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Revision Work for Urban Environments Topic:

Key Questions that you need to be able to answer in this topic:
1. What is urbanisation?
2. What affects the rate of urbanisation and the emergence of mega-cities?
3. What are the problems associated with rapid urbanisation?
4. How and why is urban land use functions divided up?
5. What the reasons for and consequences of segregation between different ethnic or socioeconomic groups? ( case study of land use and socio-economic distribution of one city)
6. Where do you find shanty towns? What are the problems and how can they be improved? (A
case study of shanty town management in a LIC city)
7. How are the edges of HIC cities changing? What is the Greenfield v brown field debate?
8. Where and how do you find areas of deprivation and poverty in HIC cities? (a case study of
an urban area that is changing).
9 What is the role of planners, politicians and developers?

For some good revision notes/videos/animations etc go to:

http://ih-igcse-geography.wikispaces.com/

i
s

1. What is urbanisation?
Info: urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people who live in urban environments.
Over time more and more people have moved into the larger communities, thus making them
bigger still. The first waves of urbanisation came during the industrial revolution in the UK, this
happened due to the opening of factories in urban areas. People migrated from the rural areas
as farm jobs were declining and started to live near the factories (birth of the inner city). Since
then many waves of migration have occurred in cities in HICs, in LIC cities rural to urban
migration has caused them to grow as people search for a better life in the city, but this has led
to shanty towns and many wider issues in these places.

b
r
o
u
g
h
Task: match the definitions of the different movements of people in urban areas:
t
What the term involves
a Term
Urbanisation
The movement of people from the urban area back to rural areas,
b
due to changing factors based on communications, job flexibility,
transportation improvements, crime in cities, families and pollution.
o
Many couples with families find the rural areas better places to bring
u
up children so move out to get away from the problems that can
occur in city areas.
t
Suburbanisation
The movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. This was
w
the first stage of the growth of urban areas. It occurs for many
h
reasons; prospect of better life, more jobs, better pay, more
entertainment etc. In HICs this occurred during periods of rapid
e
economic growth (e.g. industrial revolution in UK) and is occurring
n
now in LICs/MICs as people search for a better quality of life in this
CounterUrbanisation

p
r
o
b
l
e Re-urbanisation
m
s
s
u
c
h

part of the world.

The movement of people from the inner areas to the outer areas of
an urban area. I the UK this happened in 2 waves 1920s (post WW2)
and 1960s (baby boom). These areas are characterised by tree lined
planned streets, semi detached houses, gardens, garages and
purpose built shopping areas. This process has caused large urban
sprawls to occur across the world as these areas take up much more
land (land is cheaper the further you move away from the centre)
than the inner areas do for housing.
The movement of people back to the inner urban areas after they
have been redeveloped. This normally occurs after an inner urban
area has declined due to global economic changes and the
government decides on a policy of improvement (like a UDC London
Docklands) to try to address the social, economic and environmental
decline.

Causes of Urbanisation:
Task: list and number the causes of urbanisation and then add them to the Venn diagram
below.
List:

HIC

Both

LIC

2. What affects the rate of urbanisation and the emergence

of mega-cities?
Info: Businesses settle in cities because the infrastructure of transport, services, labour and so
on while people go there for improved job prospects, better schools and health facilities etc. We
have got an idea of why, but have yet to tackle what affects how fast it happens.
Reasons for changing rates of urbanisation:
Task: look at the reasons below and explain how they can have an impact on the rate of
urbanisation and what effect this will be
Reasons
Effect (higher or lower
Explanation
rate of urbanisation)
Government
Policies

Population
Growth in
rural areas
Rise of
industrialisati
on

Rural
Problems

Any others:
What are mega cities and why have they occurred:
Megacities = a city with over 10million people living in it. Only 60 years ago there were only 3.
Rapidly increasing population, mechanisation of agriculture, industry moving from HICs to MICs
and LICs and many other factors have caused these massive urban monsters to increase in
number and spread all over the world.
Task: Mark on the map the 5 largest mega-cities?

Task: Which continent has the most?

