to those responsible for design,
201
construction and supervision, permitting informed decisions to be
made to reduce the possible occurrence of unplanned events. This is
referred to as construction control in Figure 84, where the following
elements are considered to be critical.
It is imperative that supervision of the works should be carried out by
competent engineers who have prior experience of similar roles on
similar projects. Construction and design skills developed with pre-cast
segmental tunnelling are not necessarily pertinent to sprayed concrete
tunnelling practice. Particular skills required are:
<
Fundamental design understanding
<
Thorough construction knowledge using sprayed concrete as a per-
manent support system
<
Knowledge of modern high performance concrete technology
<
An understanding of the behaviour of the ground
<
The ability to interpret deformation results from the tunnel lining and
the ground monitoring
<
The crucial skill of being able to communicate to the tunnel construc-
tion teams the safety critical aspects of the design and the additional
need for quality and construction control
Particular emphasis should be placed on the establishment of a team
relationship between all parties to the contract and any other body
affected by the tunnelling works, particularly in respect of supervision
and the assessment of the monitoring results. It is recommended that
a technical review meeting be held each day with representatives from
all parties to review all the monitoring results, sprayed concrete material
properties, geological information and construction operations from the
SPTL drives.
With respect to the deformation monitoring, pre-determined trigger
levels should be defined in the design to forewarn of unexpected events.
If these trigger levels are exceeded, pre-planned contingency measures
should be available to be implemented immediately. These contingen-
cies may range from a review of the tunnel construction sequence or
an increase in the monitoring frequency, to full tunnel profile timber
propping. All monitoring data should be fed back to the design team
for back analysis, thereby leading to better predictions for subsequent
tunnelling work, or potentially to alter the construction sequences and
support requirements.
202
9.14 Enhancing watertightness with sprayable
membranes
Although the SPTL method is based on a watertight concrete approach,
added security against water ingress can be provided by the use of a
waterproof membrane. Traditionally, polymer sheet membranes have
been used, where the system has been shown to be sensitive to the
quality of heat sealed joints and tunnel geometry, particularly at junc-
tions. Furthermore, when sheet membranes have been installed with
an inner lining of sprayed concrete, the following adverse conditions
can occur:
<
As the sheet membranes are point fixed, sprayed inner linings may
not be in intimate contact via the membrane to the substrate. This
may lead to asymmetrical loading of the tunnel lining.
<
To aid the build of sprayed concrete onto sheet membranes, a layer of
welded mesh is used. Due to the sheet membrane being point fixed,
the quality of sprayed concrete between the mesh and the sheet
membrane is often inferior, and may lead to durability concerns.
<
The bond strength between sprayed concrete inner lining and sheet
membrane is inadequate and leads to potential de-bonding, particu-
larly in the crown sections of the tunnel profile.
To combat these problems, UGC International has developed a water
based polymer sprayable membrane, Masterseal

345. This sprayable

membrane has excellent double-sided bond strength (0.8 to 1.3 MPa),
allowing it to be used in composite structures, and also has elasticity
of 80 to 140 % over a wide range of temperatures. Being a water based
dispersion with no hasardous components, it is safe to handle and apply
in confined spaces. These material benefits of Masterseal

345 can add

significant security against water ingress when used in the following
applications:
203
9.14.1 SPTL tunnels subject to potential occasional
water ingress
1st layer permanent sprayed concrete
Masterseal

345 sprayable membrane

2nd layer permanent sprayed concrete
Figure 85: Masterseal

345 sprayable membrane applied between

layers of permanent sprayed concrete
For SPTL tunnels constructed above the water table, or in ground that
has a low bulk permeability, Masterseal

345 may be used as in a sand-

wich construction as indicated in Figure 85.
In this application, Masterseal

345 is applied after the first layer of

permanent sprayed concrete, where the sprayed surface should be as
regular as possible to allow an economical application of membrane 5 to
8 mm thick. A second layer of permanent steel fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete can then be applied to the inside. As the bond strength between
the Masterseal

345 and the two layers of permanent sprayed concrete

is about 1 MPa, the structure can act monolithically, with the sprayable
membrane resisting up to 15 bar. As this application considers no water
drainage, the 2nd layer of sprayed concrete must be designed to resist
any potential hydrostatic load over the life of the structure.
9.14.2 SPTL tunnels with active water ingress
For SPTL tunnels with active water ingress and high hydrostatic loads
the solution in Figure 86 may be chosen. This approach allows the col-
lected water from behind the sprayable membrane to be relieved via
204
a managed drainage system, typically installed in the haunches of the
tunnel lining.
Masterseal

345
sprayable membrane
Hilti nail fixing
at 1m grid spacing
Geotextile layer composed of:
1. Fleece
2. Plastic sheet
3. Plastic drainage web
Structural
permanent
sprayed concrete
Sprayed concrete
protection layer
(non structural)
Figure 86: Masterseal

345 applied on the inside surface of structural

lining in cases of active water ingress and high hydrostatic loads
As indicated in Figure 86, the system comprises of a geotextile layer that
is Hilti nail fixed to the structural sprayed concrete lining to control the
water ingress and also to provide a dry surface to apply the Masterseal

345 membrane. All geotextile joints and Hilti nail fixings are adequately
covered by the Masterseal

345, typically with a thickness of 3 to 5 mm.

A final non-structural layer of sprayed concrete is applied for protection.
The thickness of the final layer of sprayed concrete is dependant on
the tunnel size, can provide fire resistance and be surface finished as
required.
9.14.3 Rehabilitation of existing tunnels
In many cases, sprayed concrete linings are increasingly used in the
rehabilitation or upgrading of existing tunnel and underground struc-
tures. In such projects, Masterseal

345 can offer increased protection

against water ingress, and thereby enhance the durability of the new
lining.
As illustrated in Figure 87, Masterseal

345 may be applied to the existing

structure directly, or with the application of a regulating layer of sprayed
mortar or screeded sprayed concrete if necessary. In tunnel sections
205
with active water ingress, the geotextile layer system (described above)
applied directly to the existing structure is advised. Once the Masterseal

345 has been applied, the permanent steel fibre reinforced sprayed
concrete layer can be installed and surface finished as required.
Masterseal

345
sprayable membrane
Structural
permanent sprayed
concrete layer
Sealing layer of spray-
ed mortar
Existing structure
Brick, masonry,
concrete etc
Figure 87: Masterseal

345 applied to an existing structure as an

element of rehabilitation works
206
10. Sprayed concrete application
guideline
This chapter outlines the critical operations that need to be undertaken
to achieve high quality sprayed concrete once the sprayed concrete mix
design has been optimised. Amongst the operations described, one of
the most essential is good nozzle technique.
With the advent of the wet-mix method, the use of spraying manip-
ulators has become more common place, particularly in tunnelling
projects, and therefore, these methods are also reviewed. Finally, to
achieve the recent, demanding requirements of achieving durable, high
quality sprayed concrete structures, the need to raise levels of human
competence is discussed.
10.1 Substrate preparation
Prior to the application of sprayed concrete, the nozzleman should be
aware of the required properties of the sprayed concrete lining. This
may include the required thickness, profile and knowledge of any safety-
critical elements of the lining that need careful attention during spraying,
e.g. complex construction joints such as in the sidewall drift construc-
tion method, as indicated in Figure 88.
Immediately after excavation and before application of sprayed con-
crete, the exposed ground should be geologically mapped or photo-
graphed in accordance with the procedures of the tunnelling project.
For effective adhesion of the sprayed concrete to the substrate, the
surface to receive the sprayed concrete should be damp and cleared of
loose material by scaling and the use of compressed air and water from
the nozzle. Surface cleaning should always start at the upper section
and successively move downwards. Sprayed concrete overspray from
the previous advance that is loosely adhered to mesh and steel arches
should also be removed.
Groundwater ingress into the tunnel will often have detrimental effects
on the quality and strength of the sprayed concrete. Typically, unskilled
207
teams will attempt to spray over active water ingress using sprayed
concrete with very high accelerator dosages.
Figure 88: Sidewall drift method. Connection of temporary sidewall to
main lining is typically heavily reinforced (as indicated in sketch).
This joint requires good sprayed concrete compaction to ensure stabil-
ity of lining after full profile constructed.
208
It is recommended however, that all water ingress is controlled by pre-
injection or de-watering, or by managed systems such as with drain-
age pipes installed to capture and divert the water away to facilitate the
spraying operation. These measures should be effective for at least
28 days after spraying. An example of problematic water ingress is
shown in Figure 89.
Personal protective equipment, ventilation and lighting suitable for
sprayed concrete applications are to be available at all times.
Figure 89: Water ingress controlled through pre-installed pipes
before application of sprayed concrete
10.2 General spraying techniques
The delivered mix to the pump should be checked for batch time, for
workability (wet-mix) and for temperature (preferably > +15C). The min-
imum surface temperature should be > +5C before any spraying can
start. All delivery lines from the pump to the nozzle should be securely
fixed and fully lubricated with grout. If delays occur, the workability of
the mix should be checked on a regular basis to determine if it is still
fresh and pumpable. Under no circumstances should water be added
to the mixer, or old mixes that have undergone hydration be used. The
use of hydration control admixtures, such as Delvo

crete Stabiliser, is
therefore recommended at all times.
209
With accelerated sprayed concrete mixes, it is essential not to apply
sprayed concrete into the Works until it exhibits the correct setting
performance. This is typically carried out by spraying directly onto the
lower section of the tunnel face until the correct setting performance
is observed. Furthermore, the correct air pressure and volume for the
specific spraying operation should be evaluated by the nozzleman and
adjusted accordingly.
One of the skills of the nozzleman is to recognise the need for applying
sprayed concrete in a manner that minimises the risk of loosened blocks
from falling into the tunnel work area, but also to prevent the concrete
from sagging or even falling out of the crown sections. To meet this goal,
the nozzleman should firstly fill all overbreaks and zones of substrate
weakness, such as fissures, faults and gravel zones. The sooner this
action is taken after excavation, the safer the work place.
Spraying should then commence from the lower sections moving
methodically upwards to the crown. It may be prudent to increase the
accelerator dosage marginally to achieve a slightly faster set, and apply-
ing numerous thinner layers rather than attempting to spray the entire
thickness in one pass of the nozzle. In the crown sections of the tunnel,
an initial thin layer of approximately 50 mm should be sprayed to prevent
the completed sprayed lining from debonding. Subsequent layers may
be built up to 150 mm in thickness.
For thick structural members, each subsequent layer should be given
sufficient time to set before the next layer is applied. In large diameter
tunnels this allows the spraying process to be continuous due to the rel-
atively high surface areas and subsequent volume of concrete applied.
It is good practice to apply thick sections in a series of layers, but the
number should be kept to a minimum where possible. All surfaces to
receive a new layer should be damp and free from loose materials.
10.3 Reducing rebound, increasing quality
One of the principal causes of poor sprayed concrete quality and
increased lining costs is the amount of rebound produced during spray-
ing. This is particularly evident in the dry-mix sprayed concrete process
where the nozzleman has control over the water-cement ratio, and is
210
responsible for the effective mixing of the concrete mix between the
nozzle and the substrate. This section highlights some actions to be
considered to reduce rebound and improve quality.
Figure 90 attempts to illustrate some of the major factors that can affect
the degree of rebound produced by both wet and dry-mix sprayed
concrete during the spraying process. In the case of the dry-mix the
values given are conservative. Figure 90 assumes that the mix design,
particularly the aggregate grading and water-cement ratio are optimised
as described in Chapter 3.
Figure 90: Effect on rebound and sprayed concrete quality of principal
spraying parameters
The amount of rebound is broken down into four major factors:
<
Nozzle angle to substrate
<
Accelerator dosage
<
Nozzle distance to substrate
<
Area of application in tunnel
As indicated in Figure 90, the most significant influence on rebound is
the angle of nozzle to the substrate. The nozzle should always be held at
right angles (90) to the substrate (see Figure 91) to optimise compac-
tion and steel fibre orientation, except when full encapsulation of lattice
211
girders and steel reinforcement is required. With hand held spraying, a
perpendicular spraying angle is not always favoured by the nozzleman,
as any rebounded material tends to come directly back. Even spraying
angles less than 70 will cause excessive rebound values and poor
compaction of the concrete. This inevitably leads to low strength and
poor durability of the concrete. With more recent developments on wet-
mix manipulator spraying, this problem has been mostly removed.
Figure 91: Nozzle angle has dramatic effect on rebound.
The distance between the nozzle and the substrate should be between
1 and 2 m, as indicated in Figure 92. If the nozzle is closer than this the
projected concrete will tend to tear-off the freshly placed material. If
the nozzle distance is reduced, the output should be lowered and the
nozzle moved faster. Furthermore, if the nozzle distance is extend-
ed to 3 m say, then the energy to compact the concrete is severely
reduced, again resulting in excessive rebound, poor compaction and
low strengths. Hand held applications will tend to lower the air output
to maintain the correct nozzle-substrate distance, this in turn has also
detrimental effects to the quality of the sprayed concrete.
212
Accelerator dosage as shown in Figure 90 can also affect the degree
of rebound. Too little accelerator will not provide adequate setting and
strength development, so that freshly applied concrete may be shot
off by the next pass of the nozzle as it remains too soft. By definition
this is strictly not rebound, but should be avoided at all times.
Figure 92: The distance of nozzle to substrate influences rebound and
compaction.
Conversely, if the accelerator dosage is too high, for example above
10%, flash setting will create a hard surface that will cause larger aggre-
gates to rebound, prevent complete compaction, and thereby produce
reduced strength and durability of the sprayed concrete lining. For
application in crown sections of tunnels, a balance between accelerator
dosage for effective build rates and rebound needs to be established
without compromising the required properties of the hardened concrete
lining. UGC Internationals new MEYCO

SA range of alkali-free accel-

erators provides a relatively low, but wide dosage range to allow fast
build rates coupled with good long-term concrete performance.
Further factors that can influence the degree of rebound and hence
quality of sprayed concrete are summarised as follows:
<
Mesh reinforcement:

Mesh should be securely fixed to the substrate prior to spraying.
Vibrating mesh can increase rebound values considerably and
cause shadows that reduce the structural capacity and long-term
213
durability of the lining. Where possible, elect for fibre reinforced mixes
for improved productivity, low rebound, enhanced structural proper-
ties, and reduced overall project costs.

