Chapter 2

The Pulp and Paper Making

Processes

CONTENTS
Page

THE PULP AND PAPER MILL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Steps in the Pulp and Papermaking Process... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Pulping Technologies... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Page

Figure

2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.

Overall View of Papermaking From Chemical Pulp by the Kraft Process. . . . . . . . . . 19

Stone Groundwood Pulp Mill Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Refiner Groundwood Pulp Mill Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Sulfite Pulp Mill Process... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table

Table

Page

2-1. Major Commercial Wood-Pulping Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 2

The Pulp and Paper Making Processes

impurities that cause discoloration and possible
future disintegration of the paper. Hemicellulose is
similar to cellulose in composition and function. It
plays an important role in fiber-to-fiber bonding in
papermaking. Several extractives (e.g., oleoresins
and waxes) are contained in wood but do not
contribute to its strength properties; these too are
removed during the pulping process.

The modem manufacture of paper evolved from

an ancient art first developed in China, ca. 105 A.D.
Although the modem product differs considerably
from its ancestral materials, papermaking retains
distinct similarities to the processes developed by
Tsai Lun in the Imperial Chinese Court. In
principle, paper is made by: 1) pulping, to separate
and clean the fibers; 2) beating and refining the
fibers; 3) diluting. to form a thin fiber slurry,
suspended in solution; 4) forming a web of fibers on
a thin screen; 5) pressing the web to increase the
density of the material; 6) drying to remove the
remaining moisture; and 7) finishing, to provide a
suitable surface for the intended end use.

The fiber from nearly any plant or tree can be used

for paper. However, the strength and quality of fiber,
and other factors that can complicate the pulping
process, varies among tree species. In general, the
softwoods (e.g., pines, firs, and spruces) yield long
and strong fibers that impart strength to paper and
are used for boxes and packaging. Hardwoods, on
the other hand, generally have shorter fibers and
therefore produce a weaker paper, but one that is
smoother, more opaque, and better suited for printing. Both softwoods and hardwoods are used for
papermaking and are sometimes mixed to provide
both strength and printability to the finished product.

Pulp and paper are made from cellulosic fibers

(i.e., fibers from trees) and other plant materials,
although some synthetic materials may be used to
impart special qualities to the finished product. Most
paper is made from wood fibers, but rags, flax,
cotton linters, and bagasse (sugar cane residues) are
also used in some papers. Used paper is also
recycled, and after purifying and sometimes deinking, it is often blended with virgin fibers and
reformed again into paper. Other products made
from wood pulp (cellulose) include diapers, rayon,
cellulose acetate, and cellulose esters, which are
used for cloth, packaging films, and explosives.

THE PULP AND PAPER MILL

Although there are several chemical and mechanical pulping methods used for delignifying wood
(table 2-l), separating fibers, and removing discoloration, all integrated pulp and paper mills involve
the same general steps in the manufacture of pulp
and paper. These steps include: 1 ) raw material
preparation (e.g., debarking and chipping); 2) mechanical and/or chemical separation of the wood
fibers [i.e., grinding, refining, or digestion (cooking)] to dissolve the lignin and extractives; 3)
removal of coloring agents (primarily residual lignin) by bleaching; and 4) paper formation and
manufacture.

Wood is composed of: 1) cellulose, 2) lignin, 3)

hemicellulose, and 4) extractives (e.g., resins, fats,
pectins, etc.). Cellulose, the fibers of primary
interest in papermaking, comprises about 50 percent
of wood by ovendry weight. Lignin, which cements
the wood fibers together, is a complex organic
chemical the structure and properties of which are
not fully understood, It is largely burned for the
generation of energy used in pulp and paper mills.
As the chemistry of lignin becomes better understood, what is now mostly a waste product used for
fuel (some is converted to chemical products) could
become a valuable feed stock for new chemical
products.