Task: Look at the 20 biggest Megacities, are most in HICs or in LICs/MICs?
Task: Explain the reasons for your answer on the previous page

3. What are the problems associated with rapid

urbanisation?
Info: rapid urbanisation brings with it numerous problems, mainly stemming from the lack of
available land and the lack of time /ability of the urban areas government to plan for these
problems before they happen. They are therefore then left to deal with the impacts of the
problems rather than the causes or they just allow the problems to get bigger and more city
wide before they are forced to deal with them.
Task: what terms could you replace the ? with?

Task: Describe the problems and explain how each is caused from the diagram
Term
Description of problem
Why it occurs?
Congestion
Crime
Education
Sanitation
Employmen
t
Transport
Housing
Health
Environmen
tal Quality
Task: what policies can you think of to cope with the problems of rapid urbanisation?

4. How and why is urban land use functions divided up?

(HICs)
Info: in order for us to understand
the issues that occur in urban
areas the areas of the urban areas
have been classified into different
zones of similar land use. Land
Use is the technical term for how
the land I used and each land use
has a function or purpose. This
allows us to look at how they
develop, change and what
problems occur in them. This
urban morphology is linked to the
growth of cities as the zones came
out of the need to try to leave
problems behind in other area.
Initially land use zones were
based on Bid Rent theory that

states that land rent value

decreases the further you get
away from the urban centre,
however further classification
using transport networks and
physical features (like river, hills
and weather patterns) has
developed the study of Urban
Morphology further. However as
more detailed ideas and points
are taken into account the models
become ever more over detailed.

Description:

Models:

Burgess:
Based on a study of land-use in Chicago.
Burgess suggests that cities grow outwards
from the CBD in a series of concentric rings of
land-use. The oldest part of the city is at the
centre & the newest part on the edge. The
quality and size of housing increases with
distance from the CBD and the density
decreases, although the height of buildings
tends to be greatest close to the Central Area,
where land-values are high and space is at a
premium.
Hoyt:
Hoyt's model modified that of Burgess
following the development of public transport.
His model, also known as the Sector Model,
suggests that transport and physical features
were important, with industrial areas
developing outwards in sectors along main
transport routes (roads, rivers and canals) and
housing growing up around these.
Task: what are the positive and negative points of the models?

5. What the reasons for and consequences of segregation

between different ethnic or socio-economic groups?
(Case study of land use and socio-economic distribution of
one city MANCHESTER)
Info:
The poor quality housing is all grouped together near to the town centre (in the inner city) close
to where the industry used to be and the people that lived in these houses used to work. The
further the housing is from the centre, the better quality of the housing and better kept the
area appears to be. It would be fair to assume that the people living further out are better paid
than those living toward the centre as the rents/purchase price for the houses are undoubtedly
higher. Therefore the poor usually cluster together in the inner city in order to be close to work
and close to the services in the CBD.
NB: The poor of any area are of all races and not just of a particular group. However many

ethnic minorities suffer from integration issues and discrimination that makes them struggle to
obtain the social and economic status that their skills should allow them to do in their new
country.
Causes of Socio-Economic and Ethnic segregation:
New immigrants and poor locals normally locate towards the centre of cities in HICs for the
following reasons:
Historical reasons, the inner city in many UK cities was designed to deal with the new
migrants from the rural areas that came for jobs and did not have much money.
Cheaper housing
Being close to place of work
Close to CBD, shops and other services
Easy to traveller around if you dont own a car (public transport)
Creation of small, hopefully very strong communities of like-minded people.
Abundance of lower price rent-able accommodation (many cannot afford to buy from
the start).
Unfair private housing policies (subtle discrimination high rent upfront, savings in the
bank, income levels etc.).
However wealthier members of the community locate in the outer areas of cities and rural
areas due to:
Low land cost, means they can buy bigger plot of land and have gardens etc.
They are more privately mobile (cars) so they can get around and do not have to be so
close to work (commuters).
They can afford to live in the more affluent areas (most people will want to, but only
some can).
They will prefer to be in quieter and safer areas to bring up their children.
A lot of out of town retailing has been developed in the rural urban fringe, this means
that some of the bigger and better shops are located on the edge of town (big
supermarkets etc.)
Many new businesses have been developed in business parks on the edge of town,
many of the workers will be from the affluent groups living there as well.
Improved access to communication networks like the internet allows many to work from
home, so the need to be close to work decreases.
Schools and other services are normally of a higher quality in the outer cities areas, this
is on no part due to a perception that they are (e.g. for schools: more parents want their
kids to go there, the school gets more money, improves facilities, attracts better
teachers etc.)
Consequences of the segregation of Socio-Economic & Ethnic Groups:
The reasons above mean that urban areas are divided along ethnic and socio-economic lines,
this has many consequences for the urban area.
Task: explain the major consequences of the division
Consequence
Why it is a problem?

