Networking
Networking
SUBMITTED TO:
NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS
ADP3RD(SEMESTER)
Review Questions
Q1.What is the number of bits in an IPv4 address? What is the number of bits in an
IPv6 address?
An IPv4 address is 32 bits long. An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.
Q2.What is dotted decimal notation in IPv4 addressing? What is the number of bytes
in an IPv4 address represented in dotted decimal notation? What is hexadecimal
notation in IPv6 addressing? What is the number of digits in an IPv6 address represented
in hexadecimal notation?
Q3.IPv4 addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot) separating
the bytes. This is called dotted-decimal notation. Each address is 4 bytes.
IPv6 addresses are usually written in hexadecimal form with a colon separating the
bytes. This is called hexadecimal notation. Each address is 16 bytes or 32 hexadecimal
digits.
Q4.What are the differences between classful addressing and classless addressing in IPv4?
Classful addressing assigns an organization a Class A, Class B, or Class C block
of addresses. Classless addressing assigns an organization a block of contiguous
addresses based on its needs.
Q5.List the classes in classful addressing and define the application of each class (unicast,
multicast, broadcast, or reserve).
Classes A, B, and C are used for unicast communication. Class D is for multicast
communication and Class E addresses are reserved for special purposes.
Q6.Explain why most of the addresses in class A are wasted. Explain why a medium-size
or large-size corporation does not want a block of class C addresses.
A block in class A address is too large for almost any organization. This means
most of the addresses in class A are wasted and not used. A block in class C is
probably too small for many organizations.
Q8.What is the network address in a block of addresses? How can we find the network
address if one of the addresses in a block is given?
The network address in a block of addresses is the first address. The mask can be
ANDed with any address in the block to find the network address.
Q9.Briefly define subnetting and supemetting. How do the subnet mask and supemet
mask differ from a default mask in classful addressing?
In subnetting, a large address block could be divide into several contiguous groups
and each group be assigned to smaller networks called subnets. In supernetting,
several small address blocks can be combined to create a larger range of addresses.
The new set of addresses can be assigned to a large network called a supernet. A
subnet mask has more consecutive 1s than the corresponding default mask. A
supernet mask has less consecutive 1s than the corresponding default mask.
Exercises
11. What is the address space in each of the following systems?
a. A system with 8-bit addresses
b. A system with 16-bit addresses
c. A system with 64-bit addresses
A:
a. 28 = 256
b. 216 = 65536
c. 264 = 1.846744737 1019
12. An address space has a total of 1024 addresses. How many bits are needed to represent
an address?
A:
2x = 1024 x = log21024 = 10
13. An address space uses the three symbols 0, 1, and 2 to represent addresses.
If each address is made of 10 symbols, how many addresses are available in this
system?
A:
310 = 59,049
14. Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation.
a. 114.34.2.8
b. 129.14.6.8
c. 208.34.54.12
d. 238.34.2.1
A:
a. 01110010 . 00100010. 00000010. 00001000
b. 10000001 00001110 00000110 00001000
c. 11010000 00100010 00110110 00001100
d. 11101110 00100010 00000010 00000001
15. Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 01111111 11110000 01100111 01111101
b. 10101111 11000000 11111000 00011101
c. 11011111 10110000 00011111 01011101
d. 11101111 11110111 11000111 00011101
A:
a. 127.240.103.125
b. 175.192.240.29
c. 223.176.31.93
d. 239.247.199.29
16. Find the class of the following IP addresses.
a. 208.34.54.12
b. 238.34.2.1
c. 114.34.2.8
d. 129.14.6.8
A:
a. Class C (first byte is between 192 and 223)
b. Class D (first byte is between 224 and 239)
c. Class A (first byte is between 0 and 127)
d. Class B (first byte is between 128 and 191)
17. Find the class of the following IP addresses.
a. 11110111 11110011 10000111 11011101
b. 10101111 11000000 11110000 00011101
c. 11011111 10110000 00011111 01011101
d. 11101111 11110111 11000111 00011101
A:
a. Class E (first four bits are 1s)
b. Class B (first bit is 1 and second bit is 0)
c. Class C (first two bits are 1s and the third bit is 0)
d. Class D (first three bits are 1s and the fourth bit is 0)
18. Find the netid and the hostid of the following IP addresses.
a. 114.34.2.8
b. 132.56.8.6
c. 208.34.54.12
A:
a. netid: 114 hostid: 34.2.8
b. netid: 132.56 hostid: 8.6
c. netid: 208.34.54 hostid: 12
19. In a block of addresses, we know the IP address of one host is 25.34.12.56/16.
What are the first address (network address) and the last address (limited broadcast
address) in this block?