A typical layout of a mill using the kraft chemical

pulping process is shown in figure 2-1. Mechanical,
semichemical, and sulfite pulp mills differ in detail,
particularly in wood preparation, fiber separation,
and bleaching, but many of the downstream refining,
bleaching, and papermaking processes are similar.
In addition to the primary steps in pulp and paper
manufacture, each mill has extensive facilities to

The pulping process is aimed at removing as

much lignin as possible without sacrificing fiber
strength, thereby freeing the fibers and removing
IA, H,

Nlss~, p~p~~, WOO~ Ifs ~(ruC~~e U~~ p?ope?(ies, F.F, Wangaard (cd.) (University Park, PA: Pennsyivtia State University 198 1)! P 3~5.

-17-

18 Technologies for Reducing Dioxin in the Manufacture of Bleached Wood Pulp

Table 2-lMajor Commercial Wood-Pulping Technologies

Pulp grades use

Wood type

End-product use

Chemical pulps:
sulfite pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Softwoodsand hardwoods
Kraft sulfate pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Softwoods and hardwoods
Dissolving pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Softwood S and hardwoods

Fine and printing papers

Bleached-printing and writing papers, paperboard
Unbleached-heavy packaging papers, paperboard.
Viscose rayon, cellophane, acetate fibers, and film

Semichemical pulps:
Cold-caustic process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Softwoods and hardwoods
Neutral sulfite process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hardwoods

Newsprint and groundwood printing papers

Newsprint and groundwood printing papers

Mechanical pulps
Stone groundwood , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Softwoods
Refiner mechanical (RMP) . . . ., . . . . . . . . . Softwoods
Thermomechanical (TMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Softwooods
SOURCE: Modifhd from George H. Soyd Ill and Chad E. Srown, Paper /~sfFy:

Corrugating medium
Newsprint and groundwood printing papers
Newsprint and groundwood printing papers
~tbok b Market Pu/p (New York, NY: KiddM, Peabody & (h, 19S1 ), p. 5.

produce and reclaim chemical agents used in the

pulping process; collect, process, and bum lignin
and waste wood to produce energy; and remove and
treat wastes from process water for release into the
environment.
Steps in the Pulp and Papermaking Process
Raw Material Preparation
Wood received at a pulp mill may be in several
different forms, depending on the pulping process
and the origin of the raw material. It maybe received
as bolts (short logs) of roundwood with the bark still
attached, as chips about the size of a half-dollar that
may have been produced from sawmill or veneer
mill waste or pre-chipped from debarked roundwood
elsewhere, or as waste sawdust in the case of some
pulping processes.
If roundwood is used, it is first debarked, usually
by tumbling in large steel drums where wash water
may be applied. The debarked wood bolts are then
chipped in a chipper if the pulping process calls for
chemical digestion or are fed into a grinder in the
case of some mechanical pulps. Chips are screened
for size, cleaned, and temporarily stored for further
processing.
Fiber Separation
The fiber separation stage is the point at which the
several pulping technologies diverge. In kraft chemical pulping, the chips are fed into a large pressure
cooker (digester), into which is added the appropriate chemicals (white liquor). The chips are then

cooked (digested) with steam at specific temperatures long enough to separate the fibers and partially
dissolve the lignin and other extractives.
Some digesters operate continuously with a constant feed of chips (furnish) and liquor, others are
charged intermittently and treat a batch at a time.
After digestion, the cooked pulp (brown stock) is
discharged into a pressure vessel (blow tank) where
the steam and volatile materials are siphoned off.
The cooking liquor, that by this time has turned dark
brown from the dissolved lignin (black liquor), is
returned to the chemical recovery cycle, In the
chemical recovery plant, the lignin in the black
liquor is burned for the cogeneration of energy, and
the chemicals are recovered, purified, reconstituted,
and returned to the digester as white liquor for reuse.
The brown stock containing the recovered fibers
(having the consistency of cooked oatmeal) is
washed with water, screened to remove undigested
wood, and cleaned to remove other foreign matter.
It is then ready for bleaching and further processing.
Fiber separation in mechanical pulping is less
dramatic. In the stone groundwood process, debarked logs are forced against rotating stone grinding wheels that are constantly washed by a stream of
water. The ground pulp is then screened to remove
course debris, thickened, and stored for the papermaking process.
Chips are used to produce refiner pulp and
thermomechanical pulp. In both processes the chips
are ground by passing them through rapidly rotating

