Learning System for Automation and Communications

Process Control System

Control of temperature, flow

and filling level

Workbook
171 149
Order No.: 171 149
Description: WORKBOOK
Designation: D.MP-C-PCS-1-GB
Status: 10/1997
Layout: 1.10.97, M. Schwarz
Graphics: D. Schwarzenberger
Authors: H. Bischoff*, D. Hofmann*, E. v. Terzi
Editor: F. Ebel

* Technische Universität Dresden

Institut für Automatisierungstechnik
D-01062 Dresden

© 1997 by Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.,

Rechbergstraße 3, D-73770 Denkendorf

The copying, distribution and utilization of this document as well as the

communication of its contents to others without expressed authorization
is prohibited. Offenders will be held liable for the payment of damages.
All rights reserved, in particular the right to carry out patent, utility mo-
del or ornamental design registrations.
 1
Table of contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Notes regarding the concept of the workbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Notes on safety and procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Part A
Exercises and Worksheets

Exercise 1 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . A1-1

Exercise 2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for

the project design of automation systems . . . . . . A2-1

Execise 3 Closed-loop control synthesis and design of

binary control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3-1

Exercise 4 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4-1

Exercise 5 Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors . . . . . . A5-1

Exercise 6 Closed-loop control technology – setting of

control parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6-1

Part B
Fundamentals
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of closed-loop control technology
1.1 What is closed-loop control technology? . . . . . . . . . B1-2
1.2 What is a system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-4
1.3 Open-loop and closed-loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-6
1.4 Basic terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-9
1.5 Controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-12
1.5.1 Description of the dynamic response
of a controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-14
1.6 Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-16
1.6.1 Control response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-17
1.6.2 Time response of a controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-18
1.6.3 Technical details of controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-20

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Table of contents

1.7 Mode of operation of various controller types . . . . . . B1-21

1.7.1 The proportional controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-21
1.7.2 The integral-action controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-23
1.7.3 The PI controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-24
1.7.4 The PD controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-25
1.7.5 The PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-26
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-27

Chapter 2 Projecting of automated systems

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-2
2.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-2
2.1.2 Configuration of small-scale experimental system . . . . B2-2
2.1.3 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-4
2.2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for
the project design of automation systems . . . . . . . . B2-7
2.2.1 Comments regarding project configuration . . . . . . . . B2-7
2.2.2 Tender specification - Performance specification . . . . . B2-9
2.2.3 PI flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-11
2.2.4 EMCS block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-19
2.2.5 Notes regarding the project design of auxiliary power . . B2-38
2.2.6 Notes regarding assembly project design . . . . . . . . . B2-42
2.3 Closed control loop synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
2.3.1 Introductory comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
2.3.2 Process analysis / Model configuration . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
2.3.3 Controller configuration and parameterisation . . . . . . B2-73
2.4 Selection of automation devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-83
2.4.1 Introductory comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-83
2.4.2 Essential fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-85
2.5 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102

Chapter 3 Commissioning and maintenance

3.1 Commissioning of
process and automation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-2
3.1.1 Introductory comments – Commissioning strategy . . . . B3-2
3.1.2 Connection of auxiliary power (Part 1 and Part 2) . . . . B3-4
3.1.3 Testing of closed control loops, binary control systems
and safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-10
3.1.4 Establishing the stand-by mode
of the technical process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-11
3.2 Upkeep of technical process systems
(small-scale experimental system) . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-12
3.3 Fault finding and error handling
– Damage prevention training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-13

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Table of contents

Chapter 4 Fault finding

4.1 What is meant by maintenance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-2
4.1.1 Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
4.1.2 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
4.1.3 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-4
4.2 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction . . . . . . B4-5
4.2.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-5
4.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-7
4.3 Fault finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-7
4.3.1 Systematic fault finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-8
4.3.2 Fault documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-9
4.3.3 Fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-11
4.4 Final analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-12

Part C
Solutions
Solution 1 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . C1-1

Solution 2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for

the project design of automation systems . . . . . . C2-1

Solution 3 Closed control loop synthesis and planning of

binary control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3-1

Solution 4 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4-1

Solution 5 Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors . . . . . . C5-1

Solution 6 Closed loop control technology . . . . . . . . . . . . C6-1

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Table of contents

Part D
Appendix

Chapter 1 ProVis – Process visualisation software

1.1 System prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-2
1.2 Installation of ProVis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-2
1.3 Starting the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-3

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Preface

Preface

The Festo Didactic Learning System for Automation and Communica-

tions is designed to meet various training needs and professional re-
quirements and consists of the following training packages:
Basic packages provide basic knowledge covering a wide range of
technologies.
Technology packages deal with the important topics of open and
closed loop control technology.
Function packages explain the basic function of automated
systems.
Application packages facilitate vocational and further training in line
with industrial practice.

The authors have produced this book in order to present to you the
main training contents relating to the automation of continuous proces-
ses in a practice-related form intended for vocational and further train-
ing. To this end, the extensive experience available at Festo Didactic
and at the Department of Automation Technology at the Dresden Uni-
versity of Technology has been gathered and combined in the form of
this workbook.
The authors, Dr. Eng. H. Bischoff and Dr. Eng. D. Hofmann, both hold
posts at the Department of Automation Technology at the Dresden Uni-
versity of Technology and are responsible for student training in the
areas of project designing of automation systems, comprehensive prac-
tical training in process automation and the design of closed control
loops and binary control systems.
The authors feel that this workbook will provide a meaningful contribu-
tion towards application-related vocational and further training, and
hope that those who have studied the book will have gained some use-
ful knowledge.
All readers are invited to contribute with tips, criticisms and suggestions
for the further improvement of this book.