Case study: Manchester UK

CBD
Beyond the inner ring
road
Rusholm - low class, inner city
residential area
Fallowfield inner suburbs
medium class housing

Didsbury outer suburbs

high class housing

Withington suburbs
medium to high class
housing

Task: Add the correct names to the table below

Distance from CBD

Tall buildings occupied by commercial business

Redevelopment area on older industrial land eg. University and
hospital built
Terraces houses opening onto the street
Crowded
Cars parked on street
Small or no garden
Poor environmental quality
High crime rate
Still some on-street terraces but they are of better quality and many
terraces have a small front garden.
There are some more modern semi-detached houses here too.
This area looks considerably better kept.
A few detached houses, more modern semis and some more
individual designs
More green space and higher environmental quality
Expensive housing
Large gardens mainly detached homes
Task Describe what each graph tells you about socio economic segregation and ethnicity
in MANCHESTER:

Why does ethic segregation occur in MANCHESTER?

New immigrants usually are looking for cheap housing near where the work is. In addition, they
would feel uncomfortable being the only ethnic minority person in a locality, especially if their
language skills are not not good. They might also feel threatened as they are not sure of their
welcome and could be concerned about racial attacks. For these reasons, they tend to choose a place
to live among or close to a communitiy with a where there ethnic group is well represented.

They need lots of help to settle in and members of their own community who have been there some
time will (a) know what most of the questions are and (b) worked out many of the answers. In
addition, where there is already a concentration of one ethnic group, there will be services set up,
either by the voluntary sector or by the social services and education department, to help with
particular issues. So there are distinct advantages to living close to those who share your language,
history and beliefs.
However, if there is a large influx into an area of one particular ethnic group, then people of
other groups tend to move away. As others move out, more of that ethnic group take up the
vacated properties. Whole streets may become areas where the first language, for example, is not
English but some dialect of the Indian sub continent or in the case of China Town, Chinese. This
leads to segregation by the exclusion of those not familiar with the language and customs of that
group. This, in turn, leads to anxiety and suspicion in the other ethnic groups and in the broader
population. This builds up the racial tension and can lead to racial incidents and to political
movements such as the National Front gaining a toe hold in the surrounding areas. Race riots have
taken place.
These ethnic conclaves form in the worst kind of housing area, with the lowest expectations. By
staying in what amounts to a ghetto, the immigrant women often never learn to speak English,
which means they and their families do not have the opportunity to integrate into the broader
society and cannot take the opportunities available to move to different areas, which may offer
better facilities.
POSITIVES Cultural diversity - Internationally, China Towns form in many western cities and are seen by the
population at large as something to celebrate and enjoy visiting, almost as tourists with their
brightly decorated shops, interesting smells and a whole variety of experiences. Eg. Curry mile in
Manchester
Consequences of the segregation
Task: Summarise potential impacts of the segregation of ethnic and socio-economic migrants?
Describe the impact

Why this will happen?

Positiv
e
Impact
s
Negati
ve
impact
s

Task: Cross out incorrect word

In conclusion: the further you are from the city centre

the better/worse the quality of housing there is

the higher/lower the income

The less/more members of the ethnic groups are found

C:\6.5+Reasons+for+and+consequences+of+segregation++between+groups6. Where do

you find shanty towns? What are the problems and how can
they be improved? (A case study of shanty town
management in a LIC/MIC city)
Info: one of the biggest problems in urban areas in LICs/MICs is the Shanty town problem.
Shantytowns (also called slums, squatter settlements camps, favelas), are settlements (usually
illegal or at best unauthorized) of poor who live in improvised dwellings made from scrap
materialsoften plywood, corrugated metal, and sheets of plastic. Shanty towns, which are
usually built on the periphery (edge) of cities, often do not have proper sanitation, electricity,
or telephone services. Older shanty towns may be found closer to the centre of the city, as the
city may have grown round them as it has expanded over the years.
Where are things in urban areas in LICs/MICs? (the Urban Model for LICs)