A sprayed concrete lining composed of steel reinforcement cages or
bars should be systematically built-up layer by layer, and under no
circumstances should sprayed concrete be applied through com-
plete reinforcement cages.
<
Air volume, pressure and delivery:

Air volume and pressure should be those set by the manufacturer of the
sprayed concrete equipment. Air bagging should be the size defined for
the system, and nozzles need to be checked for wear as this detrimen-
tally affects the output velocity of sprayed concrete. The air-accelerator
injection turbo needs to be designed to optimise thorough mixing with
the dense concrete stream at the nozzle.
<
Nature of substrate:

In hard rock tunnels the amount of rebound can be significantly higher
than in soft ground tunnels. This is due to the contact surface being
both hard and of various incidental angles to the spray direction due
to the blocky nature of the rock. In such cases an initial sprayed con-
crete layer is advisable to act as a cushion to receive the structural
sprayed concrete lining.
10.4 Mechanized wet-mix spraying
Many of the factors that cause high rebound values, poor compaction,
loss in structural performance and hence increased project costs are
attributed to the performance of the nozzleman, particularly that of the
hand held nozzle systems using the dry-mix process.
The advent of modern admixtures applied to wet-mix sprayed concrete
has reduced these problems significantly by enabling the placed con-
crete to be initially plastic in nature. For some minutes after application,
new sprayed concrete can be absorbed and compacted more readily
than very fast, or flash setting materials. This approach reduces rebound
significantly and allows steel encapsulation to be achieved more readily.
Problems relating to nozzle angle, nozzle distance and achieving the
correct compaction with the required air volume and pressure have
been facilitated by the use of spraying manipulators, particularly in large
214
diameter tunnels. As shown in Figure 93, the MEYCO

Robojet spraying
manipulator is controlled by a remote-control joystick operated by the
nozzleman which allows spraying at the correct distance and angle at all
times. This coupled with the required air volume and pressure ensures
low rebound and well-compacted sprayed concrete. Good surface fin-
ishes can be achieved by selecting the automatic oscillating movement
of the nozzle mode.
Robojet boom
keeps parallel to
sprayed concrete
surface during
spraying
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
n
o
z
z
le
d
is
t
a
n
c
e
360 Revolution
Automatic nozzle
oscillator for smooth
finish
Figure 93: MEYCO

Robojet spraying manipulator correct angle and

distance for reduction in rebound and enhanced quality
New advances in spraying manipulators make the task of setting the
optimal nozzle angle and distance even easier using the automatic mode
with the MEYCO

Robojet Logica, as described in Chapter 7.2.1.4.

215
10.5 Raising competence levels
Nozzlemen should have previous experience in the application of per-
manent sprayed concrete, and have knowledge of the sprayed concrete
process to be adopted on the specific project. It is recommended that
an operator be able to demonstrate his experience either as a holder of
a certificate from previous work, or required to demonstrate his compe-
tence in a non-works location.
Prevailing regulations place added requirements on the people doing
the spraying work to have technical knowledge of concrete, particularly
with sprayed concrete. Present requirements have led to a better train-
ing of the personnel involved. The result of this is an improved quality of
work. The number of special contractors who are working with sprayed
concrete has increased over the last few years, which has globally
raised the quality of application.
Sprayed concrete structures are heavily reliant on human competence
during construction, and therefore the design should reflect this by
considering the buildability of these structures using sprayed con-
crete. Designing buildability ensures that safety and durability critical
elements are either designed out, or simplified for ease of construction
on the job site. Furthermore, design teams should be aware of the limita-
tions of construction processes, and be familiar with the likely material
performance.
Modern sprayed concrete specifications now address the issues of
achieving a quality controlled modern mix design, providing guidance
on promoting durability and effective execution of the spraying proc-
esses. As an example, the new European Specification for Sprayed
Concrete (1996) produced by EFNARC, provides comprehensive sys-
tems to attain permanent sprayed concrete. This specification has
been the basis for new project specific specifications worldwide, and is
the basis of the new European Norm Sprayed Concrete Specification.
Furthermore, the EFNARC Sprayed Concrete Specification tackles
issues such as nozzleman training and accreditation, and also sets out
systems for contractors and specifiers to consider the structures they
are building and to adapt the sprayed concrete system and mix design
accordingly.
216
11. Time and economy
11.1 An example calculation
The main reasons for using wet-mix SFRS have been given before.
When evaluating economical factors, it is of decisive importance to get
away from the focus on part costs like equipment investment or con-
crete mix materials cost. When all costs are included, experience con-
sistently shows that substantial savings in time and money can be made
on a project level. An example calculation, using experience figures, can
illustrate these relations.
The basis is a 60 m
2
tunnel, 2 000 m long, drill and blast excavation, 4 m
round length, 100 mm theoretical sprayed concrete thickness applied
per round. European cost level and Swiss Franc calculation currency.
The dry-mix rebound is 30 % and the wet-mix rebound 10 %. The sum-
mary figures are shown in Figure 94.