Chapter 2The Pulp and Paper Making Processes

19

Figure 2-1-Overall View of Papermaking From Chemical Pulp by the Kraft Process
Continuous digester

II

White liquor
clarifier
Wash water

I
Stripped condensates

SOURCE: Envirorwnent Ontario, Srop@ng Water Poflutioft Al Its Source (Toronto, OntarIO: Ministry of the Environment, 1988).

20 Technologies

for Reducing Dioxin in the Manufacture of Bleached Wood Pulp

disk grinders. Thermomechanical pulp is refined

(ground) under pressure after the chips are pretreated
with steam (chemical thermomechanical pulp uses
chemicals and steam for pretreatment). After further
refining in a second stage, the pulp is screened,
cleaned, and most of the process water is removed in
preparation for papermaking.
Bleaching or Brightening
Since the raw pulp (brown stock) still contains an
appreciable amount of lignin and other discoloration, it must be bleached to produce light colored or
white papers preferred for many products. Bleaching
is normally done in several stages (multistage
bleaching). Through chlorination and oxidation the
fibers are further delignified by solubilizing
additional lignin from the cellulose.
A number of bleaching agents may be used and
are applied in a stepwise fashion within a bleaching
sequence. These include chlorine gas, chlorine
dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide,
and oxygen. Between bleaching treatments, a strong
alkali (usually sodium hydroxide) is used to extract
the dissolved lignin from the surface of the fibers.
The bleaching agents and the sequence in which they
are used depend on a number of factors, such as the
relative cost of the bleaching chemicals, type and
condition of the pulp, desired brightness of the paper
to be produced, and sometimes in response to
environmental guidelines and regulations.
Bleaching of mechanical pulp is much different
than that for chemical pulp. Mechanical pulping
leaves the lignin and the cellulose intact, whereas the
purpose of chemical pulping is to chemically separate the lignin from the cellulose fibers and remove
it from the pulp. A major advantage of mechanical
pulping is the high yields of pulp that can be
achieved from a given volume of wood. Therefore,
bleaching or brightening of mechanical pulps is
designed to minimize the removal of the lignin that
would reduce fiber yields.
Chemicals used for bleaching mechanical pulps
selectively destroy coloring impurities but leave the
lignin and cellulosic materials intact, These include
sodium bisulfite, sodium or zinc hydrosulfite (no
longer used in the United States), calcium or sodium

hypochlorite, hydrogen or sodium peroxide, and the

Sulfur Dioxide-Borol Process (a variation of the
sodium hydrosulfite method). Originally, much of
the mechanical pulp was not bleached, but the
bleaching of groundwood has increased and improved technology now enables bleached groundwood pulp to be used for printing papers, tissues, and
towelling.
Papermaking
The bleached or unbleached pulp may be further
beaten and refined to cut the fibers and roughen the
surface of the fibers (fibrillate) to improve formation
and bonding of the fibers as they enter the paper
machine. Before entering the paper machine, water
is added to the pulp slurry to make a thin mixture
normally containing less than 1 percent fiber. The
dilute slurry is then cleaned in cyclone cleaners and
screened in centrifugal screens before being fed into
the wet end* of the paper-forming machine.
In the paper making process, the dilute stock
passes through a headbox that distributes the fiber
slurry uniformly over the width of the paper sheet to
be formed. The web of fiber that will make the
new paper sheet is formed on a continuously moving
bronze or polymer screen (Fourdrinier) or between
two such wire screens. Water drains from the slurry
through the mesh of the screen, the wet paper web is
consolidated and the paper sheet gains some strength
through fiber bonding.
The wet sheet of paper is continuously lifted from
the screen (couched) and transferred to a woven felt
belt where additional water is squeezed from the
paper sheet by pressure rollers, The remaining water
is removed on steam-heated cylinders. When the
paper is dry it may be treated with stabilizing
materials and surface finishes to improve durability
or printability.
Pulping Technologies
Mechanical Pulping Processes
There are six basic mechanical pulping processes:
1 ) stone groundwood, 2) refiner, 3) thermomechanical pulping, 4) chemical mechanical, 5) defibrated
or
2
exploded pulping, and 6) recycled paper. Mechanical pulping is generally used with softwoods be-

