TWENTYSTEPSTOWRITINGARESEARCHARTICLE

BethA.FischerandMichaelJ.Zigmond
SurvivalSkillsandEthicsProgram
UniversityofPittsburgh

Theprocessofmovingfromideatopublishedmanuscriptcanbeadauntingone.
Herewebreakthatprocessintoaseriesofstepsdesignedmakethisessentialtask
moremanageable.1 If20stepsistoomuchtomanage,focusonthe13stepsthat
wehavemarkedwithanasterisk(*) thesecannotbeskipped!
1.Determinetheauthors
Whendesigningaresearchproject,werecommendpreparingan initial listandorderof
authors.Suchalistauthorsshouldbebasedonestablishedguidelines2 andshouldmake
explicittheestimatedcontributionofeachindividualtotheproject.
Alistofauthorswillensurethatallindividualstobeinvolvedintheprojectunderstandat
the outset whether or not they can expect to be an author and, if so, who their
contribution is to be. It should be viewed as a tentative list, asthe final version should
reflectactualcontributionstothework.(Also,theremayalsobemorethanonelistasit
mightbeanticipatedthatmorethanonepaperwillderivefromagivenproject.)
2.Startwritingbeforetheexperimentalarecomplete
Starting writing while you are still doing the experiments. Writing often evokes new
ideas:youmayrealizethatthereareadditionalexperimentstorunoradditionalcontrols
that you need to add. If you wait until you are done in the lab, have dismantled the
equipment,andpossiblymovedontoanotherposition,youwillnothavetheopportunity
totesttheseideas.
3.Decideitistimetopublish
Itistimetopublishwhenyourfindingsrepresentacompletestory(oratleastacomplete
chapter),onethatwillmakeasignificantcontributiontothescientificliterature.Simply
collectingagivenamountofdataisnotadequate.

Our list has been modified and expanded from a list provided by the Council of Biological
Editors(1968).
2

Werecommendthateveryresearchgroupestablishandmakeknowntoitsmembersthecriteria
thatwill be forauthorshiponpapersresulting fromtheworktobeconducted.Insodoing,the
groupmaywishtomakeuseofexistingguidelines.(Seeouressayon ComponentsofaResearch
Article.)

4.Draftatitle&abstract
Draftingaworkingtitleandanabstracthelpsdefinethecontentsofthepaper,identifying
which experiments you will publish in this paper, and which studies you will save for
inclusioninanotherpaper.(SeeourComponentofaResearchArticleonthepreparation
ofthesetwoitems.)
*5.(Re)examinethelistofauthors
When you have now determined which experiments will be included in this paper you
mustselecttheauthorsandtheorderinwhichtheywillappear.Ifyouhavefollowedour
advicetothispoint,youalreadyhavesuchalist.Reevaluateitbasedonthecontributions
thatwere madetothoseexperimentsandtheadditionalcontributionsthatwill be made
through the preparation of the manuscript. If a list already exists, make adjustments
should be made to ensure compliance with your guidelines2. Of course, any changes
shouldbedonewithcautionandtact.
6.Determinethebasicformat
Therearethreebasicformatsforpeerreviewedresearcharticles:
Fulllength research articles: These articles contain a comprehensive
investigationofthesubjectmatterandareviewedasthestandardformat.Ituses
theIMRADformatIntroduction,Methods,Results,andDiscussion.(Seeour
ComponentsofaResearchArticle.)
Short (or brief) communications: While not as comprehensive in scope as full
length research articles, these papers also make a significant contribution to the
literature.Theirlengthwillbesetbythejournalbutisusually3500wordsorless
andwillcontainupto12tablesandfigures.Unlikefullpapers,methods,results,
anddiscussionsmaybecombinedintoasinglesection.
Rapid communications: These articles quickly disseminate particularly hot
findings, usually in a brief communication format. Articles that have immediate
implications for public health would be appropriate for such a format, as might
findingsinahighlycompetitiveandquicklymovingfield.
7.Selectthejournal
There are several factors to consider when choosing a journal. It is unlikely that one
journalwillhaveallofthefeaturesyouarelookingfor,soyoumayhavetocompromise.
However,thereisoneessentialfeaturethatyoushouldnotcompromiseon manuscripts
mustbepeerreviewedforpublicationiftheyaretobeconsideredresearcharticles.
Language: English has become the dominant form for international scientific
communication.Thus,ifyouareinterestedincommunicatingyourresultswidely