A:
With the information given, the first address is found by ANDing the host address
with the mask 255.255.0.0 (/16).
Host Address: 25 . 34 . 12 . 56
Mask (ANDed): 255 . 255 . 0 . 0
Network Address (First): 25 . 34 . 0 . 0
The last address can be found by ORing the host address with the mask complement
0.0.255.255.
Host Address: 25 . 34 . 12 . 56
Mask Complement (ORed): 0 . 0 . 255 . 255
Last Address: 25 . 34 . 255 . 255
However, we need to mention that this is the largest possible block with 216
addresses. We can have many small blocks as long as the number of addresses
divides this number.
20. In a block of addresses, we know the IP address of one host is 182.44.82.16/26.
What are the first address (network address) and the last address in this block?
A:
With the information given, the first address is found by ANDing the host address
with the mask 255.255.255.192 (/26).
Host Address: 182 . 44 . 82 . 16
Mask (ANDed): 255 . 255 . 255 . 192
Network Address (First): 182 . 44 . 82 . 0
The last address can be found by ORing the host address with the mask complement
0.0.0.63.
Host Address: 182 . 44 . 82 . 16
Mask Complement (ORed): 0 . 0 . 0 . 63
Last Address: 182 . 44 . 82 . 63
However, we need to mention that this is the largest possible block with 26
addresses. We can have several small blocks as long as the number of addresses
divides this number.
21. An organization is granted the block 16.0.0.0/8. The administrator wants to create
500 fixed-length subnets.
a. Find the subnet mask.
b. Find the number of addresses in each subnet.
c. Find the first and last addresses in subnet 1.
d. Find the first and last addresses in subnet 500.
A:
a. log2500 = 8.95 Extra 1s = 9 Possible subnets: 512 Mask: /17 (8+9)
b. 23217 = 215 = 32,768 Addresses per subnet
c. Subnet 1: The first address in the this address is the beginning address of the
block or 16.0.0.0. To find the last address, we need to write 32,767 (one less
than the number of addresses in each subnet) in base 256 (0.0.127.255) and add
it to the first address (in base 256).
0.0.0.7
To: 123 . 56 . 77 . 39
b. The number of address in this block is 23227 = 32. We need to add 31 (one less)
addresses (0.0.0.31 in base 256) to the first address to find the last address.
From: 200 . 17 . 21 . 128
0 . 0 . 0 . 31
To: 200 . 17 . 21 . 159
The number of address in this block is 23223 = 512. We need to add 511 (one
less) addresses (0.0.1.255 in base 256) to the first address to find the last
address.
From: 17 . 34 . 16 . 0
0 . 0 . 1 . 255
To: 17 . 34 . 17 . 255
d. The number of address in this block is 23230 = 4. We need to add 3 (one less)
addresses (0.0.0.3 in base 256) to the first address to find the last address.
From: 180 . 34 . 64 . 64
0.0.0.3
To: 180 . 34 . 64 . 67
26. An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 150.80.0.0/16. The ISP wants
to distribute these blocks to 2600 customers as follows.
a. The first group has 200 medium-size businesses; each needs 128 addresses.
b. The second group has 400 small businesses; each needs 16 addresses.
c. The third group has 2000 households; each needs 4 addresses.
Design the subblocks and give the slash notation for each subblock. Find out how
many addresses are still available after these allocations.
A:
The total number of addresses in this block is 232-16 = 65536. The ISP can divide
this large block in several ways depending on the predicted needs of its customers
in the future. We assume that the future needs follow the present pattern. In other
words, we assume that the ISP will have customers that belong to one of the
present groups. We design four ranges: group 1, group 2, group 3, and one reserved
range of addresses as shown in figure.
Group 1
In the first group, we have 200 businesses. We augment this number to 256 (the
next number after 200 that is a power of 2) to let 56 more customers of this kind
in the future. The total number of addresses is 256 128 = 32768. For this group,
each customer needs 128 addresses. This means the suffix length is log2128 = 7.
The prefix length is then 32 7 = 25. The addresses are:
1st customer: 150.80.0.0/25 to 150.80.0.127/25
2nd customer: 150.80.0.128/25 to 150.80.0.255/25
... ... ...
200th customer: 150.80.99.128/25 to 150.80.99.255/25
Unused addresses 150.80.100.0 to 150.80.127.255
Total Addresses in group 1 = 256 128 = 32768 Used = 200 128 = 25600.
Reserved: 7168, which can be assigned to 56 businesses of this size.
Group 2
In the second group, we have 400 business. We augment this number to 512 (the
next number after 400 that is a power of 2) to let 112 more customer of this kind in
the future. The total number of addresses is = 512 16 = 8192. For this group,
each customer needs 16 addresses. This means the suffix length is 4 log216 = 4.