2~1s ~Uon ~ ~lplng IWhno]ogies IYCXTOWS heavily from a previous OTA assessment: Wood Use U.S. Co~etitiveness and Technolo~, Vol. //:
Technical Report, OTA-M-224 (Springfkld, VA: National Technical Intormaiion Wvice, 1984), pp. 79-94.

Chapter 2The Pulp and Paper Making Processes

In the stone groundwood process, debarked short

logs (roundwood) are fed whole against wet stone
grinders by hydraulic rams. Counter-revolving steel
disks are sometimes used in place of abrasive stone
in the grinding process. The abrasion of the grinding
wheel against the wood physically separates the
wood fibers. The grinding process usually is automatic and continuous. The groundwood pulp is then
screened, bleached or brightened, treated, and prepared for the paper machine (figure 2-2).

Mechanical pulps are used principally to manufacture newsprint, printing papers, towelling, tissue,

Figure 2-2-Stone Groundwood Pulp Mill Flow

Over f low

W h ite

water
1

Bleaching

Pulp

21

and coated specialty papers that do not require

high-strength. Secondary uses include wallpaper
and paperboard. Small amounts of chemical pulp are
often mixed with groundwood pulp for additional
strength. Recycled pulp is used mainly for the
manufacture of folding boxboard (gray board), tissue, corrugated board, and newsprint. Paper products made from defibrated pulp include hardboards,
construction boards, and roofing papers.

cause of the added strength imparted by the long

fiber length of softwood species. Some hardwoods
require chemical pretreatment (chemical mechancial
pulping) to produce a suitable groundwood pulp.
Fibers separated mechanically are substantially damaged in the process and therefore make weaker paper
or paperboard. However, since both lignin and
cellulose fibers remain intact, the yield of paper per
unit volume of wood is still greater than that
produced by chemical pulping. Pulp yields from all
of the mechanical pulping processes typically are
near 90 to 95 percent recovery, which is a much
higher yield per unit of wood than with the chemical
pulping methods because of the retention of lignin.
However, paper made from mechanical pulp discolors and becomes brittle with age because of its lignin
content, which results in a shorter useful life than
paper made from chemical pulp.

SOURCE: Man M. Spdnger, Inolmrk?i Emwo rvmwtal Centi: RJ/p @ Psper hdmtry (New Yoik, NY: Jotm Wiley & Sons, 19SS), p. 147.

S ewe r

22 . Technologies for Reducing Dioxin in the Manufacture of Bleached Wood Pulp

Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP) uses chips

in lieu of roundwood and produces paper with higher
strength than conventional groundwood because of
less damage to the fibers in the pulping process. The
chips are passed through a refiner that has fixed and
rotating disks operating under a stream of water. A
wider range of species, including hardwoods, can be
processed by the refiner pulping process, Sawdust
and other saw mill wastes can also be used (figure
2-3).