Figure 94: Comparison of wet-mix / steel fibres versus dry-mix /
wire mesh
Investment cost is the value at the start of construction of the complete
equipment package. Material cost means direct cost of all ingredients
of the mix design, including accelerator added in the nozzle. Rebound
cost contains the loss of materials, cost of extra spraying to compensate
217
and the cost of rebound removal. Support cost means all direct cost in
the sprayed concrete and reinforcement application, not including direct
cost-sharing of infrastructure, administration, use of other equipment,
other workers involved, delays, etc. If a cost allocation of a modest
SFr. 400. per shift hour is applied for this, the total cost of steel fibre
reinforced wet-mix sprayed concrete drops to 42 % of the total cost
of dry-mix sprayed concrete with wire mesh reinforcement. The main
reason for this dramatic cost drop is shown at the bottom of Figure 94
(completion time): Steel fibre reinforced wet-mix sprayed concrete only
needs 17 % of the time used for dry-mix spraying with wire mesh rein-
forcement, in order to finalise the same support volume.
Figure 94 illustrates the savings potential on the contractors side. For
the client, the potential savings are often considerably higher (earlier
start-up of operation of the project). Primarily, it is therefore the client who
will suffer from the consequences of non optimal solutions.
11.2 Conclusion
The wet-mix sprayed concrete technology has reached a stage of devel-
opment which allows the production of high quality, durable sprayed
concrete for permanent support. Further substantial technical advan-
tages are available when reinforcement is required and steel fibres are
used.
The time and cost saving potential in application of wet-mix SFRS as
permanent support is in most cases substantial and sometimes dra-
matic. It must be ensured that the design method allows the use of
such permanent support measures. Also, it must be avoided that the
contract terms are counter-productive for the utilisation of modern sup-
port techniques.
Other important advantages like totally flexible logistics, very good
working safety and good environmental conditions are completing the
range of reasons in favour of using the wet-mix sprayed concrete tech-
nology. It is not an experiment any more, the solutions are well proven.
218
12. Outlook: The potential of
sprayed concrete applications
Sprayed concrete is mostly used today in rock support where it has
solved many difficult problems and has become a necessary aid. There
is a clear tendency that more and more sprayed concrete is being
applied in international tunnelling, for rock support. The total volume,
in Europe alone, is more than 5 million cubic metres per year. In our
opinion, this increasing trend will continue for several years to come.
The actual international practices and trends could be summarized as
follows:
The wet-mix sprayed concrete technology has reached a stage of devel-
opment which allows the production of high quality, durable sprayed
concrete for permanent support. Further substantial technical advan-
tages are available when reinforcement is required and steel fibres are
used.
The time and cost saving potential in the application of wet-mix steel
fibre reinforced sprayed concrete as permanent support is in most
cases substantial and sometimes dramatic. It must be ensured that the
design method allows the use of these permanent support measures.
Also, contract terms that are counter-productive for the utilization of
modern support techniques must be avoided.
Other important advantages such as totally flexible logistics, very good
working safety and good environmental conditions complete the range
of reasons in favour of using wet-mix sprayed concrete technology. It is
not an experiment any more, the solutions are well proven.
<
The application of wet-mix sprayed concrete as compared to dry-
mix sprayed concrete is dominating, with a clear trend for further
increase.
<
Wire mesh is still generally used for reinforcement, however, the
proportion of steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete is increasing
steadily.
<
There is a drive in the direction of mechanization, automation and
higher capacity.
<
Safety, working hygiene and environment are more focused on, and
related regulations have become stricter.
219
<
Sprayed concrete is still mostly used for temporary support, but
there is an increasing interest and utilization of higher quality sprayed
concrete for permanent linings.
During the last few years wet-mix sprayed concrete has also been
introduced into the Mining Industry. It is a large and complex business,
on the one hand imposing high safety standards to protect the miners
and on the other hand requiring high productivity and output to recover
the costs of extracting minerals and ores from far beneath the surface.
Mining puts many difficult demands on sprayed concrete and its appli-
cation, such as logistics and temperature constraints which with the use
of modern admixture and equipment technologies can be overcome.
Sprayed concrete as a building method would have a much larger field
of application. However, until today the degree of utilization is unfortu-
nately still rather limited. One of the advantages of sprayed concrete is
its flexibility and speed of application. Concrete which can be placed
simply with a hose against form work, rock or concrete surfaces, may
architecturally and constructively be varied. The only limit is the imagina-
tion and the desire for experimentation.
We therefore call upon all contractors, architects, authorities and con-
sultants: Concrete technology, know-how, equipment and materials
exist and may be mobilised to increase the range of our building activi-
ties as soon as someone plucks up courage to utilize the building
method of the future: Sprayed Concrete.
220
References
Allen, Ch., Controlled Hydration Shotcrete Mixes for Infrastructure
Projects, conference infrastructure. The Role of Concrete, Concrete
Institute of Australia, Sydney, May 1993.
Annett, M. and Varley, N.J., High performance sprayed concrete in
London clay. Proceedings Second International Symposium on sprayed
concrete for underground support, Gol, Norway, September 1996.
Barton, N., in Sprayed Concrete Properties, Design and Application,
ed. by S. Austin and P. Robins, London, 1995, chap. 8.
Bernhard, S. (Dr), Creep of cracked reinforced concrete panels,
Sprayed Concrete Conference 2004, Cairns, Australia.
Drs J., Internal report: Aluminate based accelerators.
EFNARC, Specification for sprayed concrete. 1996.
Garshol K., Norway, Practical use of sprayed concrete in rock support.
Holmgren, J., Bergfrstrkning med sprutbetong, Jrflla, Sweden,
1992.
Kinney, F.D., Reuse of Returned Concrete by Hydration Control:
Characterisation of a New Concept: Proceedings Third International
Conference, Superplasticisers and Other Chemical Admixtures in
Concrete, Ottawa, Canada, 1989.
Krebs C., Internal report: Equipment for sprayed concrete, MEYCO
Equipment (UGC International).
Master Builders, Technical Report 128, Delvo System, Cleveland,
USA, 1988.
UGC International, MEYCO Journal No. 1, Zurich, Switzerland, July
1991.
UGC International, MEYCO Journal No. 2, Zurich, Switzerland,
December 1991.
221
Melbye, T., Neue Generation von Zusatzmitteln fr Spritzbeton,
Spritzbeton Technologie 1993, Universitt Innsbruck, Austria, January
1993.
Melbye, T., New Advanced Shotcrete Admixtures, Sprayed Concrete
Conference 1993, Brunel University, London, UK, September 1993.
Norwegian Concrete Association Committee Sprayed Concrete.
Technical Specification and Guidelines: Sprayed concrete for rock sup-
port.
Opsahl O.A., Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete for Rock Support, BML-
Report 82.205, Division of Building Materials, The Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Trondheim, September 1983.
Ramachandran, V.S., Concrete Admixtures Handbook, Noyes Pub-
lications, 1984, pp 116172.
Smith, K., Internal notat (Synthetic Industries).
Testor, M., Vergleich umweltneutraler Spritzbetontechnologien im
Baustellenversuch. Final report from the Institut fr Baustofflehre und
Materialprfung, University of Innsbruck, 1996.
223
Appendix
Specification
for
Sprayed Concrete
by
Nick Swannell
Associate Director
Halcrow Group Ltd, United Kingdom
and
Don Wimpenny
Principal Materials Engineer
Halcrow Group Ltd, United Kingdom
and
Tom Melbye
Director
UGC International
224
Disclaimer
The Specification for Sprayed Concrete described hereafter in this
Appendix is provided as an example of modern requirements. However,
any person using it, in whole or in part, does so at their own risk and is
advised to check and review the appropriateness of any material used
to the intended application. No responsibility is accepted by the authors
for use of the specification in applications where they have no profes-
sional involvement.
225
Index
Notes on Scope of the Specification 227
General 237
SC01 General 237
Base Concrete 238
SC02 Cement 238
SC03 Silica Fume 239
SC04 Aggregates 239
SC05 Water 241
SC06 Fibre 241
Admixtures 243
SC07 General 243
SC08 Accelerators 244
SC09 Plasticisers and Retarders 245
SC10 Hydration Control Admixtures 245
Particular Requirements 247
SC11 Equipment 247
SC12 Performance Requirements 247
SC13 Particular Mix Requirements 247
SC14 Other Particular Requirements 247
Equipment 250
SC15 General 250
SC16 Wet Mix Process 251
SC17 Dry Mix Process 251
SC18 Automatic Dosing 251
SC19 Remote Controlled Spraying 252
Acceptance Testing and Site Trials 253
SC20 General 253
SC21 Development of Mix Design 253
SC22 Site Trials 253
SC23 Proficiency of Operatives 256
226
Production and Transport 257
SC24 Batching and Mixing 257
SC25 Transport 258
Application 259
SC26 Sprayed Concrete Application 259
SC27 Thickness and Profile Control 261
SC28 Curing 262
Works Tests 263
SC29 General 263
SC30 Compressive Strength Test 264
SC31 Flexural Toughness Tests 265
SC32 Bond Tests 266
SC33 Durability / Permeability Tests 266
SC34 Dry Density, Boiled Absorption and Voids Volume 266
SC35 Fibre Content 267
SC36 Testing of Steel Fibre 267
SC37 Consistence 267
SC38 Failure to Comply 268
Test Methods 269
SC39 General 269
SC40 Bleeding of Cement 269
SC41 Testing of Accelerators Setting Times of Cement Paste 269
SC42 Not Used 271
SC43 Not Used 271
SC44 Not Used 271
SC45 Testing of Steel Fibre 271
SC46 Durability / Permeability Test 271
SC47 Testing of Bond Strength 272
Annexes 273
A Terms and Definitions 273
B Standards 276
Tables 248
SC12 Performance Requirements for Sprayed
Concrete (Clause SC12) 248
SC13 Particular Mix Requirements (Clause SC13) 249
227
Notes on Scope of the Specification
This Appendix provides a modern comprehensive specification for all sprayed con-
crete applications both above and below ground, but excluding repair works. The
Specification should be used in its entirety, unless noted otherwise in the Annexes,
which give a glossary of terms and a list of Standards used.
The Specification is directed primarily towards tunnel and cavern excavation in
rock, and, in accordance with modern practice, mesh reinforcement is not pro-
vided for in the Specification for that reason. Steel fibre reinforcement should be
used in such excavations, unless plain sprayed concrete is considered appropri-
ate for a particular application. However, the use of mesh may be appropriate for
some cases of rock slope stabilisation work, and for use in tunnels and caverns in
weak rock excavated by mechanical means, ie that produce a smooth and regular
surface to which mesh can be fixed readily and in safety, and possibly as part of a
final lining system. In such cases, appropriate amendment to the Specification will
be necessary.
The Specification does not currently provide for the use of polymer fibre for per-
manent support purposes. Careful consideration should be given to creep and
performance under fire loading before adopting this type of fibre for permanent
structural support. However, the use of polymer fibre may have advantages and be
acceptable for temporary support purposes, or in the form of micro-synthetic fibre
for use in preventing explosive spalling under fire loading in permanent applications
(although this does not prevent heat degradation of the sprayed concrete, and it
should be noted that sprayed passive fire protection materials provide protection
against both spalling and heat degradation, and are the preferred option in most
cases).
The Specification provides for three types of sprayed concrete (see Annex A for
full definitions) viz:
<
Sprayed Concrete Type S1:
Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete for temporary / short term uses including
immediate ground support
<
Sprayed Concrete Type P2:
Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete for permanent works applications
<
Sprayed Concrete Type P3:
Plain sprayed concrete for permanent works applications
228
The Specification requires the use of wet mix equipment for Types P2 and P3 in
accordance with modern practice. However, wet mix or dry mix equipment may
be used for Type S1 (although consideration should be given to the safety implica-
tions of using dry mix, and it may be appropriate on some projects and/or in some
countries to prohibit its use entirely).
Although the Specification specifies aggregate properties that should provide
aggregate with good resistance to freeze-thaw and fragmentation, the Specification