LIC/MIC Urban Model:

Task: Describe the LIC/MIC Urban Model

Task: explain the reasons for the patterns in the LIC/MIC model

Task: look back at the burgess and Hoyt models and note down the similarities and differences
between the models:
Similarities:
Differences:

Some examples of classic Shanty town housing/streets:

Task: describe the houses and the conditions you can see in the photos.

The results of rapid urbanisation

Inadequate housing and services. 40% live in shanty towns or favelas

The shanty town services are non-existent or incapable of maintaining a basic standard
of living. The lack of basic services like a clean water supply, rubbish collection and
sewerage disposal mean that the risks of disease are very high. In storms sewers block
and flood.
Shortage of affordable formal housing.
The shanty town is likely to be found on inappropriate land. Maybe it is prone to
flooding or is very steeply sloping, increasing the chances of a landslip. It could be on a
piece of land that has been badly polluted by a neighbouring industry. The shelters
made of wood and high population densities increase the risk of fire
Because the growth is so rapid, the government does not have enough money to
maintain the existing facilities, let alone improve them
Increasing levels of pollution. Pollution of air, land and water is a major problem.
Laws to protect the environment are either non-existent or rarely enforced. The back
street workshops of the informal economy add to the problem
Increased volume of traffic on poorly maintained roads
The informal economy employs over half the citys workforce. This is partly due to
these people lacking the education but partly to the lack of jobs

Case Study of a Shanty town: Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya

FACTS & INFORMATION ABOUT KIBERA

There are approx 2.5 million slum dwellers in about 200 settlements in Nairobi representing
60% of the Nairobi population, occupying just 6% of the land. Kibera houses almost 1 Million of
these people. Kibera is the biggest slum in Africa and one of the biggest in the world.
Land Ownership
The Government owns all the land. 10% of people are shack owners and many of these people
own many other shacks and sub-let them. All the rest are tenants with no rights.
Housing
The average size of shack in this area is 12ft x 12ft built with mud walls, screened with
concrete, a corrugated tin roof, dirt or concrete floor. The cost is about Ksh 700 per Month (6).
These shacks often house up to 8 or more, many sleeping on the floor.
The population
All the people are African. The original settlers were the Nubian people from the
Kenyan/Sudanese border they now occupy about 15% of Kibera, are mostly Muslim and are
also mostly shack owners. The other shack owners are mostly Kikuyu (the majority tribe in
Nairobi) although in most cases they do not live there but are absentee landlords. The
majority of the tenants are Luo, Luhya and some Kamba these people are from the west of
Kenya. There are many tensions in Kibera, particularly tribal tensions between the Luo &
Kikuyu, but also between landlord and tenant and those with and without jobs.
Electricity
Only about 20% of Kibera has electricity. UN-Habitat is in the process of providing it to some
parts of Kibera this will include street lighting, security lighting and connection to shacks (this
costs Ksch 900 per shack, which in most cases is not affordable).
Water
Until recently Kibera had no water and it had to be collected from the Nairobi dam. The dam
water is not clean and causes typhoid and cholera. Now there are two mains water pipes into
Kibera, one from the municipal council and one from the World Bank. Residents collect water at
Ksh 3 per 20 litres.
Sewage
In most of Kibera there are no toilet facilities. One latrine (hole in the ground) is shared by up to
50 shacks. Once full, young boys are employed to empty they take the contents to the river.
UN-Habitat and a few other agencies are trying to help and improve this situation but it is
painfully slow.
Medical facilities and HIV/AIDS Clinics
In Kibera there are no government clinics or hospitals. The providers are the charitable
organisations: AMREF, MSF, churches plus some others. They do a great job. All people are
encouraged to have a free HIV test and if positive to take free generic ARV medicine.
Unemployment

Kibera is near the industrial area of Nairobi where up to 50% of the available workforce are
employed (usually in fairly unskilled jobs). However, there is still an unemployment rate of
50%.
Solving the problems
Task: Complete the table
Solution

Describe the
solution

Good points

Bad points

Which
problems will it
fix?