Figure 2-3-Refiner Groundwood Pulp Mill Process

Thermomechanical process (TMP) was developed as a modification of the refiner mechanical

pulping process. In TMP, the wood chips are
steamed for several minutes under pressure and
subsequently refined in one or two stages. The lignin
is softened by heating the wood chips with pressurized steam before they are refined (i.e., blended by
passing the fiber through rapidly rotating disks). The
refined wood pulp, although stiIl weaker than
chemical pulp, makes a stronger paper than groundwood or refiner pulp with only a small sacrifice in
yield but with large energy requirements. Some
newsprint is now produced wholly from thermomechanical pulp, thus eliminating the need for
the addition of chemical pulp often needed for
strengthening paper made from mechanical pulp.
The neutral sulfite semichemical (NSSC) pulping
process is used at a number of U.S. mills to produce
courser-grade products such as corrugated board,
which has a yield of about 75 percent of the wood
raw material. In NSSC pulping, wood chips are
softened by briefly cooking them in a neutral sodium
or ammonium sulfite solution and then separating
the fibers (defibrating) in a refiner (see also Sulfite
Pulping below).
Recycling can effectively reduce the consumption
of both wood raw material and energy when used in
conjunction with other mechanical pulping processes. It does so, however, with some sacrifice in
paper strength. Recycled pulp is manufactured from
wastepaper that is processed into paper stock. A
small proportion of the paper stock (5 to 10 percent)
is de-inked, usually with caustic soda-based chemicals. Most recycled paper, however, is pulped
without de-inking. Pulping is accomplished through
violent agitation and shearing action performed at
high temperatures. The paper produced from recycled pulp is generally weaker than papers from

SOURCE: AJIuI M. Sprhqor, l&S~EAWWWW c%@Vl: Al@wdP@NJnlAls&y

(Nr# York, NY: John Wiley& Sarrs, 1986), p. 140.

virgin materials, because of the breakdown of the

used fibers and loss of fiber bonding.

Chapter 2The Pulp and Paper Making Processes

Three major developments in mechanical pulping

technologies show promise for improving pulp
quality: 1) pressurized groundwood pulping, 2)
chemical thermomechanical pulping, and 3) hardwood chemical mechanical pulping. All of these
technologies have reached some stage of commercialization. Chemical thermomechanical pulping is
currently used at several U.S. mills. Improvements
in mechanical pulping show promise for improving
the quality (strength characteristics) of paper now
produced by mechanical processes. The resulting
higher quality mechanical pulps may displace the
kraft pulps that are currently mixed with mechanical
pulps to improve paper strength.
Pressurized Groundwood Pulpingh pressurized groundwood pulping, debarked logs are fed to
the grinding wheel through a heated, pressurized
chamber. The heat and pressure help separate the
fiber, thus breaking fewer fibers in the grinding
process and improving pulp quality. Paper produced
from pressurized groundwood pulp is more tearresistant than paper made from stone-ground pulp,
but is slightly inferior to that of thermomechanical
pulp. Pressurized groundwood pulping may have the
potential for displacing some high-quality chemical
pulps in the manufacture of newsprint and other
printing papers.

Chemical Thermomechanical Pulping Chemical thermomechanical pulping involves treating

softwood chips with mild sulfite solutions to modify
the lignin and partially delignify the wood prior to
grinding in a refiner. This sulfonation treatment
results in paper with higher tear resistance than
thermomechanical, refiner, or stone-ground pulps.
Pulp yields decrease slightly to between 85 and 90
percent with chemical thermomechanical pulping,
but these yields are still higher than chemical
pulping (40 to 56 percent).
Hardwood Chemical Mechanical Pulping Mechanical methods for producing pulp from hardwood
species involve pretreating hardwood chips with
hydrogen peroxide or sodium hydroxide and processing them like refiner mechanical pulps. Both
hardwoods and softwoods have been successfully
pulped by this method, with fiber recoveries in the
80 to 90 percent range. Pulp produced by hardwood