does not cover the use of sprayed concrete in particularly arduous environments
where particular properties such as sulphate resistance or frost resistance may be
required. Modifications and/or additional clauses may be required in such cases.
Advice should be taken from the Engineer.
Non-caustic, alkali-free accelerators are in widespread use, and have been for
almost 10 years. These accelerators are more expensive than caustic aluminate or
modified silicate accelerators and generally require more particular consideration
in terms of cement compatibility, testing, and plant selection and use (because of
relatively low pH values). However, there are advantages in terms of safety, dura-
bility, and long term strengths with non-caustic, alkali-free accelerators and they
are to be preferred wherever possible. In this Specification they are the required
accelerator type for use in permanent sprayed concrete. Some countries insist on
non-caustic, alkali-free accelerators for all applications (temporary and permanent)
and therefore minor modification of the Specification may be necessary in such
cases.
Notes on flexural strength and toughness
Flexural strength and toughness requirements (Table SC12) need only be included
if there is likely to be a specific design requirement. If omitted, the requirements for
minimum fibre content in the Works (Table SC13) should be rigorously enforced.
An alternative approach, if there is a design requirement, is to use Site Trials to
establish a relationship between flexural strength and fibre content, and thereafter
use fibre content for site control.
The Specification provides only for centrally loaded round panel testing (ASTM
C1550, 2003a). Beam tests are no longer included. The repeatability and econom-
ics of beam tests are acknowledged to be poor. The round panel test is an energy
absorption test. The repeatability of this test is good, and is generally considered
229
to be economic for routine testing, although servo-assisted test rigs are required
that may not be readily available in some countries. However, machines suitable for
a site laboratory are becoming more readily available.
The round panel flexural toughness criteria included in Table SC12 are nominal
requirements for general application only. They are drawn from EFNARC (1996) as
follows, using the conversion relationships with round panel test results set out by
Bernard (2004):
<
Type S1 criterion (55 Joules at 3.618 mm central panel deflection) is approxi-
mately equivalent to EFNARC (1996) Normal Deformation Class and Residual
Strength Class 2; the equivalent residual flexural-tensile strength measured in
an EFNARC beam test is approximately 2.5 MPa, at a central beam deflection
of 2 mm.
<
Type P2 criterion (15 Joules at 1.693 mm central panel deflection) is approxi-
mately equivalent to EFNARC (1996) Low Deformation Class and Residual
Strength Class 1, and assumes that this sprayed concrete is not used as
temporary support, ie no significant further deformation is expected after this
permanent sprayed concrete type is applied; the equivalent residual flexural-
tensile strength measured in an EFNARC beam test is approximately 1.5 MPa,
at a central beam deflection of 1 mm.
It may be necessary to include alternative or additional criteria for Type S1 if antici-
pated conditions suggest different toughness requirements, or possibly a range of
requirements.
For Type P2, it may be appropriate to include an additional requirement that 25%
of the total energy absorbed at 40 mm central deflection in the round panel test
should be absorbed between 20 mm and 40 mm deflection; this is an indirect
means of attempting to control the occurrence of embrittlement which might pre-
clude the material from stabilising ground in the long term at moderate to high levels
of deformation (Asche & Bernard, 2004).
It should also be noted that particular projects may have specific design require-
ments and the nominal requirements discussed above may not be applicable.
Alternative approaches to sprayed concrete design and recommendations for
toughness criteria are discussed in the UK Concrete Society Technical Report
Guidance for the Design of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (final draft 2006)
and include:
230
<
Toughness characterisation (eg EFNARC,1996) as discussed above, toughness
performance levels, etc.
<
Semi-empirical methods (eg Q System),
<
Deterministic design methods that require calculation of bending moments.
If the Q System is used there will usually be six support classes (I to VI), with
Classes V and VI incorporating steel arch ribs with sprayed concrete for use in
zones of weakness. The most severe toughness requirements for sprayed con-
crete will therefore be in Class IV where only bolts and sprayed concrete are used.
It is preferable to have only two alternative toughness requirements for Sprayed
Concrete Type S1; and a suitable generalised requirement to cover the range of
support classes, but without having an unnecessarily demanding specification for
toughness for all sprayed concrete, is as follows:
Support Classes Sprayed Concrete Type S1
(Round panel test criterion at 40 mm
central round panel deflection)
I-III, V and VI
(V and VI with steel arch ribs)
250 Joules
IV 400 Joules
For permanent Sprayed Concrete Type P2, a suitable criterion is 200 Joules at
40 mm central round panel deflection, assuming the sprayed concrete is not used
for temporary support.
These requirements are generally consistent with and / or can be derived from the
sources reviewed in the UK Conrete Society Report referenced above.
For deterministic methods, it is generally necessary to define:
<
The minimum acceptable equivalent residual flexural-tensile strength, and
<
The central deformation in a beam test at which this residual strength is
required.
These requirements are defined by the particular design method adopted for the
determination of bending moments, as discussed in the UK Concrete Society
Report referenced above.
231
The equivalent performance criteria for a round panel test can then be determined
using Figures 6 to 10, or Table 2, in Bernard (2004). An example application is
included in Asche & Bernard (2004).
Explanatory notes on sprayed concrete strength
(i) The Specification is written in terms of British standards as far as pos-
sible (alternative stand-alone versions in terms of other standards, for
example Australian, can be prepared following the same principles, if
required).
(ii) The Specification is written in terms of cube strengths (alternative stand-
alone versions can be prepared in terms of cylinder strengths if required,
but cube and cylinder strengths should not be mixed in the same
specification in order to minimise the risk of confusion and contractual
conflict, and to follow the principles of Concrete Society TR 11 (1987)).
(iii) Compliance criteria are in terms of in situ cube strength (see Annex A
for definition, and Concrete Society TR 11 (1987) and BS 6089 assess-
ment of concrete strength in existing structures, for background infor-
mation).
(iv) Because of the limited number of samples usually taken in sprayed
concrete works, in situ cube strengths are mean strengths, ie not char-
acteristic (see Annex A for definition).
(v) Although compliance criteria are in terms of in situ cube strengths, it
is also necessary to state the 28-day characteristic strength of each
sprayed concrete type for the purpose of:
<
Initial development of the mix design, ie the Base Concrete, and
<
Defining the concrete grade for structural design purposes.
In order to maintain the emphasis on in situ cube strength as the compli-
ance criterion, 28-day characteristic strengths are given as part of the
definition of each sprayed concrete type in Annex A, but do not appear
within the body of the Specification.
(vi) The requirements for Site Trials and Works Tests are kept as similar as
possible (see later notes).
232
The Specification requires the following procedure in respect of strengths:
(i) Define 28-day characteristic strength of the sprayed concrete type
(Annex A).
(ii) Develop the mix design for a base concrete (Clause SC21).
(iii) Carry out Site Trials for the sprayed concrete mix (Clause SC22), and
ensure compliance (Table SC12) for cores taken from panels.
(iv) Carry out Works Trials (Clause SC30), and ensure compliance (Table
SC12) for cores taken from the Works.
Base Concrete has been redefined (Annex A) to include silica fume, plasticisers
and retarders (if proposed to be used in the sprayed concrete), but not accelerators
and / or hydration control admixtures which may affect long-term strength.
The strength of the base concrete has to be defined in terms of standard cube
strengths, ie tests on standard cubes prepared in the laboratory (see Annex A),
and are in terms of mean strengths, not characteristic strengths. The target mean
strengths for the base concrete defined in Clause SC21 allow for:
<
A maximum allowable 25 % reduction in strength due to admixtures added to
produce sprayed concrete (Clause SC08(6)).
<
Defined strength classes given in BS 8500 comprising characteristic cylinder
and cube strength values.
<
A factor of 1.25 between the target mean cylinder strength and the characteristic
cylinder strength.
The protection of panels from Site Trials against moisture loss (Clause SC22(4))
is now by the same methods as to be used in construction. The compliance cri-
teria are in terms of in situ cube strengths and are mean strengths (Table SC12).
Provided that the core height:diameter ratio is maintained at 1.0, then the core
strength may be taken as being equal to the in situ cube strength (Concrete Society
TR 11 (1987)) provided that there is no steel bar (mesh) in the sample. No other
height:diameter ratio is admissible (BS EN 12504-1:2000) for a specification written
in terms of cube strength. No adjustment for core orientation is permitted.
The Works Tests for strength (Clause SC30) follow the same approach as for Site
Trials, with the exception that cores are taken from the Works, not from panels.
233
In this way, the difference between Site Trials and Works Tests are minimised to
the following effects:
<
Workmanship in the Site Trials is within a testing rather than a production envi-
ronment.
<
Spraying in Site Trials is into vertical panels, rather than onto a sidewall in a tunnel
for the Works Tests.
<
Curing conditions for the first 24 hours, ie prior to coring and storage under
standard conditions.
These effects are indicated to be insignificant in relation to the overall accuracy
of testing. Therefore, it is assumed, for the purpose of the Specification, that the
minimum requirements for in situ cube strength from Site Trials should be the same
as for Works Tests (Table SC12).
The performance requirements for strength (Table SC12) have been arrived at by
the following approaches:
A Derive the target mean cube strength for standard cubes from the char-
acteristic cube strength by applying a factor of 1.25 and apply a factor
of 0.85 to the target mean cube strength for standard cubes, to give the
required mean in situ cube strength.
B Apply a factor of 0.85 to the characteristic cube strength to give the
characteristic in situ cube strength, and for the purpose of compliance
criteria add 5 MPa to the characteristic in situ cube strength to give the
required mean in situ cube strength.
The above approaches are consistent with factors proposed in the EFNARC (1996)
Specification and recent research for the revision to Concrete Society CSTR 11,
which indicates that the factor between in situ strength and strength of standard
cured specimens to be much nearer unity than previously indicated in CSTR 11
(Conquest Technical Briefing, October 2003). The factor of 0.85 and the margin
of 5 MPa are consistent with Draft EN 13791 of February 2002. The factor of 1.25
between characteristic strength and target mean strength reflects the likelihood of
lower current margins following the introduction of BS 8500.
Early strength values (Table SC12) are based on Austrian Concrete Society (1997).
They should be reviewed and adjusted if required for particular projects. The
specification of early strength gain is important in order to ensure that the proposed
234
accelerator does not exhibit a period of dormant strength gain in the first 24 hours
after application.
The results are summarised in the following tables.
Approach A (all 28-day strengths, MPa)
Sprayed Concrete
Type S1
Sprayed Concrete
Type P2
Sprayed Concrete
Type P3
BS 8500 strength class 25 / 30 20 / 25 16 / 20
Characteristic cylinder strength 25 20 16
Characteristic cube strength 30 25 20
Target mean cube strength 37.50 31.25 25
Mean in situ cube strength 31.88 26.56 21.25
Approach B (all 28-day strengths, MPa)
Sprayed Concrete
Type S1
Sprayed Concrete
Type P2
Sprayed Concrete
Type P3
BS 8500 strength class 25 / 30 20 / 25 16 / 20
Characteristic cylinder strength 25 20 16
Characteristic cube strength 30 25 20
Characteristic in situ cube strength 25.5 21.25 17.00
Mean in situ cube strength 30.5 26.25 22.00
Specified performance requirements (Table SC12)
Sprayed Concrete
Type S1
Sprayed Concrete
Type P2
Sprayed Concrete
Type P3
Mean in situ cube strength 31 26 22
Flexural strength for the compressive strength grades specified can be calculated
from the values given in EFNARC Specification (1996) using a best-fit power law:
F
S
= 0.691 C
Cyl