Self help housing

Government built
housing

Building of a
paved road with
drains linking
Kibera to CBD

Pee-poo project

Building recycling
centres by NGOs

Task: Answer the following 9 mark question:

Using a case study of your choice, describe the causes of the problems in the city and
explain how people have tried to overcome these problems. (9)
Answer:

7. How are the edges of HIC cities changing? Greenfield v

Brownfield debate
Info: Brownfield sites are abandoned, idled, or under-used industrial and commercial facilities
where expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived environmental
contaminations (EPA, 2000). Brownfield sites are almost always found in inner city urban
areas, particularly near highways, railroads and low income areas of a city. A Greenfield is any
section of land that has not had any previous type of development on site. Greenfield sites are
almost always found in suburban or rural areas. Sections of land include but are not limited to
undeveloped farmlands and woodlands. There are many positive and negative factors for the
use of each for further urban development.
Task: List the things you find on the edge a city in HICs

Task: Sort the statements into the advantages and disadvantages of Green field and
Brownfield sites
Water, energy, construction labour, and
waste disposal generally cost less in
suburban areas.

There are few tax incentives to redevelop

urban Brownfield sites; suburban cities
and offer tax breaks to promote
companies

Little to no environmental problems with

suburban Greenfield sites, less or no
liability due to unused site

Increased use of public transport will

reduce vehicle use which then lessens the
impact of air quality, energy consumption,
farming, etc.

Because there is no environmental

liabilities banks are more willing to grant
loans to develop Greenfield sites

Infrastructure already exists in these

areas, costs to build new often exceed
repairing; underused or abandoned
infrastructure is a huge loss in money.

Greenfield developments allow for a great

deal more parking than inner city
businesses can ever dream of.

Perceived presence of environmental

contamination due to previous usage of
the land

Lower need for Greenfield development,

and the damage to rural environments
and the destruction of habitats.

Reduce urban sprawl; mean less

Greenfields sites have to be used.

Increase local revenue with more people

living and shopping in the old inner area

Old land that has been used can be

expensive to clean up due to pollution
and damage.

Creating jobs in declining inner city areas

that would have suffered from the loss of
industry when it declined.

Greenfield sites are almost always

unoccupied parcels of land. Companies
are often free to build as big as they
desire.

Rejuvenate urban areas that may have

suffered from a migration of jobs, money
and skills to the outer areas.

What are the effects of Urban Sprawl?

Urban sprawl has been a result of Greenfield development. Inner cities have since been
neglected because of the advantages of Greenfield development. People moving to the
suburbs have pushed businesses to follow causing inner cities to diminish. Inner city
population has declined, schools have been negatively affected, and industrial sites have been
abandoned. Urban areas begin to have what is called a dead heart

Task: describe the potential impacts of the dead heart to an urban area

Task: Explain why you think it has happened

8. Where and how do you find areas of deprivation and

poverty (rundown) in HIC cities?
Info: although they are considered the wealthiest cities in the world, HIC cities have areas of
underprivileged and poor communities. These people are often unable to access the wealth
and services that the rich can and often considered an underclass. This problem has not just
appeared overnight the original inhabitants of the old inner cities lived in terribly squalid
conditions during the 19th and 20th centuries and even though many things were done to solve
these problems many of them still remain in cities all over HICs. They are especially prevalent
in areas that have suffered a decline in the traditional industry of the area, e.g. the areas in the
UK that used to have coal, iron and steel industries.
Urban deprivation issues:

Ways

Social; housing, amenities, facilities and education/skills

Economic; jobs, money, business and wealth
Environmental; quality of local environment.
to measure urban deprivation:
Income per capita
Literacy rate and educational attainment
Employment and economic activity in an area
Net migration in the area
House price levels
Crime figures

Case Study of an urban area that is changing in a

HIC Manchester, UK
Description of Manchester BEFORE redevelopment
Manchester was once the centre of British industry.
Cotton trade was important - factories around the centre of the city and also
along the canal. Raw materials were bought in by canal.