23

chemical mechanical pulping can be used to produce

newsprint and printing papers.
Chemical Pulping
Chemical pulping involves treating wood chips
with chemicals to remove the lignin and hemicellulose, thus separating and cleaning the fibers. Delignification gives the fibers greater flexibility, resulting in a substantially stronger paper (because of
greater contact between the fibers in the finished
sheet) than can be manufactured from high-lignin
fibers produced by mechanical pulping. Paper
strength and durability is gained at the expense of
fiber yield. Chemical processes may yield only half
the fiber that can be recovered by the use of
mechanical pulping techniques.
Two major chemical pulping processes are currently in commercial use: 1) kraft (sulfate) pulping,
and 2) sulfite pulping. The kraft process dominates
the pulp and paper industry, accounting for 76
percent of the pulp
produced for paper and paper3
board in 1984. Paper produced from kraft pulp
accounts for most of the bleached boxboard and
linerboard used by the packaging industry (which
consumes about 58 percent of the paper in the United
States). Bleached softwood kraft pulps are often
mixed with mechanical pulps to add strength to
newsprint and printing papers. Bleached hardwood
kraft pulps are added to bleached softwood pulp to
improve printability for specialty paper products
like magazine stock and coated papers. Both kraft
pulp and sulfite pulp can be used for the production
of dissolving pulp, which is used for the production
of rayon and acetates.
Kraft PulpingKraft pulping involves treating
wood chips and sawdust with a sodium sulfide and
sodium hydroxide solution (see figure 2-1). The
highly alkaline chemical and wood mixture is
cooked with steam under pressure (digested) for
between 1 and 3 hours. Digestion may be either a
continuous process or treated in discontinuous
batches. Most of the lignin and some of the
hemicellulose is dissolved, leaving the remaining
cellulose fibers separated.
The cooking liquor containing the dissolved
lignin and other extractives (black liquor) is routed
to a chemical recovery plant where the lignin and

24 Technologies for Reducing Dioxin in the Manufacture of Bleached Wood Pulp

organic wastes are burned to produce energy needed

in the pulping process. Valuable extractives (e.g.,
turpentine, tall oil, and resin) are separated for sale
as commodity chemicals. Process chemicals are
recovered with only a relatively small loss in
volume, and after replenishment with sodium salts,
they are returned to the digester for reuse.
The brown pulp (brown stock) from the digester
is washed, screened, and passed through a battery of
cleaners. If the pulp is to be bleached, it is
thickened by removing excess water and sent
through a series of bleach operations. These can vary
widely in the type of chemicals used and their
sequence. Bleached pulp is then ready for the paper
making process.
Both softwood and hardwoods can be pulped by
the kraft process. Fiber recovery is largely a function
of the wood species used, the time and temperature
of cooking, the degree of bleaching, and the paper
strength required. Generally, kraft pulp recoveries
from softwoods are approximately 47 percent for4
unbleached pulp and 44 percent for bleached.
Hardwood recoveries range from 50 to 52 percent for
unbleached kraft pulp to 50 percent for bleached.
Sulfitee PulpingLignin can be dissolved by
sulfonation with an aqueous solution of sulfur
dioxide and calcium, sodium, magnesium, or ammonium bisulfite cooked at high temperature and
pressure in a digester (see figure 2-4). There are four
basic sulfite pulping processes currently in commercial use: 1) acid sulfite, 2) bisulfite, 3) neutral sulfite,
and 4) alkaline sulfite. The major differences between the sulfite processes are the levels of acidity
and alkalinity of the sulfite chemical solutions used
to break down the wood and remove the lignin.
Sulfite pulping processes are suitable only for
species with low extractive contents (i.e., those low
in tannins, polyphenols, pigments, resins, fats, and
the like) because of the interference of these
substances with the sulfite pulping process. Although calcium is the cheapest sulfite base available,
it forms insoluble compounds that cannot be reclaimed economically. Thus, calcium-based pulping
is seldom used. Because magnesium- and sodium-

