In mineralogy, diamond (/da()mnd/; from the ancient Greek

admas "unbreakable") is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are
arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice.
Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is
negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical
qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In
particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material.
Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing
tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives anddiamond anvil cells.

Natural history
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditionsexposure of carbon-bearing
materials to high pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa),
but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900 and 1,300 C (1,650
and 2,370 F). These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below
relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.[12]
Space diamonds
See also: Aggregated diamond nanorod
Primitive interstellar meteorites were found to contain carbon possibly in the form of diamond
(Lewis et al. 1987).[15] Not all diamonds found on Earth originated here. A type of diamond
called carbonado that is found in South America and Africa may have been deposited there via
an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact) about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may
have formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, there was no scientific consensus on
how carbonado diamonds originated.[16][17]
Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high-pressure conditions. Very small
diamonds of micrometer and nanometer sizes, known
as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found in meteorite impact craters.
Such impact events create shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable for diamond
formation. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters.
[12]

Popigai crater in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of

carats, and formed by an asteroid impact.[18]

Scientific evidence indicates that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen
nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years
(4.71014 km) away in the constellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as adiamond.[19] It
was referred to as Lucy, after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds".

One face of an uncut octahedral diamond, showing trigons (of positive and negative relief) formed by natural
chemical etching

Pressure resistance
Used in so-called diamond anvil experiments to create high-pressure environments, diamonds
are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals (6 million atmospheres)

Electrical conductivity
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use
as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most
diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[34] The conductivity and blue color originate
from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole
into the valence band.[34]
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally unhoped diamond grown
by chemical vapour deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species
adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments. [35][36]

Surface property
Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot
be wet by water but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract
diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds.[26] However, when diamond surfaces are
chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can
stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature.[37]

Chemical stability
Diamonds are not very reactive. Under room temperature diamonds do not react with any
chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. A diamond's surface can only be oxidized at
higher temperatures.[26]

Color
Main article: Diamond color

Brown diamonds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.

The most famous coloured diamond, Diamond in 1974.

Diamond has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225
nanometers. This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear
colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond
crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be
introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents).
Transition metals Ni and Co, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by highpressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the
maximum concentration is 0.01% for Ni ] and even less for Co. Virtually any element can be
introduced to diamond by ion implantation.
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the
yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond
has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green
diamonds; and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause
of color in some brown[40] and perhaps pink and red diamonds.[41] In order of rarity, yellow diamond
is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red.
[32]

"Black", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark

inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or
structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent

and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as
a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration
depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.[32] The Gemological Institute of
America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal
color range, and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Diamonds of a
different color, such as blue, are called fancy colored diamonds, and fall under a different grading
scale.[32]
In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.112 g) blue diamond once belonging to the
King of Spain, fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction.[42] In May 2009, a 7.03-carat
(1.406 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was
sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euro or US$9.5 million at the time).
[43]

That record was however beaten the same year: a 5-carat (1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold

for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.[44]

Identification
Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also
indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not
positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on
the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in
damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology
because of their potentially destructive nature.[28] The extreme hardness and high value of
diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques
and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones; [10] these tend to result
in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also
possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these
factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon
skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds 'by eye'.[45]

Industry

A round brilliant cut diamond set in a ring

See also: Diamonds as an investment

The diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade
diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. Both markets value diamonds differently.

Gem-grade diamonds
Main article: Diamond (gemstone)
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike other commodities, such as most precious
metals, there is a substantial mark-up in the retail sale of gem diamonds. [46] This results from the
successful creation of a anti-competitive cartel by the De Beers corporation, which lasted until
they were unable to control new mine discoveries from the 1980s.[47] However, the diamond
market remains an oligopoly. There is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds
(e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One
hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade
and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were
cut and polished in Surat, India.[48] Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are
the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based,
London, the Diamond District in New York City, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. A single company De
Beers controls a significant proportion of the trade in diamonds.[49] They are based
inJohannesburg, South Africa and London, England. One contributory factor is the geological
nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for
significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single
large pit operated by De Beers that can produce between 12,500,000 carats (2,500 kg) to
15,000,000 carats (3,000 kg) of diamonds per year[50]) whereas secondary alluvial diamond
deposits tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be
dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key
players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being
Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all
rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. [51] This makes Antwerp a de facto
"world diamond capital".[52] Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost
80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.[51] The DeBeers company, as the
world's largest diamond miner holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since
soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers owns or controls
a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution
channels for gem-quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De
Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its
subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual world diamond production. For most of
the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through De Beers, [53] but by
20012009 the figure had decreased to around 45%, [54] and by 2013 the company's market share
had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume. [55] De Beers sold
off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s early 2000s [56] and the remainder

largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale). [57] This was well
documented in the press[58] but remains little known to the general public.
As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open
market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the
largest Russian diamond company Alrosa.[59] As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only
sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada.
[60]

Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis,[61] but the

company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October
2009.[62] Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton,
which is the world's largest mining company;[63] Rio Tinto Group, the owner of Argyle
(100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines;[64] and Petra Diamonds, the owner of
several major diamond mines in Africa.

Diamond polisher in Amsterdam

Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB)
act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds.
The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv,
Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe and Asia. [32] In 2000, the WFDB
and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond
Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB's
additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as
the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.
Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have
a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as
gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are
used for abrasives).[65] The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is
concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. [65] Traditional diamond cutting centers
are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting
centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana.[65] Cutting
centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller
carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to
be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing
low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than
was previously economically feasible.[51]

Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges
called bourses. There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world. [66] Bourses are the final
tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to
buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to
the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to
the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at
US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in
wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.[67]
Cutting
Main articles: Diamond cutting and Diamond cut

The Darya-I-Nur Diamondan example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangement

Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting".
Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore,
diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific
knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific
angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light,
whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The
weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%. [68] Several possible
shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also
practical considerations. For example the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a
ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape. [69]
The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It
needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last
years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:

The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal
orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed
using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions.

Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has
to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.

The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool,
which is quick, but risky. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more
reliable but tedious procedure.[69][70]

After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which
is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is
extremely time consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a
routine and can be performed by technicians.[71] After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for
possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through
various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever
arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through
laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.[28]
Marketing
Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity.
N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded
in reviving the American diamond market. And the firm created new markets in countries where
no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement,
advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and
associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was
also advertising its competitors' diamond products as well. [72] De Beers' market share dipped
temporarily to 2nd place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global
economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold. [73] The
campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still
advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed
product lines, rather than completely "generic" diamond products.[73] The campaign was perhaps
best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever".[7] This slogan is now being used by De Beers
Diamond Jewelers,[74] a jewelry firm which is a 50%/50% joint venture between the De Beers
mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.
Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were
predominantly used for industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even
being assessed on the diamond color scale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in
Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems. [75][76] The
change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35,000,000 carats (7,000 kg) of

diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds; [77] 80% of
Argyle diamonds are brown.[78]

Industrial-grade diamonds

A scalpel with synthetic diamond blade

Close-up photograph of an angle grinder blade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metal

A diamond knife blade used for cutting ultrathin sections (typically 70 to 350 nm for transmission electron
microscopy.

Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many
of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications.
80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 135,000,000 carats (27,000 kg) annually), are
unsuitable for use as gemstones, and used industrially.[79] In addition to mined diamonds,
synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the
1950s; another 570,000,000 carats (114,000 kg) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for

industrial use (in 2004; in 2014 it's 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg), 90% by produced in
China). Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.[80]
The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and
partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high,
some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being
sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category
comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.[81]
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes
diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally
occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including
other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this property include diamond-tipped drill
bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade
diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such
purposes.[82] Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is
soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly
increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.[83]
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure
experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in
specialized windows.[81] With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic
diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. The high thermal conductivity of diamond
makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics.[84]

Mining
See also: List of diamond mines and Exploration diamond drilling
Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value
of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.[85]
Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant
sources of the mineral have been discovered inCanada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.
[80]

They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond

crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable
them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of
frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by
African paramilitary groups.[86] The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of
powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the
world.
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed,
during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today,
diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence,
after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became

commonplace,[68] the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency
to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore. [32]

Siberia's Udachnaya diamond mine

Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of
the Krishna River delta in Southern India.[87]India led the world in diamond production from the
time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC[4][88] to the mid-18th century AD, but the
commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that
time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.
[4]

Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is located atPanna.[89]

Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after
the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa.[90] Production has increased over time and
now an accumulated total of 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) have been mined since that
date.[91] Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last
10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon.
Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia. [91]
In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana.[92][93] In
2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling
of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[93]
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for
example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern andWestern Australia)
and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[94] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global
diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest
diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42
metric tons per year in the 1990s.[92][95] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in
the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.[80] Diamond prospectors continue to search the
globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.