0.502
R
2
= 0.9989
235
Sprayed Concrete
Type S1
Sprayed Concrete
Type P2
Sprayed Concrete
Type P3
BS 8500 strength class 25 / 30 20 / 25 16 / 20
Characteristic cylinder strength 25 20 16
Characteristic cube strength 30 25 20
Flexural strength 3.4 3.1
Notes on steel fibre content
Table SC13 requires a minimum content of steel fibre of 40 kg / m
3
. This requirement
should be maintained unless there are specific design requirements for flexural
toughness, or specific proposals are put forward by contractors, supported by
appropriate test data.
Guidance on likely allowable fibre contents for fibre of varying aspect ratios is
given in the following table (aspect ratio is the length of the fibre divided by its
diameter):
Aspect ratio 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Min. dosage (kg / m
3
) 65 50 40 35 30 25 25
Notes on strength loss
Strength loss assessment is now based on a comparison of cubes from the base
mix against cores from panels during Site Trials. This loss is intended to establish
the decrease in strength due to use of accelerators. However, interpretation is
complicated by the fact that there is adjustment of the core to cube strengths, and
also the target mean strength of the base mix includes a high margin consistent
with the development stage of the mix. This additional requirement for the Site Trials
arising from the 25 % max. loss will provide an additional margin to reduce failure
of the Works Tests.
The use of mortar cubes for assessment of strength loss is no longer adopted as
these are typically based on standard mortar mixes. Clauses SC42, SC43 and
SC44 are therefore shown as not used.
236
Sprayed
Concrete
Type S1
Sprayed
Concrete
Type P2
Sprayed
Concrete
Type P3
BS 8500 strength class 25 / 30 20 / 25 16 / 20
Target mean cube strength of base mix,
Clause SC21(1)
30x1.25+12=49.5 25x1.25+12=43.5 25x1.25=37.0
Minimum mean in situ cube strength
in Site Trials, assuming base mix gives
target mean strength to achieve 25%
max. loss, Clause SC08(6)
37.0 32.5 28.0
Target in situ cube strength for Works
Test, Table SC12
31.0 26.0 22.0
The Specification in draft form has been reviewed and commented on by industry
practitioners.
References
Asche HR and Bernard ES, Shotcrete Design and Specification for the Cross
City Tunnel, Sydney, in Shotcrete: More Engineering Developments, ed Bernard,
Taylor and Francis, London 2004.
Bernard ES, Design Performance Requirements for Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete
using ASTM C-1550, in Shotcrete: More Engineering Developments, ed Bernard,
Taylor and Francis, London 2004.
UK Concrete Society Test Report No. 11 (including Addendum,1987) Concrete
Core Testing for Strength.
UK Concrete Society Test Report No. 11 (Conquest Technical Briefing, October
2003).
UK Concrete Society Technical Report Guidance for the Design of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (final draft, 2006).
European Federation of Producers and Applicators of Specialist Products for
Structures (EFNARC) Specification, 1996.
Austrian Concrete Society, 1997 (Shotcrete Guidelines).
237
General
SC01 General
(1) The terms and Standards used in this Specification are defined in the
Annexes located at the end.
(2) The materials and workmanship for sprayed concrete shall be in
accordance with the Materials and Workmanship Specification for
Concrete except where amended by the following clauses.
238
Base Concrete
SC02 Cement
(1) In addition to the following particular requirements cement shall comply
with BS EN 197-1.
(a) Portland cement shall be CEM I, strength class 42.5 or strength class
52.5 and which shall comply with the following requirements:
Strength Class 42.5
Compressive strength values when tested in accordance with BS
EN 196-1:
- 2 days: not less than 10 MPa
- 28 days: not less than 42.5 MPa and not more than 62.5 MPa
Strength Class 52.5
Controlled fineness of not less than 350 m
2
/ kg and not more than 450
m
2
/ kg.
Compressive strength values when tested in accordance with BS
EN 196-1:
- 2 days: not less than 20 MPa
- 28 days: not less than 52.5 MPa and not more than 72.5 MPa
(b) Initial setting time shall be not less than 60 minutes for strength class
42.5 and not less than 45 minutes for strength class 52.5 when tested
in accordance with BS EN 196-3.
(c) Bleeding: The volume of expelled water shall not be more than 20 cm
3

when measured in accordance with Clause SC40.
(d) The temperature of the cement at the time of use in the mixing plant shall
not be higher than 50C.
(2) Pulverised fuel-ash for use as a cementitious component shall comply
with BS 3892-1.
(3) The Contractor shall demonstrate compatibility of the cement with pro-
posed accelerating admixtures by means of site trials to the approval of
the Engineer, with particular reference to the use of non-caustic, alkali
free accelerators, but also for all other admixture types proposed for
use.
239
SC03 Silica Fume (Latent Hydraulic Binder)
1) Silica Fume is a latent hydraulic binder which shall comply with the
following requirements:
(a) Silica Fume / Dry Powder (Undensified)
- Bulk density not exceeding 650 kg / m
3
- Silica content shall be not less than 85 %
- Particle size shall be between 0.1 and 0.2 microns
- Fineness: specific surface area shall not be less than 15 000 m
2
/ kg
- Activity index > 95 % after 28 days
- Moisture content < 3 %
(b) Silica Fume / Water Slurry
- pH shall be 5.5 1.0
- Water content shall be 50 % 2 %
- Relative density shall be between 1.3 and 1.4.
(c) Testing to establish compliance with (a) and (b) above shall be carried
out on a monthly basis.
(d) Storage and handling: Silica Fume / Water slurry shall be regularly agita-
ted by circulation pumps prior to use.
(e) The compatibility of silica fume and liquid admixtures shall be estab-
lished by either:
- verification of existing test data or experience, or
- carrying out appropriate accelerated testing procedures to the
approval of the Engineer.
(f) The optimum content of silica fume shall be determined during site trials
and comply with Clause SC13.
SC04 Aggregates
(1) In addition to the requirements of this Specification, aggregates for
sprayed concrete shall comply with BS EN 12620 as indicated below.
(2) The nominal maximum particle size shall be 8 mm unless approved
otherwise by the Engineer.
240
(3) The Los Angeles coefficient determined in accordance with BS EN
1097-2, Clause 5 shall not exceed 35.
(4) The magnesium sulphate soundness value determined in accordance
with BS EN 1367-2 shall not exceed 18.
(5) The water absorption of the aggregate determined in accordance with
BS EN 1097-6 shall not exceed 3 %.
(6) The drying shrinkage of the aggregate determined in accordance with
BS EN 1367-4 shall not exceed 0.075 %.
Grading Limits for Sprayed Concrete Aggregates:
Sieve Size Percentage Passing (%)
Acceptable Range Target Range
Dry Mix Sprayed Concrete
020 microns 1.2 % 1.2 %
63 microns 03 03
125 microns 311 59
250 microns 719 915
500 microns 1229 1824
1 mm 2242 2936
2 mm 3757 4552
4 mm 5974 6471
8 mm 90100 100
16 mm 100 100
Wet Mix Sprayed Concrete
020 microns 1.2 % N/A
63 microns 03 N/A
125 microns 616 N/A
250 microns 1733 N/A
500 microns 2554 N/A
1 mm 3974 N/A
2 mm 5588 N/A
4 mm 73100 N/A
8 mm 90100 N/A
16 mm 100 N/A
241
(7) Single size aggregates shall be combined in the proportions determined
during the site trials. The individual fractions shall be stored separately.
(8) Coarse and fine aggregates shall be free from earth, clay loam and soft
clayey, shaley or decomposed stone, organic matter, friable particles
and other impurities and shall be hard and dense. The grading shall be
within the acceptable range and wherever possible within the target
range according to the gradings given in this Clause for dry mix sprayed
concrete and for wet mix sprayed concrete.
(9) The fines content determined in accordance with BS EN 933-1 shall not
exceed 3 %.
(10) The aggregate shall be tested for reactivity with the cementitious mate-
rials and admixtures (including accelerators) using the ASTM C1260
accelerated mortar bar method.
(11) The grading and moisture content of the individual fractions of the
aggregate shall be checked and recorded daily by the Contractor.
(12) For dry mix sprayed concrete the natural moisture content of the aggre-
gate expressed by dry mass shall be as constant as reasonably practi-
cable and shall be not more than 6 %.
SC05 Water
Water shall comply with BS EN 1008.
SC06 Fibre
(1) Steel fibre shall be deformed steel fibre Type 1, 2 or 3 in accordance
with ASTM A820:96 except that Type 1 fibre may be either circular or
rectangular in section. Fibre shall be produced from mild steel or cold
drawn wire and shall be ungalvanised. See Table SC13 for particular
requirements.
(2) Synthetic fibres shall be of the structural, macro-synthetic type of fibre in
accordance with prEN 14889-1 and of > 0.3 mm diameter. The fibre shall
have a textured surface and be produced from polyolefin or a similar
resin based material. See Table SC13 for particular requirements.
(3) Fibres may be collated with fast-acting water-soluble glue, or may be
uncollated individual fibres. Water-soluble glue or other additives used
242
to collate fibres shall be compatible with other sprayed concrete com-
ponents. The Contractor shall provide written confirmation of this to the
Engineer prior to the commencement of permanent works spraying.
(4) Fibres shall be stored in dry sealed containers until ready for use and
shall be free from corrosion, oil, grease, chlorides and deleterious mate-
rials which may reduce the efficiency of mixing or spraying processes,
or which may reduce the bond between the fibres and the sprayed
concrete. Containers of fibres shall be stored in areas protected from the
weather and extremes of heat.
(5) Steel fibres shall have an aspect ratio in the range of 30 to 150 for
lengths of 12.7 to 63.5 mm. Tolerances shall be in accordance with
ASTM A820:96.
(6) Fibre type shall be selected on the basis of compliance with this
Specification and on suitability and ease of use in the batching, mixing
and spraying processes proposed, as demonstrated by site trials to the
approval of the Engineer. Fibres which tend to form fibre balls during
batching and mixing shall not be used.
243
Admixtures
SC07 General
(1) Admixtures for purposes not covered by the Materials and Workman-
ship Specification for Concrete or this Specification shall not be used
without the written approval of the Engineer.
(2) All admixtures for sprayed concrete shall be sourced from a single
manufacturer. The selection of admixture manufacturer shall be made
prior to the commencement of Site Trials.
(3) The Contractor shall provide full and sufficient documentation to sup-
port the use of all admixtures to the Engineer for approval prior to
commencement of Site Trials. The documentation shall include the
manufacturers product data and details of the equipment and method
for controlling the addition of admixtures to the sprayed concrete.
(4) Confirmation of the following requirements for all admixtures shall be
obtained by the Contractor from the manufacturer and provided to the
Engineer prior to use in the Works:
(a) confirmation that admixtures shall be free of chlorides, meaning that the
percentage of chlorides shall not exceed 0.1 % by weight,
(b) arrangements for ensuring the consistency of supply and delivery of
admixtures to the batching plant,
(c) variations in the characteristic values of the properties of each
admixture,
(d) conditions for storage and handling of admixtures,
(e) confirmation of the stability of admixtures with the mix water,
(f) results of testing as required by this Specification for each type of
admixture.
244
SC08 Accelerators
(1) Only liquid accelerators shall be used.
(2) Water glass (sodium silicate) shall not be used unless in a modified poly-
mer based form approved by the Engineer.
(3) Only the minimum quantity of accelerator necessary shall be permitted
in normal spraying operations. The quantity shall be determined by Site
Trials, subject to maximum dosages of:
Non caustic, alkali-free
accelerators
Caustic
accelerators
Sprayed Concrete Type S1: 10 % 8 %
Sprayed Concrete Type P2: 8 % Not to be used
Sprayed Concrete Type P3: 8 % Not to be used
by weight of cementitious material
(4) Testing of accelerators in accordance with this Specification with regard
to acceleration of setting, early strength, and development of strength
at later ages (28 and 90 days), shall take place in due time before com-
mencement of spraying.
(5) Appropriate testing of the selected type(s) of accelerator shall be carried
out in accordance with this Specification at dosages of 4.0 % and 6.0 %
for non-caustic, alkali free accelerators and 1.0 % and 2.0 % for caustic
accelerators by weight of cementitious material in the base concrete, or
similar dosages as recommended by the manufacturer, to establish the
variability of the above properties with dosage. Accelerators showing
excessive variability with dosage will not be permitted.
(6) Accelerators shall be selected such that, at the dosage chosen for use
in the Works, the decrease in the mean in situ cube strength of any
Sprayed Concrete Type at an age of 28 days, compared with the mean
cube strength of the base concrete without any accelerators, shall be
minimised to the approval of the Engineer and in no case shall exceed
25 %. Also, there shall be progressive increase in strength of the sprayed
concrete mix between 1 and 90 days, in accordance with Table SC12 of
this Specification. Compliance with this clause shall be demonstrated
by Site Trials to the approval of the Engineer.
245
(7) Accelerators delivered to the site shall be tested in accordance with this
Specification not less than once every two months for their reaction
with the cement used, with particular reference to the setting behaviour.
The stability of accelerators during storage shall be visually inspected
at similar intervals. Storage conditions, storage times, storage tem-
peratures, and working temperature ranges shall all be in accordance
with the manufacturers recommendations. The manufacturers safety
instructions shall be observed.
SC09 Plasticisers and Retarders
(1) Plasticisers and retarders shall comply with BS EN 934 and may
be used in Sprayed Concrete Types S1, P2 and P3 in accordance
with the Materials and Workmanship Specification for Concrete, this
Specification, the manufacturers instructions, and subject to the
approval of the Engineer.
(2) Plasticisers and retarders may be used to reduce the quantity of the
mixing water and to improve the pumpability of the concrete. The effects
and optimum dosages of plasticisers and retarders shall be determined
during development of the mix design (Clause SC21) and / or by Site
Trials in accordance with this Specification.
(3) Compatibility of plasticisers and retarders with cements, latent hydraulic
binders and accelerators shall be verified by observation during devel-
opment of the mix design (Clause SC21) and / or in the Site Trials.
SC10 Hydration Control Admixtures
(1) Hydration control admixtures may be used in Sprayed Concrete Types
S1, P2 and P3 in accordance with this Specification and subject to the
approval of the Engineer.
(2) Hydration control admixtures may be used to control the hydration of the
mix as appropriate to expedite construction of the Works. The effects
and optimum dosages of hydration control admixtures shall be deter-
mined by Site Trials in accordance with this Specification. Hydration
control admixtures shall not cause a decrease in strength with age other
than provided for in Clause SC08(6).
246
(3) Compatibility of hydration control admixtures with cements, latent
hydraulic binders and accelerators shall be verified by observation in
the Site Trials.
(4) Hydration control admixtures shall be used in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions. Particular care shall be taken to ensure
adequate mixing when used in the dry mix process.
247
Particular Requirements
SC11 Equipment
Sprayed concrete may be applied by either the wet mix or dry mix pro-
cess subject to the requirements of Clause SC15.
SC12 Performance Requirements
The performance requirements are shown in Table SC12.
SC13 Particular Mix Requirements
Mix designs in accordance with Clause SC21 shall comply with the par-
ticular mix requirements shown in Table SC13.
SC14 Other Particular Requirements
(1) Sprayed concrete shall be capable of being applied in layers between
100 to 150 mm in thickness with good adhesion to the ground or pre-
vious layers of sprayed concrete without sagging or slumping.
(2) Sprayed concrete shall be dense and homogeneous without segrega-
tion of aggregate and / or fibre or other visible imperfections.
(3) Sprayed Concrete Type P2 shall not develop plastic shrinkage or dry-
ing shrinkage cracks of a width greater than 0.2 mm. This shall be
determined by appropriate inspection and measurement techniques
to the approval of the Engineer undertaken in sprayed areas great-
er than 10 m x 10 m applied in the Works in accordance with this
Specification.
248
Table SC12: Performance Requirements for Sprayed Concrete
Parameter Test Method or
Clause No
Sprayed
Concrete S1
Sprayed
Concrete P2
Sprayed
Concrete P3
Minimum Mean
In Situ Cube Strength
++
Site Trials at 1 hour
at 4 hours
at 6 hours
at12 hours
at 1 day
at 7 days *
at 28 days
at 90 days
Work Tests at 1 hour
at 4 hours
at 6 hours
at 12 hours
at 1 day
at 7 days *
at 28 days
at 90 days
++++
Penetration Gun
(Austrian Concrete
Society 1997)