totheinternationalscientificcommunity,thenitisessentialtopublishinEnglish.
If, on the other hand, you wish to communicate to a more localized community
(e.g.,physiciansinaparticulargeographicalarea),youmightchoseajournalthat
permitsanotherlanguage.
Focus: What type of research does the journal publish? Is its focus broad or
narrow?Whichdisciplinesarerepresented?Whatisthejournalsorientation for
example,isitclinicalorbasic,theoreticalorapplied?
Indexing: Is the journal indexed in the major electronic databases such as
Medline,BiologicalAbstracts,ChemicalAbstracts,orCurrentContents?
Availability: Is the journal broadly available? Is there an online version of the
journal?Arepapersprovidedinpdfformat?
Reputation:Althoughitcanberathersubjective,thereareseveralwaystogauge
the reputation of a journal. Ask colleagues which journals they respect. Look at
recent articles and judge their importance. Check the members of the Editorial
Board and determine if they are leaders in their fields. Determine the journals
impactfactor3 Trytofindouttheacceptancerateofthejournal.
Format:Doliketheappearanceofpublishedarticlestheformat,typeface,and
styleused incitingreferences?Ifrelevant,doesthe journalpublishshortand/or
rapidcommunications?
Figures:Dofigurespublishedinthejournalhavetheresolutionthatyouneed?
Time to Print: Using the date submitted and a date accepted that are
published on the article, along with the date of the issue, you can estimate the
lengthofthereviewprocessaswellasthetimefromacceptancetopublicationin
print.
Charges:Somejournalsbilltheauthorforpagecharges,acostperfinalprinted
page.Mostjournalshaveaseparatechargeforcolorplates.Thismaybeasmuch
as$1000percolorplate.Manyjournalswillwaivepagechargesifthispresentsa
financialhardshipfortheauthorcolorplatechargesarelessreadilywaivedand
wouldatleastrequireevidencethatthecolorisessentialtothepresentationofthe
data(e.g.,toshowadoublelabeledcell).

Impactfactorisanannualmeasureoftheextenttowhicharticlesinagivenjournalarecited.
Howselectiveisthejournalinacceptingpapersforpublication?Notehowever,theseratingscan
beartificiallyinflatedinjournalsthatpublishreviewarticles,whichtendtobecitedmorethan
researcharticles.Seewww.isinet.com)

Onceyoudecideonajournal,obtainandreadthatjournalsInstructionstoAuthors.This
document describes the format for your article and provides information on how to
submit your manuscript. You can usually obtain a copy of the journals Instructions to
Authorsontheirwebsiteorinthefirstissueofanewvolume.
8.Stockthesectionsofyourpaper
As you think about your paper, store relevant material in folders marked Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion. This will save time and avoid frustration when the
writingbegins.Storeditemsmightincludefigures,references,andideas.
*9.Constructthetables,figures,andlegends
Yes, figuresandtablesbeforethewriting begins!Theentirepapershould beorganized
aroundthedatayouwillpresent.Bypreparingthetables,figures(andtheirlegendsand
appropriatestatisticalanalyses),youwillbecertainofyourresultsbeforeyouworrytoo
much abouttheir interpretation. You also may be able to determine if you have all the
datayouneed.Note:Exceptunderunusualcircumstance,youmaynotincludeanydata
thatyourhavealreadypublished.(SeeComponentsofaResearchPaper.)
*10.Outlinethepaper
Anoutlineislikearoadmap.Anoutlinedetailshowyouwillgetfromheretothere,and
helpsensurethatyoutakethemostdirectandlogicalroute.Donotstartwritingwithout
it!Ifyouhavecoauthors,youmaywishtogetfeedbackfromthembeforeyouproceed
totheactualwritingphase.Andifyouhavestockedyoursections(Step8),thosefiles
shouldbeusefulhereandinthewritingthatfollows.
*11.Writethefirstdraft
Write the first draft of the entire manuscript.4 Components of a Research Article
discusses what goes into each section of the manuscript. For a more extensive
presentationofthisandmanyotheraspectsofpreparingapaperseeDay(1998). Atthis
point,donotworryaboutitbeingintelligible.Thatcomeslater
SomepeoplerecommendthatyoubeginyourwritingwiththeIntroductionandcontinue
through inordereach sectionofthepaper.This can helpensure flow.However,others
suggest that you start wherever you wish anything to get rid of that blank screen or
piece of paper. What ever your approach, heed the advice ofCharles Sides (1991): If
youtrytowriteandeditatthesametime,youwilldoneitherwell.Andbecauseediting
4

Ifyouarewritingwithcoauthors,youmaywishtoassigndifferentaspectsofthemanuscriptto
different authors.This can save time, allow more individuals feels that are making substantive
contributionstothewritingprocess,andensurethe bestuseof expertise.However, italsocan
lead to a mixture of styles. Thus, if you takethis approach, be certain thatthe final product is
carefullyeditedtoprovideasinglevoice.