The prefix length is then 32 4 = 28. The addresses are:
1st customer: 150.80.128.0/28 to 150.80.128.15/28
2nd customer: 150.80.128.16/28 to 150.80.128.31/28
... ... ...
400th customer: 150.80.152.240/28 to 150.80.152.255/28
Unused addresses 150.80.153.0 to 150.80.159.255
Total Addresses in group 2 = 512 16 = 8192 Used = 400 16 = 6400
Reserved: 1792, which can be assigned to 112 businesses of this size.
Group 3
In the third group, we have 2000 households. We augment this number to 2048
(the next number after 2000 that is a power of 2) to let 48 more customer of this
kind in the future. The total number of addresses is = 2048 4 = 8192. For this
group, each customer needs 4 addresses. This means the suffix length is 2 log24 =
2. The prefix length is then 32 2 = 30. The addresses are:
1st customer: 150.80.160.0/30 to 150.80.160.3/30
2nd customer: 150.80.160.4/30 to 150.80.160.7/30
... ... ...
2000th customer: 150.80.191.60/30 to 150.80.191.63/30
Unused addresses 150.80.191.64 to 150.80.191.255
Total Addresses in group 3 = 2048 4 = 8192 Used = 2000 4 = 8000
Reserved: 192, which can be assigned to 48 households.
Reserved Range
In the reserved range, we have 16384 address that are totally unused.
27. An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 120.60.4.0/22. The ISP
wants to distribute these blocks to 100 organizations with each organization
receiving just eight addresses. Design the subblocks and give the slash notation
for each subblock. Find out how many addresses are still available after these
allocations.
A:
The site has 23222 = 210 = 1024 from 120.60.4.0/22 to 120.60.7.255/22 addresses.
One solution would be to divide this block into 128 8-address sub-blocks as shown
in Figure 19.2. The ISP can assign the first 100 sub-blocks to the current customers
and keep the remaining 28 sub-blocks. Of course, this does not mean the future
customer have to use 8-address subblocks. The remaining addresses can later be
divided into different-size sub-blocks (as long as the three restrictions mentioned
in this chapter are followed). Each sub-block has 8 addresses. The mask for each
sub-block is /29 (32 log28). Note that the mask has changed from /22 (for the
whole block) to /29 for each subblock because we have 128 sub-blocks (27 = 128).
Sub-blocks:
1st subnet: 120.60.4.0/29 to 120.60.4.7/29
2nd subnet: 120.60.4.8/29 to 120.60.4.15/29
... ... ...
32nd subnet: 120.60.4.248/29 to 120.60.4.255/29
33rd subnet: 120.60.5.0/29 to 120.60.5.7/29
... ... ...
64th subnet: 120.60.5.248/29 to 120.60.5.255/29
... ... ...
99th subnet: 120.60.7.16/29 to 120.60.7.23/29
100th subnet: 120.60.7.24/29 to 120.60.7.31/29
37. A host has the address 581E: 1456:2314:ABCD:: 1211. If the node identification is
48 bits, find the address of the subnet to which the host is attached.
A:
The node identifier is 0000:0000:1211. Assuming a 32-bit subnet identifier, the
subnet address is 581E:1456:2314:ABCD:0000 where ABCD:0000 is the subnet
identifier.
Research Activities:
Find the block of addresses assigned to your organization or institution.
A:
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved the following three blocks of the
IP address space for private internets:
10.0.0.0
172.16.0.0
192.168.0.0
We will refer to the first block as "24-bit block", the second as "20-bit block", and to the third
as "16-bit" block. Note that (in pre-CIDR notation) the first block is nothing but a single class A
network number, while the second block is a set of 16 contiguous class B network numbers, and
third block is a set of 256 contiguous class C network numbers.
An enterprise that decides to use IP addresses out of the address space defined in this
document can do so without any coordination with IANA or an Internet registry. The address
space can thus be used by many enterprises. Addresses within this private address space will
only be unique within the enterprise, or the set of enterprises which choose to cooperate over
this space so they may communicate with each other in their own private internet.
The address space can thus be used by many enterprises. Addresses within this private address
space will only be unique within the enterprise, or the set of enterprises which choose to
cooperate over this space so they may communication with each in their own private internet.
Some people argue that we can consider the whole address space as one single
block in which each range of addresses is a sub block to this single block. Elaborate
on this idea. What happens to subnetting if we accept this concept?
A:
We can consider the whole address space as single block, but there exits some problems as:
Network becomes too large and complex
Involves limited network
Non centralized network
Complex routing process