Political issues

Unsustainable diamond mining in Sierra Leone

Main articles: Kimberley Process, Blood diamond and Child labour in the diamond industry
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary
groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to FINANCE
their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blood
diamonds.[86] Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund and fuel these conflicts by
doing business with armed groups. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases
were contributing to war and human rights abuses in centraland western Africa, the United
Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in
2002.[96]The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed
with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamondproducing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not
used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been
moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still
find their way in. Conflict diamonds constitute 23% of all diamonds traded. [97] Two major flaws
still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling
diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are
not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean". [96]
The Canadian Government has set up a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of
Conduct[98] to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of
diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds. [99]

Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements

Synthetics
Main article: Synthetic diamond

Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique

Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined

from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for

rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have
been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years
it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size. [13] It is
possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, are identical to natural
stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the
difference.[100]
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by socalled High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) processes.[101] The yellow color is caused by
nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are
a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.[102]

Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition

Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The
growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of
gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them to chemically
active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding
torch or laser.[103] This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals
several millimeters in size (see picture).[85]
As of 2010, nearly all 5,000 million carats (1,000 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds produced per
year are for industrial use. Around 50% of the 133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per
year end up in industrial use.[100][104] The cost of mining a natural colorless diamond runs about $40
to $60 per carat, and the cost to produce a synthetic, gem-quality colorless diamond is about
$2,500 per carat.[100]However, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for
a fancy-colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy-colored, while only
0.01% of natural diamonds are.[105]

Simulants
Main article: Diamond simulant

Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbide set in a ring

A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a

diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubic zirconia is the most common. The
gemstone Moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly
to produce than cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically.[106]

Enhancements
Main article: Diamond enhancement
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds
(usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the
gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to
remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's
color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond. [107]
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more
"diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbonan amorphous
carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond.
Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to
the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman
spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.[108]

Identification
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of
diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used
nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic
thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their
imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine
copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the
temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's
thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about
23 seconds.[109]
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing
between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated,
etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some
diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical
techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also
identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.[110]"Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice
level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess
characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow
them to be distinguished from each other.[111]

Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under

shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond's origin.[110] They also use specially made
instruments to aid them in the identification process. Two screening instruments are
the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.[112]
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method
of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an
orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological
Institute's[113] Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the
DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers.[111] Similarly, natural
diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that
are not seen in synthetic diamonds.
Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between
diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially
synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial
screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp) and Alpha Diamond Analyzer
(Bruker / HRD Antwerp).

Stolen diamonds
Occasionally large thefts of diamonds take place. In February 2013 armed robbers carried out a
raid at Brussels Airport and escaped with gems estimated to be worth $50m (32m; 37m euros).
The gang broke through a perimeter fence and raided the cargo hold of a Swiss-bound plane.
The gang have since been arrested and large amounts of cash and diamonds recovered. [114]
The identification of stolen diamonds presents a set of difficult problems. Rough diamonds will
have a distinctive shape depending on whether their source is a mine or from an alluvial
environment such as a beach or river - alluvial diamonds have smoother surfaces than those that
have been mined. Determining the provenance of cut and polished stones is much more
complex.
The Kimberley Process was developed to monitor the trade in rough diamonds and prevent their
being used to fund violence. Before exporting, rough diamonds are certificated by the
government of the country of origin. Some countries, such as Venezuela, are not party to the
agreement. The Kimberley Process does not apply to local sales of rough diamonds within a
country.
Diamonds may be etched by laser with marks invisible to the naked eye. Lazare Kaplan, a USbased company, developed this method. However, whatever is marked on a diamond can readily
be removed