As the workers needed to be close to their work lots of densely packed

terraced housing was built near the factories
WW2 over 70% of the old inner city was destroyed by German bombs.
Large tower blocks were built to replace these houses. These tower blocks also
had problems as they attracted crime and become run down. They were
knocked down in the 1980s-90s
What did the inner city of Manchester look like before redevelopment?
Docks were closed
There were large areas of waste ground some due to war damage and others
due to the loss of Victorian factories.
Many of the small rows of terraces were boarded up and unused.
Empty buildings were a target for vandalism, squatting and spray paint. It was
all very decayed. Those who could afford to move out did, leaving the
unemployed and those on low wages.
Crime rates were high.
The number of old or single parent families and immigrants was well above
average.
Redevelopment

Many of the redundant factories and storehouses along the canal were
cleared to make way for redevelopment.
Main shopping streets in the CBD were pedestrianised.
Inside shopping centres were developed.
Where the old narrow streets remained, one-ways systems altered the
flow of traffic.
Out-of-town shopping centres were built Trafford centre
Commonwealth games held in Manchester in 2002 created
redevelopment for example the new stadium was built where Manchester
City (soccer team) now play

Major redevelopment projects in Manchester

Picadilly station got a new pedestrianised bridge to make it safer to cross
the busy road
Metro system new tram system to improve public transport. Also less air
pollution as they run on electric cables
Canal street old warehouses turned into new apartments with restaurants.
Lit up at night t reduce crime. Planted vegetation to improve environmental
quality
Docks derelict and unused dock area turned into Salford Quays. This is a
major centre for finance, art including a theatre, housing, outlet mall and
restaurants. Linked to CBD using the metro system big attraction for tourists.
Task

Describe the docks before redevelopment

Describe the dock after redevelopment

9 What is the role of Urban Managers (planners, politicians

and developers)?
Info: urban managers are those people who have the main decision in what happens where in
cities. They are made up of Government (national and local), Urban Planners (people who judge
the best needs/schemes in particular urban areas) and the Developers (the companies that will
be building the scheme for private or public bodies). The interaction between them is very
important as if any of them make mistakes it will impact on the whole project and could
jeopardise the success of the project.
Roles of Urban Managers
Task: Use the terms to describe each of the roles the three play in urban planning issues:
Planners:
Politicians:

Developers:
Case Study of role of Urban Managers: Manchester redevelopment
Mixture of public and private funding this means that the government and local business
pay for the development
The Urban Development Corporation was set up in Manchester in 1987. The UDC was
funded by public and private funds. The UDC planned the redevelopment in Manchester.

70 million pounds was given to Manchester by the UK government and the Manchester local
council to pay for redevelopment for the Commonwealth games.
Developers had to work closely with urban planners to make sure of the following:

Different types of housing were included in the redevelopment so its not just rich people
who can afford to live here.
The environment includes open spaces such as parks and greenery
Crime is reduced by making the area safe at night with lighting.
Lots of opportunities for local businesses by including areas for shops and restaurants
Area is accessible from different parts of the city by road and public transport

Case study style question:

Using a named area in a HIC, describe the role played by planners and urban
managers in redevelopment. (9)

Glossary:
Brownfield site: Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use.
Commonly found in urban areas, particularly in the inner city.
Ethnic group: A group of people sharing the same characteristics of race, nationality,
language or religion.
Greenfield site: A plot of land in a rural area that has not yet been subject to any
development.
Inner city: That part of the built-up area and close to the CBD, often characterised by old
housing, poor services and brownfield sites.
Mega-city: A city with a population exceeding 10 million.
Rural Urban fringe: the end of the urban area where it meets the rural areas.
Shanty town: An area of makeshift and unsanitary housing, often occupied by squatters (no
legal right to occupy).
Socio-economic group: A group of people distinguished by employment, income and social
characteristics such as education and family status.
Social deprivation: The degree to which an individual or an area is deprived of services,
decent housing, adequate income and local employment.
Urbanisation: The process of becoming more urban, mainly through more and more people
living in towns and cities.
Urban regeneration: The revival of old parts of the built-up area by either installing modern
facilities in old buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment
Urban Sprawl: where urban areas expand into the countryside around them.