isoftenaloteasierthanwriting,pushthroughthisstepasquicklyaspossible.Ifyouare
takingmuchmorethantwofulldays,youhaveprobablypausedtoedit!
*12.Revisethemanuscript
Thisstepinvolvesthreemajortasks,eachtobecarriedoutintheordergiven:
(1) Make major alterations: Fill in gaps, correct flaws in logic, restructure the
documenttopresentthematerialinthemostlogicalorder.
(2)Polishthestyle:Refinethetext,thencorrectgrammarandspelling.
(3)Formatthedocument: Makeyourmanuscriptattractiveandeasytoread
It is important to do the tasks in the stated order. Otherwise, you may find yourself
spendingalotoftimerevisingmaterialthatyoulaterdelete.
13.Checkthereferences
Ensurethatthecitationsarecorrectandcomplete.Doonelastliteraturesearchtomake
certainthatyouareuptodate.(SeeourComponentsofResearchArticleonthematterof
referenceselection.)
*14.Writethefinaltitleandabstract
Many changes are made during the editing process. Make certain that your title and
abstractmatchthefinalversionofyourarticle.
*15.Rereadthejournal'sInstructionstoAuthors
Review the details of how the manuscript is to be formatted and submitted. Revised
wherenecessary
*16.Preparethefinalillustrations
Ensure that your tables, figures, and figure legends are complete, clear, selfcontained,
andintheformatrequiredbythejournal.Donotallowanychanceformisunderstanding.
*17.Getfeedbackonyourmanuscriptandthenreviseyourmanuscriptagain
Getting feedback is one of the most important things that you can do to improve your
article. First, be sure your coauthors have had a chance to read and comment on the
draft.Then,when it isready,givethe manuscripttosomecolleagues.Indicatetowhen
youwouldliketoreceivetheircomments,andwhatlevelsofinformationyouwouldlike
(e.g., comments on the science, logic, language, and/or style). After you get their
comments, revise your manuscript to address their concerns. Do not submit your
manuscriptuntilyoufeelitisreadyforpublication.Onceitisaccepted,furtherchanges

inyourmanuscriptwillbedifficultandmayalsobecostly.
*18.Submitthemanuscripttotheeditor
FollowtheInstructionstoAuthorstodetermine what items you needtosubmit,howto
submit them, and to whom you should send them. Note that some journals permit (or
evenrequire)aprereview,i.e.,aletterindicatingthecontentofthearticlesothatthe
editor can determine whether they will accept the manuscript for a full review. At this
pointyoumaywishtolistpossiblereviewers(orindividualstobeavoided).Ifnecessary,
contacttheeditortobesurethatthemanuscriptwasreceived.Andifafteramonthyou
have not received a response concerning the acceptability of your manuscript for
publicationyoumaywish tocontacttheeditoraboutthis,too.
*19.Dealwithreviewers'comments
Most manuscripts are not acceptedon the first submission. However, you may well be
invitedtoresubmitarevisedmanuscript.Ifyouchosetodoso,youwillneedtorespond
tothereviewercomments.Dothiswithtact.Answereveryconcernofthereviewers,and
indicate where the corresponding changes were made in the manuscript if they were,
indeed, made. You do not need to make all of the changes that the reviewer
recommended, but you do need to provide a convincing rationale for any changes that
youdidnotmake.When youresubmitthe manuscript,indicate in yourcoverletterthat
thisisarevisedversion.
Analternative istosubmitthe manuscripttoanother journal.However, ifyoudoso,it
maystillbebesttotakethereviewercommentsintoconsideration.Evenifyoufeelthat
thereviewershavemisunderstoodsomethinginyourpaper,othersmightdothesame.Of
course, if you submit to another journal you probably will need to modify the format.
And please note: You may not submit your manuscript to more than one journal at a
time!
*20.Checktheproofs
Once the manuscript is accepted and prepared for print, the publisher will send the
corresponding author page proofs of the article. This may be accompanied by a list of
queries, suchas missing informationregarding a reference.Theproofs may besent via
emailorashardcopy.Ifthereisachancethatyouwillbeawaywhentheproofsarrive,
haveaplanformakingcertainthattheyarereceivedandyouarenotified.Youmayonly
have2448hrtoreturntheproofs.
Carefullycorrectanytyposandfactualerrors.Andreadthemanuscriptforclaritythis
is your last chance! However, try to limit changes to editorial queries plus minor
modifications. If you think anything more major is required, you must first get
permission from the journal editor and be prepared for additional costs and publication
delays.

20+.Celebrate!

AsRobertDaysaysinHowtoWriteandPublishaScientificPaper(1998),Thegoalof
scientific research is publication.A scientific experiment, no matter how spectacular
the results, in not complete until the results are published. Your experiment at least
onephaseofitisnowcomplete.Enjoythemoment!

SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY
Foramorecompletesetofreferencesonwriting,seeourwebsite(www.survival.pitt.edu).
Council of Biology Editors, Committee on Graduate Training in Scientific Writing (1968)
ScientificWritingforGraduateStudents:AManualontheTeachingofScientificWriting.New
York:RockefellerUniversityPress.(Thiswassubsequentlyrevised,seeWoodfordbelow.)
DayRA (1998)HowtoWriteandPublishaScientificPaper,5thEdition. Phoenix:OryxPress.
Fischer,BA,Zigmond,MJ(2004)ComponentsofaResearchArticle.www.survival.pitt.edu.
InstituteforScientificInformation.www.isinet.com
SidesC(1991)HowtoWriteandPresentTechnicalInformation. USA:OryxPress.
WoodfordFP(1999)HowtoTeachScientificCommunication.Reston,VA:CouncilofBiology
Editors.

BAFischer&MJZigmond
www.survival.pitt.edu
survival@pitt.edu
version:July7,2004