BS EN 12504-
1 : 2000
Penetration Gun
(Austrian Concrete
Society 1997)
BS EN 12504-
1 : 2000
> 0.5 MPa
> 2 MPa
3 MPa
5 MPa
10 MPa
20 MPa
31 MPa
31 MPa
> 0.5 MPa
> 2 MPa
3 MPa
5 MPa
10 MPa
20 MPa
31 MPa
31 MPa
> 0.5 MPa
> 1 MPa
1.5 MPa
3 MPa
5 MPa
10 MPa
26 MPa
26 MPa
> 0.5 MPa
> 1 MPa
1.5 MPa
3 MPa
5 MPa
10 MPa
26 MPa
26 MPa
N/A
N/A
0.5 MPa
1 MPa
2 MPa
N/A
22 MPa
22 MPa
N/A
N/A
0.5 MPa
1 MPa
2 MPa
N/A
22 MPa
22 MPa
Maximum In Situ Cube Strength As above 50 MPa 50 MPa 50 MPa
Flexural Toughness (Round
Determinant Panels, at 28 days)
ASTM C1550 55 J at
3.618 mm
central panel
deflection
+++
15 J at
1.693 mm
central panel
deflection
+++
N/A
Bond Strength to Rock
+
BS EN 14488-4 0.5 MPa 0.5 MPa N/A
Durability / Permeability Test
(Maximum Penetration)
Clause SC46 N/A 30 mm N/A
Dry Density
(all tests 28 days)
ASTM
C642:97
2 275 kg / m
3
2 275 kg / m
3
2 275 kg/m
3
Boiled Absorption
(all tests 7 days)
ASTM
C642:97
max. 9 % max. 8 % N/A
Voids Volume
(all tests 7 days)
ASTM
C642:97
max. 19 % max. 17 % N/A
Chloride Content Class BS 8500-2 Cl 0.4 Cl 0.2 Cl 1.0
Setting time initial set
final set
BS EN 196-3 Dependent on accelerator type, see Clause SC41
Legends Table SC12:
* = Tests used for indicative purposes only.
+
= Where the rock type affords no bond after proper cleaning, and to the satisfaction of the Engineer in terms of
the design concept, this requirement shall not apply.
249
++
= The required minimum values of mean in situ cube strength require that testing shall be on drilled cores in
accordance with Clauses SC22(6)(a) and (b) or Clause SC30(1), ie 1:1 height : diameter ratio. No other
height : diameter ratio shall be used. See also Clause SC22(12) or Clause SC30(5).
+++
= Type S1 criterion is approximately equivalent to EFNARC (1996) normal Deformation Class and Residual
Strength Class 2. Type P2 criterion is approximately equivalent to EFNARC (1996) low Deformation Class and
Residual Strength Class 1, and assumes that this sprayed concrete is not used as temporary support. Other
criterion for Type S1 may be proposed for approval by the Engineer if required by exposed or anticipated site
conditions.
++++
= Strength tests at 90 days in Works Tests are only required if hydration control admixtures are used.
Table SC13: Particular Mix Requirements
Parameter
Sprayed
Concrete S1
Sprayed
Concrete P2
Sprayed
Concrete P3
Cementitious Material
CEM I, 42.5 or 52.5
CEM II / AV
CIIAV
CEM I, 42.5 or 52.5
CEM II / AV
CIIAV
CEM I, 42.5 or 52.5
CEM II / AV
CIIAV
Minimum Cementitious
Content
+
400 kg / m
3
400 kg / m
3
400 kg / m
3
Maximum Water*:Cemen-
titious Content Ratio**
0.50 0.45 0.42
Accelerator Type Non-caustic, alkali free or
Caustic (subject to the
approval of the Engineer)
Non-caustic, alkali free Non-caustic, alkali free
Silica Fume Content 510 %
(48 % when used with
CEM II / A-V or CIIA-V)
510 %
(48 % when used with
CEM II/A-V or CIIA-V)
510 %
(48 % when used with
CEM II / A-V or CIIA-V)
Steel Fibre:
Minimum tensile strength
Minimum length
Maximum length
Minimum content
+
800 MPa
25 mm
50 mm
40 kg / m
3
800 MPa
25 mm
50 mm
40 kg / m
3
N / A
N / A
N / A
N / A
Macro-synthetic Fibre:
Minimum tensile strength
500 MPa Not permissible N / A
Legends Table SC13:
+
= In the Works.
* = Water shall include the liquid content of liquid admixtures.
** = The importance of water:cement ratio should be noted and must be minimised to achieve durability in Sprayed
Concrete Types P2 and P3; alkali-free accelerators are mandatory for these Sprayed Concrete Types (Clause
SC08 (3) and this Table), and higher final strengths than the specified minimums (Table SC12) are to be expect-
ed with alkali-free accelerators due to the reduced strength loss with these materials.
250
Equipment
SC15 General
(1) Only wet mix process equipment shall be used for Sprayed Concrete
Types P2 and P3. Wet mix or dry mix process equipment may be used
for Sprayed Concrete Type S1.
(2) All equipment used for batching and mixing of materials and the appli-
cation of all types of sprayed concrete shall be of designs approved by
the Engineer and shall be maintained in proper working order for the
duration of excavation and lining works. Full details of all equipment to
be used shall be provided to the Engineer at least 4 weeks prior to com-
mencement of Site Trials. The spraying machine and ancillary equip-
ment shall be of an adequate capacity for the volumes to be applied,
and shall be manufactured from suitable materials compatible with
the proposed accelerators and additives. A stand-by spraying system
of plant and ancillary equipment shall be available for the duration of
excavation operations. Air for the equipment is to be clean, dry and oil
free and to be provided at the equipment at not less than the operating
pressure and volume rates specified by the manufacturer.
(3) Spraying equipment shall be capable of feeding materials at a regular
rate and ejecting sprayed concrete from the nozzle at velocities that will
allow adherence of the materials to the surface being sprayed with a
minimum of rebound and maximum adhesion and density.
(4) Equipment shall be leakproof with respect to all materials.
(5) Equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned at least once per shift, or at
other appropriate intervals if hydration control admixtures are used, to
prevent accumulations of residual deposits and / or deterioration due to
the accelerators used.
(6) Transport pipes consisting of hoses or pipes shall be laid straight or in
gentle curves. The transport pipes shall have a uniform diameter appro-
priate to the mix and fibre characteristics determined by site trials, and
be free of any dents or kinks between the spraying machine and the
nozzle.
251
(7) Equipment shall allow application of sprayed concrete to all surfaces
with the nozzle at the distances from the surfaces to be sprayed in
accordance with this Specification.
(8) Working areas for spraying shall be well illuminated to the approval of
the Engineer. Cap lamps attached to safety helmets will not be accepted
as sufficient illumination. Dust pollution shall be minimised by choice of
appropriate equipment and by means of additional ventilation, water
sprays, and by maintaining equipment in good order. Protective clo-
thing and dust masks shall be provided for and used by all spraying
operators and supervisors.
SC16 Wet Mix Process
(1) Equipment for the wet mix process shall be set up according to the
recommendations of the manufacturer.
(2) Pumping equipment shall ensure the continuous conveyance of base
concrete with minimal pulsation.
(3) The equipment shall allow for air and water in any combination to be
available for preparation of surfaces and / or cleaning of finished work in
accordance with this Specification.
SC17 Dry Mix Process
(1) Equipment for the dry mix process (see Clause SC15) shall be set up
according to the recommendations of the manufacturer.
(2) Equipment for the dry mix process shall be of a design that minimises
the production of dust. This shall be demonstrated by site trials to the
satisfaction of the Engineer.
(3) The nozzle shall be capable of allowing full and continuous control of the
quantity of water to be added as well as ensuring effective mixing of all
sprayed concrete ingredients.
SC18 Automatic Dosing
(1) Dosing of admixtures by hand is not permitted.
(2) Each machine provided for the wet mix process shall incorporate:
252
(a) a memory programmable control system to coordinate and control all
functions of the machine including the dosing of all admixtures. The
system shall be capable of printing out comprehensive records of all
dosing quantities and concrete throughput;
(b) an integrated proportioning unit to dispense admixtures at the required
dosages as controlled by the throughput of concrete; the equipment
shall be capable of delivering admixtures such that the approved dos-
ages are dispensed to an accuracy of 0.5 % of the required dosage,
and shall be calibrated and operated in accordance with the manufac-
turers instructions.
(3) Equipment provided for the dry mix process (see Clauses SC15(1),
SC17) shall incorporate integrated proportioning pumps to dispense
liquid admixtures into the water supply to an accuracy of 1 % of the
required dosage, and shall be calibrated and operated in accordance
with the manufacturers instructions.
SC19 Remote Controlled Spraying
(1) As far as practicable all sprayed concrete shall be applied using remote
controlled spraying equipment appropriate to particular applications.
Hand spraying of wet mix sprayed concrete shall not be permitted other
than in special circumstances requiring the approval of the Engineer.
(2) Remote controlled spraying equipment shall be provided with as long
reach as possible and allow the operator to observe the nozzle at all
times during spraying from a position of safety and provide the operator
with full and effective control of the nozzle articulation and other func-
tions.
(3) The equipment shall be used, cleaned and maintained in accordance
with the manufacturers instructions.
253
Acceptance Testing and Site Trials
SC20 General
(1) The following clauses shall be read in conjunction with the requirements
of Clause SC23 relating to Proficiency of Operatives.
(2) Site trials shall be started sufficiently early to ensure that the required
sprayed concrete mixes are developed and all trials completed satis-
factorily by the time spraying of each Sprayed Concrete Type com-
mences in the Works. Spraying of any Sprayed Concrete Type shall not
commence until the relevant trials and results of laboratory tests have
been completed to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
(3) The site trials shall employ the equipment which will be used in the
Works and the constituent materials shall be fully representative of those
to be used in the Works.
SC21 Development of Mix Design
(1) The mix design for each type of sprayed concrete to be used shall be
developed by the Contractor in two stages:
(a) production of a suitable base concrete;
(b) production of sprayed concrete from the base concrete.
(2) The target mean strength at 28 days for the base concrete shall be
1.25 times the characteristic cube strength at 28 days for the sprayed
concrete (as defined in Annex A), plus a margin of 12 MPa applied to the
resulting figure.
SC22 Site Trials
(1) For each type of sprayed concrete to be used a trial mix shall be
designed by the Contractor and prepared with the constituent materials
in the proportions proposed for use in the Works. Sampling and testing
procedures shall be in accordance with BS 1881, BS EN 12504-1:2000
and BS EN 14488-1. A clean dry mixer shall be used and the first batch
discarded.
254
(2) From the trial mix an experienced nozzleman shall prepare sufficient test
panels. Panels for coring and / or for the preparation of beams shall be
at least 1000 x 1000 mm in size and shall be 200 mm thick. The panels
shall be prepared by spraying into rigidly supported vertical moulds.
Moulds shall be constructed of steel or other non-water absorbing rigid
materials. The upper and lower edges of the mould shall have parallel
sides splayed outwards at 45 degrees to the back face to prevent the
entrapment of rebound. The vertical edges of the mould shall have
parallel sides at 90 degrees to the back face to facilitate coring perpen-
dicular to the spray direction. Round panels for flexural toughness test-
ing shall be 800 10 mm diameter and 75 15 mm thick, and prepared
by spraying into rigidly supported vertical moulds in accordance with
ASTM C1550. In all cases, the sprayed concrete in panels shall adhere
well to the backform, be properly compacted and exhibit no sagging.
(3) Target consistence values shall be determined for the wet mix proc-
ess.
(4) All panels shall be protected immediately against moisture loss using
the same method to be used in construction (Clause SC28), shall not
be moved for 18 hours after spraying, and shall be stored without distur-
bance until the time of coring, sawing, or testing. Cores for 1, 7, 28 and
90 day compressive strength tests shall be obtained from the panels
at 1 day. The cores for 7, 28 and 90 day strength tests shall be stored
in water in accordance with BS EN 12390-1. Round panels for flexural
toughness testing shall be stored in water in accordance with BS EN
12390-1.
(5) Cores for Permeability Tests shall be obtained at 1 day and shall be
wrapped in plastic sheeting that is impermeable to water and water
vapour for storage until time of testing at 28 days.
(6) Cylindrical test specimens shall be cored from each test panel and
tested as listed below. Drilling of test specimens shall be in accord-
ance with BS EN 14488-1, BS EN 12504-1:2000 and Concrete Society
Technical Report No. 11 (including Addendum (1987)). Drilling of cores
shall be located to avoid areas of possible rebound. No two cores to be
tested at the same age shall come from the same panel. For each test
at least one spare specimen shall be provided. The testing requirements
and core dimensions shall be:
255
(a) compressive strength in spray direction after 1, 28 and 90 days on
4 cores each. The prepared test cores shall be 100 mm diameter and
100 mm long;
(b) compressive strength perpendicular to spray direction after 1, 7, 28 and
90 days on 4 cores each. The prepared test cores, to be taken from dif-
ferent panels, shall be 100 mm diameter and 100 mm long;
(c) the water permeability in the spray direction on 3 cores taken after
28 days in accordance with Clause SC46. The prepared test cores, to
be taken from different panels, shall be 150 mm diameter and 120 mm
long.
(7) From each trial mix an experienced nozzleman shall prepare a test
area(s) of sprayed concrete applied onto rock for the purpose of bond
strength testing. The location of such areas shall be agreed or directed
by the Engineer.
(8) Each cored cylinder, beam, or round panel shall be marked with an
appropriate reference mark and the date and time of spraying.
(9) Testing shall be in accordance with the following Methods:
Test Method
Compressive Strength BS EN 12504-1:2000
Permeability Clause SC46
Flexural Toughness (Round Panels) ASTM C1550
Bond strength Clause SC47
(10) Setting times shall be observed during the trials in accordance with BS
EN 196-3:1995.
(11) Optimum fibre content shall be determined dependent on ease of use
in the batching, mixing, and spraying processes proposed, and from
the results of the tests to determine flexural toughness by the testing of
round panels (where specified).
(12) The compressive strength of sprayed concrete cores from test
panels shall be acceptable if both the compressive strength results
for samples with their axes parallel to the direction of spraying
256
and the compressive strength results for samples with their axes
perpendicular to the direction of spraying, comply with the minimum
performance requirements set out in Table SC12.
One test result shall consist of the mean of three core strengths.
(Seven day results shall be used for indicative purposes only).
The mean compressive strength of cores in steel fibre reinforced or plain
sprayed concrete shall be deemed to be the mean in situ cube strength
provided that the requirements of Clauses SC22(6)(a) and SC22(6)(b)
are met in terms of core diameter and height : diameter ratio.
(13) The Contractor shall carry out such other tests and trials during the peri-
od of the Site Trials as may be necessary, or instructed by the Engineer,
to confirm that proposed mixes and methods meet the minimum per-
formance requirements and particular mix requirements of Table SC12
and Table SC13 of the Specification.
(14) The Site Trials shall be repeated if the source or qualities of any of the
materials or the mix proportions are required to be changed during the
course of the Works.
SC23 Proficiency of Operatives
Nozzlemen shall have had previous experience in the application of