based chemicals are recoverable, and ammoniumbased chemicals are less expensive and can be
burned without harmful environmental effects, they
are the most frequently used.
Sodium-based sulfite pulping can consist of
multistage cooking, successive stages of which
differ in acidity. Because one stage optimizes
chemical liquor penetration and the other the removal of lignin, more lignin may be removed with
less fiber degradation, so that fiber yields are higher,
fibers are stronger, and a wider range of wood
species may be used. Sulfite pulping dissolves some
of the hemicellulose as well as the lignin. Neutral
sulfite pulping, using sodium and ammonium bases,
recovers the largest proportion of fiber (75 to 90
percent) of all the sulfite pulping methods.
Sulfite pulp is a light color and can sometimes be
used without bleaching if high brightness is not
required. Unbleached sulfite pulp is often blended
with groundwood and other high-yield mechanical
pulps for strengthening newspaper stock. Sulfite
pulp is easily bleached to very bright pulps for
writing and printing paper. It is also used for the
manufacture of dissolving pulps (through the further
removal of hemicellulose) for the production of
viscose rayon, acetate fibers and films, plastic fillers,
and cellophane.
Potential for New Pulping Technologies
The search for new pulping technologies and
process improvements for established commercial
technologies continues in the United States, Canada,
Sweden, Finland, Japan, Germany, and elsewhere.
In the United States, about $815 million is estimated
to have been spent on pulp
and paper research and
5
development in 1987. OTA could not determine
what proportion of the R&D was directed at
improving pulping technologies. Nearly all R&D is
sponsored by the industry, with only $3 million
(<0.4 percent) expended by the Federal Government.
Industry pulping R&D is largely focused on
improving established pulping and bleaching processes rather than seeking new pulping technologies.
Some of the research and development is driven by

4P.J. I-Iw~y, Cowri$on of Mills Ener~ Balance: Efects of Conventional Hydropyrolysis and ~ry Pyrolysis Recoveq system (Awlem WI:
Institute of Paper Chemistry, 1978),
5Bat~]]e Memolj~ ~stitute, pro~le Leveb of R&D Expenditures in 1987: Forecau and Analysis (Columbus, OH: Battelle, 1986), P. 11.

Chapter 2The Pulp and Paper Making Processes

the need for broadening the raw material base in

response to concerns over forest resources. Restrictions on water use and pollution control have
contributed to the impetus for seeking process
improvements.

25

Figure 2-4Sulflte Pulp Mill Process

Fresh water
Wood

-J----:

Energy costs as reflected in both energy use by the

industry and their impact on the cost of chemicals
has led to process improvements in the past,
although moderating energy prices have recently
reduced these concerns. The emphasis on recycling
to reduce the massive problems of solid waste
disposal in metropolitan areas has also been an
incentive to using more reclaimed material in paper
manufacturing. Finally, the increasing cost of capital
to rebuild aging sectors of the pulp and paper
industry have fed the need for more R&D by the
industry.
There are several reasons why major advancements in pulp and paper technology appear to be
glacial in comparison to some other more rapidly
advancing technologies. First, the pulp and paper
industry is mature; the commercial technology,
much of which was developed in the late 1700s and
1800s, has undergone evolutionary change, and
satisfaction with the basic technology has led to little
reason to fix something that does not appear to be
broken. Concerns over future environmental problems and competition from other materials could
change this, and to some degree already has.
Second, R&D is fragmented by the emphasis on
process improvement, therefore few scientists and
engineers focus on new pulping processes. In
addition, many researchers specialize in one pulping
process or another depending on the needs of a
specific firm; few are able to consider all technological options or innovations for improving pulp yield
or overall quality.
Third, R&D investment in incremental improvement in established processes is easier to sell to
corporate directors than risky, long-term, radical
changes. Large existing investments in plant equipment stretch the amortization period of old equipment and slow the acceptance of new processes that
require substantial changes and alterations.
Finally, the absence of major government investment in long-range, high-risk R&D to seek new,
innovative pulping and bleaching technologies may

SOURCE: Nan M. Sprhgar, /n&stMEnvhmantal Cmvfol: Pu/parWPqarltistry

(Naw York, NY: John Wiby & Sons, 1986), p. 153.

limit the advancements that could be made through

collective R&D efforts. Individual firms have little
incentive to undertake a major, long-term, highinvestment R&D program to develop radically new
technologies with uncertain payoff in the end,
particularly in the current investment climate.