sprayed concrete, or shall work under the immediate supervision of
the foreman or instructor with such experience. Production sprayed
concrete shall be applied only by nozzlemen who have successfully
demonstrated their competence and their ability to produce either
plain sprayed concrete or SFRS complying in all respects with this
Specification, and by the method to be used, ie hand applied dry mix,
or hand or machine applied wet mix. Nozzlemen shall hold certificates
of competence issued by the Contractor or written evidence of previous
satisfactory work indicating compliance with ACI 506.3R:91, or similar
standards to the approval of the Engineer.
257
Production and Transport
SC24 Batching and Mixing
(1) The individual components for the production of sprayed concrete shall
be measured by weight with an automatic batching device, except that
admixtures may be measured by volume. The batching accuracy shall
be within 3 % for all constituents. Silica fume shall be weighed sepa-
rately. The method of batching used shall ensure that the accuracy can
be easily checked. All measuring equipment shall be maintained in a
clean and serviceable condition and shall be zeroed daily and calibrated
monthly.
(2) Mixing shall be carried out in a mixer suitable for the efficient mixing and
discharge of dry or wet batched materials as appropriate.
(3) Regular checks shall be made to ensure that complete mixing is rou-
tinely achieved. Tests for mix consistency shall be in accordance with
BS EN 12350-5 or similar approved international standard.
(4) The addition of fibres shall be at a stage in the mixing suitable for the
spraying equipment. The procedure for the addition of fibres shall be
determined during the site trials. Fibres shall be added and mixed in a
manner to avoid clumping and bending of the fibres. Any fibre clumps in
the mix shall be diverted and removed by means of a screen placed over
the hopper of the spraying machine. Fibres shall be uniformly distributed
throughout the mortar matrix without isolated concentrations. Fibres
shall not be added to the mix at a rate faster than that at which they can
be blended with the other ingredients without forming balls or clumps.
(5) The mixed base concrete for the wet mix process shall be applied
within one and a half hours. This time may be extended by the use of re-
tarders, plasticisers or hydration control admixtures as provided for in,
and used in accordance with, this Specification.
(6) The mixing time for the dry mix process shall be sufficient to produce
complete mixing and shall be at least 1 minute. The mixture shall be
delivered by means of appropriate equipment and segregation shall be
avoided.
258
(7) Mixed materials for the dry method may be used up to one and a half
hours after the addition of cement provided that the sprayed concrete
can be applied satisfactorily. Any unused material after this time shall
be discarded. This period may be extended by the use of hydration
control admixtures as provided for in, and used in accordance with, this
Specification.
SC25 Transport
(1) For sprayed concrete produced by the dry mix process, the dry mixture
may be transported by truck mixers or non-agitating containers. The
dry mixture shall be effectively protected against any influence of the
weather.
(2) For sprayed concrete produced by the wet mix process the base con-
crete shall be transported by truck mixers and / or concrete pumps.
Transport in skips, or similar containers leading to segregation or pos-
sible loss or gain of water shall not be permitted. Remixing of material
shall only be carried out with the approval of the Engineer. The mixture
shall be effectively protected against any influence of the weather.
259
Application
SC26 Sprayed Concrete Application
(1) Sprayed concrete shall not be applied to any rock or existing sprayed
concrete surface without the prior approval of the Engineer which shall
be in writing. The Contractor shall give an agreed period of notice to the
Engineer in writing of his intentions to apply sprayed concrete except for
reasons of safety of the Works in which case the circumstances shall be
reported to the Engineer without delay.
(2) Before the application of sprayed concrete, checking and correction
of the excavated cross section profile shall be carried out and rock
surfaces and / or existing sprayed concrete shall be cleaned with com-
pressed air and, as far as the local conditions permit, with an air-water
mixture as necessary to remove all material which may prevent proper
adhesion of the sprayed concrete to the surface. The surface to receive
sprayed concrete shall be damp, but without free water prior to the
application of sprayed concrete. Treatment with an air-water mixture
to ensure that the surface is sufficiently clean and damp shall be done
shortly before the application of sprayed concrete.
(3) Action shall be taken to control groundwater and prevent it adversely
affecting the sprayed concrete lining. Adopted measures shall be to
the approval of the Engineer and remain effective for at least 28 days.
Water inflows which might cause deterioration of the sprayed concrete,
or prevent adherence, shall be diverted as detailed on the Drawings, or
otherwise proposed by the Contractor, by channels, chases, pipes or
other appropriate means, to the invert or to the groundwater drainage
system.
(4) Sprayed concrete shall only be applied by a nozzleman certified in accord-
ance with Clause SC23. The distance between the nozzle and the surface
to be sprayed shall not exceed 1.5 m with the wet mix process and 2.0 m
with the dry mix process. The nozzle shall, as a general rule, be held
perpendicular to the application surface except as necessary to ensure
proper embedment of steelwork such as lattice girders where shown on
the Drawings or otherwise directed.
260
(5) Depending on the required final thickness the application of SFRS may
be undertaken in two or more phases to minimise rebound, the first
phase being a 50 mm layer.
(6) Each layer of sprayed concrete shall be built up by making several pass-
es of the nozzle over the working area using good working practices
and nozzle manipulation. The sprayed concrete shall emerge from the
nozzle in a steady uninterrupted flow. Should the flow become intermit-
tent for any cause the nozzleman shall direct it away from the work until
it again becomes constant.
(7) Where a layer of sprayed concrete is to be covered by succeeding
layers, it shall first be allowed to set and loose material and rebound shall
be removed. The surface shall be checked for soundness, repaired as
specified, finally cleaned, and wetted using a blast of air and water.
(8) No rebound material shall be covered with sprayed concrete. All rebound
material shall be removed from the working area and shall not be used
in the Works. Disposal of rebound shall be in accordance with the
Contract and with proper regard to the risks of environmental pollution
by both the cementitious materials and / or the admixtures.
(9) For vertical and near vertical surfaces application shall commence at the
bottom. Layer thickness shall be governed mainly by the requirement
that the material shall not sag. Where thick layers are applied the top
surface shall be maintained at a slope of approximately 45 degrees. For
overhead surfaces sprayed concrete shall preferably be applied from
the shoulder to the crown.
(10) Pockets, sags or other defects shall be cut out and resprayed. The area
of respraying shall not be less than 300 mm x 300 mm.
(11) Unless specifically required and appropriate mixes designed, finish-
ing actions, such as trowelling or screeding, shall be avoided and may
require remedial works to be undertaken.
(12) The temperature of the mix before spraying shall not be below 5 C or
above 35 C unless special provisions are made to the approval of the
Engineer. Spraying shall not be undertaken when the ambient tempera-
ture is below 5 C.
261
(13) Sprayed concrete shall not be applied in the Works until the correct set-
ting characteristics are observed during the start-up and a continuous
concrete stream is ejecting from the nozzle.
SC27 Thickness and Profile Control
(1) Where specified on the Drawings the minimum layer thickness shall be
controlled by proprietary fluorescent plastic thickness control markers
pushed into an initial sprayed concrete coating. Thickness control mark-
ers shall be used at a frequency of at least one marker per 2 m
2
sprayed
area and shall in general be located at points of maximum protrusion
of the excavated surface into the tunnel void. Where indicated on the
Drawings, thickness control markers shall be removed from sprayed
concrete immediately after spraying to leave open small holes through
the thickness of the sprayed concrete as a permanent pressure relief
provision. Detailed proposals of type, material and method of use of
thickness control markers shall be submitted by the Contractor to the
Engineer for his approval. Where not specified on the Drawings thick-
ness control measures shall be to the approval of the Engineer.
(2) Lattice girders and / or other embedded steelwork shall be embedded
by at least 30 mm of Sprayed Concrete Type S1.
(3) Sprayed Concrete Type S1 (or Types P2 or P3 if appropriate) may follow
the contours of the rock surface with appropriate rounding of edges and
corners, provided that protruding blocks of sound rock still firmly part
of the rock mass have a minimum sprayed concrete cover of 2/3 of the
specified thickness.
(4) The Contractor shall verify the thickness of any sprayed concrete layer
by drilling 25 mm diameter percussion probe holes at any location and at
an agreed time if required to do so by the Engineer. The Contractor shall
provide every necessary facility to the Engineer to allow inspection of the
probe holes. Inspection holes may be left open subject to the approval
of the Engineer and unless shown otherwise on the Drawings.
(5) Control of the profile of the tunnel lining as shown on the Drawings shall
be by manual or electronic means to the approval of the Engineer. Laser
based equipment shall comply with all necessary local health and safety
legislation and shall be used in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions.
262
SC28 Curing
(1) Sprayed Concrete Types P2 and P3 shall be properly cured using
methods and materials to the approval of the Engineer in order to limit
cracking due to plastic shrinkage, early thermal contraction and long
term drying shrinkage, to ensure effective bond between layers of
sprayed concrete by preventing premature surface dehydration and
to ensure consistent strength development. The use of internal curing
compounds shall be subject to the requirements of Clause SC07.
(2) If sprayed curing agents are proposed where a further layer of sprayed
concrete is to be applied, site trials of the bond between layers as agreed
with the Engineer shall be carried out using the approved mixes and
methods of working before such agents shall be used in the Works.
(3) Curing shall be effective within 20 minutes of completion of each spray-
ing operation. Wet curing shall be for a minimum period of 7 days.
(4) Sprayed Concrete Type S1 need not be subject to special curing meas-
ures unless the sprayed concrete is to be covered by additional layers
of any type and / or, in the opinion of the Engineer, the results of Works
Tests indicate that the requirements of this Specification are not being
consistently achieved, in which cases the sprayed concrete shall be
cured as for Types P2 and P3.
263
Works Tests
SC29 General
(1) Tests shall be carried out on a routine basis on cores or other samples
taken from sprayed concrete placed in the Works. Only for certain spe-
cific tests as indicated in the following clauses shall panels or beams be
prepared for test purposes.
(2) Concrete mix control shall be carried out in accordance with the
Materials and Workmanship Specification for Concrete and Clauses
SC39 to SC47 Test Methods.
(3) Specimens shall be tested in accordance with the following clauses.
The tests shall be carried out using the following methods:
Test Test method
Compressive Strength BS EN 12504-1:2000
Flexural Toughness ASTM C1550
(Round panels, SFRS only)
Bond Clause SC47 ( BS EN 14488-4)
Durability/Permeability Clause SC46
Dry Density ASTM C642:97
Boiled Absorption ASTM C642:97
Voids Volume ASTM C642:97
Fibre Content (SFRS only) Clause SC35 (BS EN 14488-7)
Fibre (SFRS only) Clause SC45
Consistence (SFRS only) BS EN 12350-2
(4) The frequency of carrying out each test for mix control shall be in
accordance with the Materials and Workmanship Specification for
Concrete and for carrying out of tests on specimens taken from sprayed
concrete placed in the Works as given in the following clauses of this
Specification.
(5) The dimensions of test specimens shall be as specified in Clauses SC20
to SC23 (Acceptance Testing and Site Trials).
264
(6) The location of specimens to be taken from the Works shall be pro-
posed by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer. Test results will
not be acceptable unless this clause is complied with fully.
(7) Where the nominal required sprayed concrete thickness is less than
100 mm the cores for compressive strength or other testing requir-
ing specimens longer than 100 mm shall be taken from areas where
the actual thickness is greater than 100 mm. Alternatively, additional
sprayed concrete thickness shall be applied in selected areas proposed
by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer for subsequent coring
of test specimens.
SC30 Compressive Strength Test
(1) Compressive strength tests shall be carried out on prepared test cores
measuring 100 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length taken from
sprayed concrete in the Works in accordance with BS EN 14488-1,
BS EN 12504-1:2000 and Concrete Society Technical Report No. 11
(including Addendum (1987)). The time of coring shall be as close as
possible to 24 hours after placing. Cores required for 28 day strength
tests and 90 day strength tests (where required) shall be obtained at the
same time as those for 1 and / or 7 day tests and stored in the laboratory
in accordance with BS EN 12390-2.
(2) The frequency of coring shall be such as to obtain 3 cores each for
1 day and 7 day strength for Sprayed Concrete Type S1, and 28 day and
90 day strength tests (where required) for all sprayed concrete, for every
100 m
3
of each Sprayed Concrete Type applied in the Works. Depending
on the compliance of test results with this Specification, circumstances
of application and importance of construction, the frequency may be
reduced to every 200 m
3
or increased to every 50 m
3
as approved or
directed by the Engineer. The cores shall be cored through the whole
thickness of the sprayed concrete and visually inspected to verify that
the sprayed concrete is dense and homogeneous without segregation
of aggregate and / or fibre or other visible imperfections.
(3) Tests for 1 day strength shall be carried out at 24 hours 2 hours and
for 7 day, 28 day and 90 day strength (where required) in accordance
with BS EN 12390-2.
265
(4) Instead of testing cores taken from sprayed concrete placed in the
Works, indirect test methods to the approval of the Engineer may be
used to determine the 1 day strength of Sprayed Concrete Type S1,
but shall not be used for testing of any other Sprayed Concrete Type.
Results of indirect tests shall be correlated to the 1 day in situ cube com-
pressive strengths to the satisfaction of the Engineer during Site Trials.
(5) The strength of sprayed concrete measured by cores taken from the
Works (or by indirect test methods in accordance with Clause SC30(4))
shall be acceptable if the compressive strength results comply with the
minimum performance requirements set out in Table SC12.
One test result shall consist of the mean of three core strengths.

Seven day results shall be used for indicative purposes only.

The mean compressive strength of cores in steel fibre reinforced or plain
sprayed concrete shall be deemed to be the mean in situ cube strength
provided that the requirements of Clause SC30(1) are met in terms of
core diameter and height:diameter ratio.
SC31 Flexural Toughness Tests
(1) Tests to determine flexural toughness by the testing of round panels
shall be carried out in accordance with ASTM C1550.
(2) Panels shall be clearly marked to identify the time, date and location of
spraying. Panels shall not be moved for 18 hours after spraying. Panels
shall be cured and protected as approved by the Engineer.
(3) Frequency of round panel testing shall be one test (meaning the results
of tests on 3 panels from the same sprayed concrete batch) for each
150 m
3
of each type of SFRS placed in the Works, unless otherwise
approved or directed by the Engineer.
(4) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if the results from round panel
toughness testing are derived in accordance with ASTM C1550 and the
results from at least 2 out of 3 panels tested for each test exceed the
minimum requirements of this Specification.
266
SC32 Bond Tests
(1) The frequency of bond testing shall be one test (meaning the average
of tests on 6 specimens from the same general area of the Works as
approved by the Engineer) for each 500 m
3
of each type of sprayed
concrete applied directly to rock surfaces, unless otherwise approved
or directed by the Engineer.
(2) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if the results for one test exceed
the minimum requirements of this Specification and at least five out of
the six individual values exceed 50 % of the specified minimum require-
ment.
SC33 Durability / Permeability Tests
(1) The frequency of durability / permeability tests shall be one test (mean-
ing the average of tests at 28 days on 3 cores taken from sprayed
concrete in the same general area of the Works as approved by the
Engineer) for each 500 m
3
of Sprayed Concrete Type P2 applied in the
Works, unless otherwise approved or directed by the Engineer.
(2) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if the average results for one test
are less than the specified maximum depth of water penetration and no
individual result exceeds 50 mm depth of penetration.
SC34 Dry Density, Boiled Absorption and Voids Volume
(1) Dry density, boiled absorption and voids volume shall be determined for
sprayed concrete sampled from the Works. Material sampled for other
purposes may be used subject to the approval of the Engineer.
(2) The frequency of testing shall be one of each type of test (meaning the
average of tests on 3 specimens taken from 7 or 28 days old sprayed
concrete as required in the same general area of the Works as approved
by the Engineer) for each 200 m
3
of Sprayed Concrete Type S1 or P2
applied in the Works, unless otherwise approved or directed by the
Engineer.
(3) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if the average results for each test
comply with the specified requirements.
267
SC35 Fibre Content
(1) Evaluation of fibre content shall be carried out on a 5 kg specimen of
fresh SFRS carefully sampled intact from the Works immediately after
spraying. The volume of the specimen shall be determined in accord-
ance with BS EN 14488-7. Fibre shall then be washed out of the sample
and collected, dried and weighed. The weight of fibre shall be related to
the volume of the sample in terms of kg / m
3
.
(2) The frequency of testing for fibre content shall be one test (meaning the
average of tests on 3 specimens) for each 200 m
3
of SFRS applied in the
Works, unless otherwise approved or directed by the Engineer.
(3) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if the average results for one test
exceed the specified minimum requirements and no individual result is
less than the specified minimum by more than 20 %.
SC36 Testing of Steel Fibre
(1) At least one tensile test, consisting of 10 randomly selected finished
fibres, shall be performed for each 4.5 tonnes of material supplied or
each shipment if less than 4.5 tonnes. The average value of tensile
strength in these tests shall not be less than the specified minimum. The
tensile strength of any one of the ten specimens shall not be less than
720 MPa.
(2) Bending tests of fibre shall be in accordance with ASTM A820 : 96.
(3) Rejection and retest requirements shall be in accordance with ASTM
A820 : 96.
SC37 Consistence
(1) The consistence of Sprayed Concrete Types S1 and P2 shall be meas-
ured by the Flow Table test to BS EN 12350-5 after the addition of fibre
and plasticiser to the required dosages.
(2) Samples shall be tested for at least every 50 m
3
produced.
(3) Sprayed concrete shall be acceptable if consistence is within the range
approved by the Engineer as a result of the Site Trials.
268
SC38 Failure to Comply
(1) Should the results of any Works Tests not comply with the acceptance
criteria set out in the foregoing clauses of this Specification, the results
and test procedures shall first be checked and confirmed. The Engineer
shall, if necessary, require that additional tests be carried out by the
Contractor to determine the extent of the non-compliance and / or new
mix proportions or methods determined to avoid further such failures.
(2) If the Engineer considers that the indicated non-compliance(s) may
reduce unacceptably the long term stability or serviceability of the Works
and are detrimental to the effectiveness of the Works, the Contractor
shall, as instructed by the Engineer, either:
(a) remove the defective sprayed concrete in strips or panels in such a way
that the safety of the Works and persons is not endangered, and replace
with sprayed concrete that is acceptable; or:
(b) apply an additional layer of sprayed concrete not exceeding the thick-
ness originally required and to be determined by the nature of the non-
compliance.
269
Test Methods
SC39 General
Tests required by this Specification shall be carried out using methods
which shall be in accordance with the specified standard(s) unless
specified otherwise in the following clauses.
SC40 Bleeding of Cement
(1) The method for determining the extent of bleeding of cement shall be as
follows:
(a) pour exactly 98 g of water with a temperature of 20 C into a 250 ml glass
beaker with a small magnetic stirring rod. At medium stirring rate add
115 g of cement steadily within a period of 20 seconds. Stir the mixture
for 2 minutes until an homogeneous, relatively thin cement paste (water:
cement ratio = 0.85) has been achieved;
(b) transfer the homogenised mass into a 100 ml measuring cylinder up to
the 100 ml index mark by means of a glass rod (do not pour directly into
cylinder). The measuring cylinder shall be placed in a high glass beaker
filled with water maintained at 20 2 C during the entire period of test-
ing;
(c) after 120 minutes the amount of cement that has settled shall be read
from the scale, ie the amount of supernatant water may be determined.
The reading in millilitres corresponds to the percentage by volume of
expelled water.
SC41 Testing of Accelerators Setting Times of Cement Paste
(1) The dosage of accelerator (as the percentage by weight of cementitious
content required to provide the initial and final setting times of a cement
paste as set out in this Clause) shall be determined in accordance with
BS EN 196-3 and the following procedure. Alternative test procedures
to suit the proposed accelerators and cement types may be proposed
for approval by the Engineer.
(2) The laboratory in which the specimens are prepared and tested shall
be maintained at a temperature of 20 2 C and the relative humidity
above 65 %.
270
(3) The cement paste shall be mixed under the fume hood as follows:
(i) weigh 300 g of cement to the nearest 1 g;
(ii) weigh 90 to 105 g of water in the rubber cup;
(iii) add 1 g of superplasticiser into the rubber cup and mix with
water;
(iv) add cement carefully into the rubber cup to avoid loss of cement
or water in 5 to 10 seconds, and mix vigorously by hand for
15 seconds with a wooden spatula;
(v) start the mixer immediately and run for 1 minute;
(vi) stop the mixer, add the set accelerating admixture and mix effi-
ciently by hand for 15 to 20 seconds with a wooden spatula;
(vii) the time of addition of the set accelerating admixture is the zero
time from which later measurements of time shall be made.
(4) The mould shall be filled as follows:
(i) transfer the paste immediately to the mould and fill it to excess
without undue compaction or vibration;
(ii) remove the excess by a gentle sawing motion in such a way as
to leave the mortar filling the mould and having a smooth sur-
face.
(5) The Vicat device shall first be calibrated, and the setting time deter-
mined as follows:
(i) transfer the mould and base plate to the Vicat device and posi-
tion it centrally under the Vicat needle;
(ii) lower the needle gently until it is in contact with the paste;
(iii) pause in that position for 1 to 2 seconds, before allowing the
needle to penetrate vertically into the paste;
(iv) record the scale reading when penetration has ceased, together
with the time measured from zero;
(v) repeat the penetration operation at other positions and at time
intervals of approximately 30 seconds, cleaning the needle after
each penetration;
(vi) record the time measured from zero at which the distance be-
tween the needle edge and the base plate is 4 1 mm as the
initial setting time;
(vii) record the time measured from zero at which the needle pen-
etrates only 0.5 mm or less as the final setting time.
(6) The results shall be interpreted as follows:
271
(a) Caustic (Aluminate Based) Accelerators
Initial Set < 30 s < 60 s > 60 s
Final Set < 3 min < 4 min > 4 min
Rating good acceptable not acceptable
(b) Non-caustic, Alkali-free Accelerators (Liquid Form)
Initial Set < 3 min < 5 min > 5 min
Final Set < 5 min < 10 min > 10 min
Rating good acceptable not acceptable
(7) In any test, if the initial setting time is outside the acceptable range, or
the final setting time more than the acceptable limit, the test shall be
repeated using a smaller or higher dosage of the accelerator within the
specified maximum dosage.
SC42 Not Used
SC43 Not Used
SC44 Not Used
SC45 Testing of Steel Fibre
Tests on steel fibre shall be in accordance with ASTM A820: 96 except
that the cross sectional area used to compute the tensile strength shall
be carried out to four decimal places, in units of square millimetres, and
shall be:
(i) for drawn wire fibres, the area calculated from the actual diam-
eter of the parent source material or finished fibres;
(ii) for cut sheet fibres, the area calculated from the actual thickness
and width of the parent source specimen, or if fibres are tested,
the area of each individual fibre calculated from the measured
length and weight of the fibre, weighed to the nearest 0.0001 g,
based on a density of 7 850 kg / m
3
;
(iii) for melt-extraction fibres, the area calculated from the equivalent
diameter of the fibres, computed from measured average length
and the weight of a known quantity of fibres, based on a density
of 7 850 kg / m
3
.
SC46 Durability / Permeability Test
(1) The Durability / Permeability Test shall take the form of a water penetra-
tion test in accordance with DIN 1048-5 and the following clauses.
272
(2) Three 150 mm diameter cores shall be obtained by rotary diamond
drilling from each Site Trial in accordance with Clauses SC22(5) and
SC22(6) and from the Works Tests in accordance with Clause SC33.
The cores shall be of sufficient length to allow test specimens to be
prepared which shall be 120 mm in length for testing in accordance with
the specified standard.
(3) For each core the following information shall be recorded:
- date of coring;
- core number;
- direction of spray.
SC47 Testing of Bond Strength
(1) Testing of the strength of the bond between sprayed concrete and rock
shall be carried out either by in situ testing or by testing of rock / sprayed
concrete bonded cores in a laboratory.
(2) The apparatus to carry out the tests and detailed test methods shall be
in accordance with BS EN 14488-4.
(3) Tests shall be carried out on cores greater than 60 mm and less than or
equal to 100 mm in diameter. Drilling for in situ testing must penetrate
the rock by at least 15 mm.
(4) Cores taken for laboratory testing shall be cured and protected until the
time of testing.
(5) The rate of loading shall be greater than 1 MPa per minute and less than
3 MPa per minute.
(6) The following information shall be recorded:
- specimen identification, sprayed concrete type and source;
- specimen dimensions;
- age at testing and curing conditions;
- rate of loading and deformation;
- maximum load and calculated bond strength;
- description of failure including the fracture surface.
(7) Tests may be terminated if the calculated bond strength exceeds
1.5 MPa.
273
Annex A
Terms and Definitions
Sprayed Concrete
A mixture of cement, aggregate with a maximum size of 8 mm or greater and water,
which may contain admixtures, projected pneumatically at high velocity from a
nozzle into place to produce a dense homogeneous mass.
Plain Sprayed Concrete
Sprayed concrete unreinforced with either steel mesh, reinforcing bars or fibre.
Steel Fibre Reinforced Sprayed Concrete (SFRS)
Sprayed concrete which has had steel fibres added during batching, mixing or the
application process as appropriate.
Sprayed Concrete Type S1
SFRS which is applied as initial ground support, but is not designed to carry per-
manent loads. The characteristic cube strength of Sprayed Concrete Type S1 at
28 days is 30 MPa.
Sprayed Concrete Type P2
SFRS which is applied as a permanent lining to carry permanent loads. The char-
acteristic cube strength of Sprayed Concrete Type P2 at 28 days is 25 MPa.
Sprayed Concrete Type P3
Plain sprayed concrete which is applied as a smoothing and/or protective layer to
Sprayed Concrete Type S1 or bare rock, or as a surface finish to Sprayed Concrete
Type P2 as required. The characteristic cube strength of Sprayed Concrete Type
P3 at 28 days is 20 MPa.
Dry Mix Process
The process of producing sprayed concrete in which a mixture of cement, aggre-
gate, and admixtures other than accelerators when required, are weigh batched,
thoroughly mixed in a dry condition and fed into a purpose made machine wherein
the mixture is pressurised, metered into a dry air stream and conveyed through
274
hoses or pipes to a nozzle immediately before which water and accelerator, if
necessary, as a spray is introduced into the mix which is projected into place
without interruption.
Wet Mix Process
The process of producing sprayed concrete in which cement, aggregate, and
admixtures other than accelerators, are weigh batched and mixed with water at
or near the spraying location or in mixer trucks prior to being pumped through a
pipeline to a nozzle where compressed air and accelerators are injected and the
mix projected into place without interruption.
Layer
A discrete thickness of sprayed concrete built up from a number of passes of the
nozzle and allowed to set.
Rebound
Material which having passed through a spraying nozzle does not adhere to the
surface to which sprayed concrete is being applied.
Base Concrete
Concrete of a particular design intended for use in sprayed concrete, but which is
produced without accelerators and/or hydration control admixtures.
Admixtures
Materials added to base concrete such as accelerators and hydration control
admixtures.
[Note that silica fume, plasticisers and retarders may be included in Base Concrete
if proposed to be used in the Works sprayed concrete].
Cement
An active hydraulic binder formed by grinding clinker and complying with BS EN
197-1.
[Cement and cementitious content exclude the mass of silica fume].
Silica Fume Concrete
Concrete manufactured in the concrete mixer by combining cement complying
with BS EN 197-1 with silica fume.
[Care should be taken in the choice of cementitious materials to ensure that suf-
ficient lime is available for reaction with the silica fume, particularly when sulphate
resistant cement or pulverised fuel-ash is used].
275
Activity Index for Silica Fume
The activity index for silica fume is the ratio (in percent) of the compressive strength
of standard mortar bars, prepared with 90 % cement plus 10 % silica fume by mass,
to the compressive strength of standard mortar bars made from cement only (Ref
Norwegian Standard NS 3045).
Standard Cube Strength
The measured compressive strength of a cube made, cured and tested in accord-
ance with BS EN 12390-1, 12390-2 and 12390-3.
Characteristic Strength at 28 days
The value of the standard cube strength at 28 days below which 5 % of the popula-
tion of all possible strength measurements are expected to fall.
[Characteristic strengths are quoted in the Specification for the purpose of the
development of mix design only, and for the information of design engineers].
In Situ Cube Strength
The notional strength of sprayed concrete at a single location, considered as the
strength of a cube of sprayed concrete as it exists in the structure.
[In situ cube strengths are given in the Specification for the purpose of compliance
requirements].
276
Annex B
Standards
The following is a list of the standards referred to in this Appendix. Generally, the
relevant standards are those which are current 30 days prior to the latest date for
submission of tenders.
The Contractor may propose for the Engineers approval the adoption of alter-
native standards, in which case he shall provide comprehensive details and
explanations with his proposal and copies, in English, of any relevant stand-
ards. The Contractor shall allow for the time necessary for review and ap-
proval of such alternative(s) by the Engineer.
277
BS 1881 Testing Concrete
Part 125: 1986 Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete in the laboratory
Part 131: 1998 Methods for testing cement in a reference concrete
BS 3892 Pulverized-Fuel Ash
Part 1:1997 Specification for pulverized fuel-ash for use with Portland cement
BS 4027: 1996 Specification for Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cement
BS 4550 Methods for Testing Cement
Part 3 Physical tests
Section 3.4: 1978 Strength tests. (Current, Partially Replaced. Replaced by BS EN 196-1:1995, but
remains current as it is quoted in other standards. Partially Replaced by BS 1881-
131:1998).
Section 3.8: 1978 Test for heat of hydration
Part 6: 1978 Standard sand for mortar cubes
BS 8500 Concrete, Complementary British Standard to EN 206-1
BS 8500-2 Chloride Content of Concrete
BS EN 196 Methods of Testing Cement
Part 1:2005 Determination of strength
Part 2:2005 Chemical analysis of cement
Part 3:2005 Determination of setting time and soundness
Part 6:1992 Determination of fineness
Part 7:1992 Methods of taking and preparing samples of cement
Part 21:1992 Determination of the chloride, carbon dioxide and alkali content of cement.
Superseded, Withdrawn by BS EN 196-2:2005
BS EN 197 Cement
Part 1:2000 Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements
BS EN 480 Admixtures for Concrete, Mortar and Grout. Test Methods
Part 1: 1998 Reference concrete and reference mortar for testing
Part 2: 1997 Determination of setting time
Part 4: 1997 Determination of bleeding of concrete
Part 5: 1997 Determination of capillary absorption
Part 6: 1997 Infrared analysis
Part 8: 1997 Determination of the conventional dry material content
Part 10: 1997 Determination of water soluble chloride content
Part 11: 1999 Determination of air void characteristics in hardened concrete
Part 12: 1998 Determination of the alkali content of admixtures
BS EN 932 Tests for General Properties of Aggregates
Part 1: 1997 Methods for sampling
Part 5: 2000 Common equipment and calibration
278
BS EN 933 Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates
Part 1:1997 Determination of particle size distribution. Sieving method
BS EN 934 Admixtures for Concrete, Mortar and Grout
Part 2: 2001 Concrete Admixtures. Definitions, requirements, conformity, marking and labelling
Part 6: 2001 Sampling, conformity control and evaluation of conformity
BS EN 1008:2002 Mixing Water for Concrete. Specification for sampling, testing and assess-
ing the suitability of water, including water recovered from processes in the
concrete industry, as mixing water for concrete
BS EN 1097 Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates
Part 2: 1998 Methods for the determination of resistance to fragmentation
Part 5: 1999 Determination of the water content by drying in a ventilated oven
Part 6: 2000 Determination of particle density and water absorption
Part 8: 2000 Determination of the polished stone value
BS EN 1367 Tests for Thermal and Weathering Properties of Aggregates
Part 2 :1998 Magnesium sulphate test
Part 4: 1998 Determination of drying shrinkage
BS EN 12350 Testing Fresh Concrete
Part 1: 2000 Sampling
Part 2: 2000 Slump test
Part 5 Flow table test
BS EN 12390 Testing Hardened Concrete
Part 1: 2000 Shape, dimensions and other requirements for specimens and moulds
Part 2: 2000 Making and curing specimens for strength tests
Part 3: 2002 Compressive strength of test specimens
Part 4: 2000 Compressive strength. Specification for testing machines
Part 7: 2000 Density of hardened concrete
BS EN 12504 Testing Concrete in Structures
Part 1: 2000 Cored specimens. Taking, examining and testing in compression
BS EN 12620:2002 Aggregates for Concrete
BS EN 14488 Testing Sprayed Concrete
Part 1:2006 Sampling fresh and hardened concrete
Part 4:2006 Bond strength of cores by direct tension
Part 7:2006 Fibre content of fibre reinforced concrete
prEN 14889 Fibres for Concrete
Part 2:2004 Polymer fibres definition, specification and conformity
279
UK Concrete Society Technical Report No 11, including Addendum (1987)
Concrete Core Testing for Strength, May 1976 with Addendum (1987). Out of print
A820 / A820M:04 Standard Specification for Steel Fibers for Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
C94 / C94M:04a Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
C642:97 Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened
Concrete
C1260:05 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-
Bar Method)
C1550:05 Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(Using Centrally Loaded Round Panel)
NS3045 (1992) Silica Fume for Concrete. Definitions and Requirements (Norwegian Council
for Building Standardisation)
ACI 506.3R:91 Guide to Certification of Shotcrete Nozzlemen. Document withdrawn by ACI
DIN 1048 Testing Concrete
Part 5: 1991 Testing of hardened concrete (specimens prepared in mould)
European Specification for Sprayed Concrete (1996)
Publ European Federation of Producers and Applicators of Specialist Products
for Structures (EFNARC). Available from Sprayed Concrete Association, PO Box
111, Aldershot, Hampshire, GU11 1YW, United Kingdom. Fax +44 1252 333901.
Available for download from www.sca.org.uk
Austrian Concrete Society (1997)
Shotcrete Guidelines (for early age strength testing). Publications listed in German
only at www.concrete-austria.com
Grimstad E, Kankes K, Bhasin R, Magnussen AW, and Kaynia A (2002)
Rock Mass Quality Q in Designing Reinforced Ribs of Sprayed Concrete and
Energy Absorption, In 4th International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete, Davos,
Switzerland. Publ Norwegian Concrete Society, Oslo.
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Sprayed Concrete
for Rock Support
Tom Melbye
Director
UGC International
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Headquarters:
UGC International
Division of BASF Construction
Chemicals Europe Ltd
Vulkanstrasse 110
CH - 8048 Zurich
Phone +41-58-958 22 11
Fax +41-58-958 32 46
For your local BASF UGC representative, visit our website at www.ugc.basf.com.