Organosolv Pulping (Ester Pulping)Organosolv pulpingsometimes called ester pulpingis a

two-stage process involving hydrolysis (decomposi-

26 Technologies for Reducing Dioxin in the Manufacture of Bleached Wood Pulp

tion of the wood by dilute acids or enzymes) and the

removal of lignin with an organic solvent, usually a
mixture of alcohol and water. The still experimental
process is suitable for both hardwoods and softwoods. Sawdust as a byproduct from lumber manu6
facture can also be pulped, Pulp recovery from
organosolv pulping ranges between 50 and 60
percent for hardwoods, and 40 and 45 percent for
softwoods. Typical hardwood fiber recoveries compare favorably with those from kraft pulping.
Fibers produced by the organosolv process are
weaker than those recovered by the kraft process.
Thus, the papers produced from organosolv pulp are
suitable for uses where strength is not the most
important property (e.g., printing papers, fluff pulps,
and dissolving pulp). Little waste is produced by the
process, and low alcohols are recovered easily by
distillation, 7 thus requiring relatively low capital
investment. Commercial viability of this technology will require that markets be developed for
byproducts of the process.
A commercial demonstration plant using the
Alcell process developed by Repap Enterprises
Corp. of Canada is currently under construction at
Newcastle, New Brunswick. The 33-ton-per-day
pilot plant will cost $65 million. The Canadian

government is underwriting half the cost of the plant.

Alcell is an alcohol cellulose organosolv process.
Hydrotropic Pulping-Hydrotropic solutions are
aqueous salt solutions that impart greater volubility
to slightly soluble substances (e.g., lignin) than does
water at the same temperature. Sodium xylenesulfonate, a hydrotropic salt, 8has been used experimentally to delignify wood. A hydrotropic pulping9
process was patented by Ralph H. McKee in 1943.
Laboratory pulping texts suggested that dissolution
of lignin with aqueous sodium xylenesulfonate
solutions of 30 to 40 percent had little or no effect on
the strength of the pulp and yielded a high alpha
cellulose content (important for dissolving pulp).
Pulping of poplar was conducted at temperatures
of about 150 C for 11 to 12 hours. Tests yielded 52
percent cellulose, compared to 47 percent from
comparable sulfite pulp. Unlike sulfite or kraft
pulping which uses contaminating inorganic chemicals, the lignin recovered through precipitation by
hydrotropic pulping is relatively pure and is suitable
for conversion to other chemical products. The
process is not suited for resinous coniferous species,
however, and comparatively little serious attention
has been given to this process by the industry.

%edor N, Keinert, Oranosolv Pulping With Aqueous Alcohol, T@PIJ., August 1974, vol. 57, p, 99 et seq.
TN. Sawyer, Stare OfN~ Pu@ng Processes: Problem and Perspectives (Madison, WI: U#S. %st hd~ts Ldxxatory, 1982), p. IQ scc ~sO
Raymond W. Young and Kenneth W, Baierl, EsterPulpingof Wood: A Revolutionary Process, Southerrt Pu@ & P~er, November 1985, pp. 15-17.
sRalph H, MCKW, u% of Hydrotropic solutions in Industry, ]ndusrriaf and IMgimxring CIWRLW, VO1. 38, No. 4.1946 P. 382; ~ ~~ R~Ph
H. McKee, Comparison of Wood Pulping Process, Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canadu, vol. 55, No, 2, 1954, pp. 64-66,
!IU.S. patent No. 2308564, Jm, 19, 1943.