July 1997 The authors

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

6
Concept

Layout of the workbook

The workbook is made up as follows:

Section A – Course
Section B – Fundamentals
Section C – Solutions
Section D – Appendix

Section A – Course is designed to teach project design and closed

control loop synthesis with the help of practical exercises.
Section B – Fundamentals contains general technical knowledge as
an addition to the training contents of the practical exercises in Section
A. It provides an explanation of the essential technical terminology and
establishes the theoretical correlations with the help of examples.
Section C – Solutions represents the results of the practical exercises
and provides brief explanations.
Section D – Appendix contains the software for the ProVis process
visualisation.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 7
Notes on safety

Notes regarding safety and procedure

Notes regarding safety

The following advice should be followed in the interest of your own

safety:

General
Trainees must not work on the station unless supervised by a qualified
instructor.
Please observe the specifications given in the data sheets for the
individual components, and in particular all advice regarding safety!

Electrics
Electrical connections are to be wired up or disconnected only when
power is disconnected!
The heater is operated using 230 V AC. Please observe the current
safety regulations during commissioning!
(DIN VDE 0113 [EN 60204])

Mechanics
Mount all components on the plate.
The maximum operating temperature of the containers of + 65 °C
must not be exceeded.
Do not operate the heater, unless the heating element is fully immer-
sed in the fluid.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

8
Notes on safety

Notes regarding procedure

Prior to commissioning of the system, check all electrical connec-

tions and piping.
Do not fill the containers with contaminated fluids as this may block
the proportional valve and damage the pump seals.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A–1
Exercises

Part A

Exercises and Worksheets

Exercise 1 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . A1-1

Exercise 2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for

the project design of automation systems . . . . . . A2-1

Exercise 3 Closed control loop synthesis and design of

binary control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3-1

Exercise 4 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4-1

Exercise 5 Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors . . . . . . A5-1

Exercise 6 Closed loop control technology . . . . . . . . . . . . A6-1

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A–2
Exercises

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A1 – 1
Exercise 1

Title

Overview of project design process

Introduction and motivation

Those carrying out project design work on automation systems should

be skilled and have a comprehensive, general knowledge of at least the
main elements.

Part exercise 1-1

Name (in brief) the key areas involved in core project design!

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A1 – 2
Exercise 1

Part exercise 1-2

Explain in principle, the procedure for the linking of the core, electrical
and pneumatic projects.

Project components for

automation system

Pneumatic and Core project/ Electrical

hydraulic project EMCS project project

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A2 – 1
Exercise 2

Title

Core project design – Fundamental methodology

for the project design of automation systems

Introduction and motivation

One important part exercise of the project design work is the develop-
ment of the piping and installation (PI) flow diagram. As a rule, this is
based on a process flow diagram, also taking into consideration any
relevant comments.

Part exercise 2-1

Draft the PI flow diagram for the specified process flow diagram (Requi-
rements: Control of filling level in container 2 [B2]; monitoring of filling
levels in containers B2 and B1).

B2 L = 0.2 m

B1

P1 Filling level control –

Process flow diagram

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A2 – 2
Exercise 2

Complete the PI flow diagram.

Filling level control system – PI flow diagram

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A2 – 3
Exercise 2

Part exercise 2-2

Draft the PI flow diagram for the specified process flow diagram (Requi-
rements: Control of temperature in container B1; monitoring of filling
level and temperature in container B1).

Temperature
control system –
Process flow diagram

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A2 – 4
Exercise 2

Complete the PI flow diagram.

Temperature control system – PI flow diagram

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A2 – 5
Exercise 2

Part exercise 2-3

Draft the preliminary EMCS (Electronic Measuring Control System)

block diagrams for the EMCS points of the PI flow diagram created in
part exercise 2-1 (see solution, part exercise 2-1).

Complete the preliminary EMCS block diagrams.

Process control
console
Switchroom

M
Field level

Filling evel control system – EMCS block diagram – in draft form

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A2 – 6
Exercise 2

Part exercise 2-4

Draft the preliminary EMCS block diagrams for the EMCS points of the
PI flow diagram created in part exercise 2-2 (see solution, part exercise
2-2).

Complete the preliminary EMCS block diagram.

Process control
console
Switchroom
Field level

Temperature control system – EMCS block diagram – in draft form

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A2 – 7
Exercise 2

Part exercise 2-5

With the help of the project configuration (process control console,

switchroom and field level), draw up two examples of wiring (e. g. sim-
ple allocation of the switchroom terminal distributors X200.01 and
X200.02), whereby the terminal boxes/field level (X300, ...), the assem-
bly levels A and B (switchroom rack) and the terminal distributor
X100.01 (process control console) are to be used as additional compo-
nents.

PLC
Process control
console (PCC)

(Terminal
X100.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
distributor)

1 2 3 4
Measuring Measuring (Assembly position 3) (Assembly position 4) (Assembly
transducer transducer level A)
E1 E2 A1 A2 E1 E2 A1 A2 A

(Assembly
Switchroom

level B)
(SR)

B
Switchroom rack

(Terminal
X200.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X200.02 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 distributor)

Terminal box
Field level

X300.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X300.02 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(process)

(field level)

Process

Wiring routing (Part 1) – Project configuration

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A2 – 8
Exercise 2

X200.01
X300.01-1 A / 1 / E1
1
X300.01-2 A / 1 / E2
2
X100.01-7 A / 2 / E1
3
X100.01-8 A / 2 / E2
4

X200.02 (Terminal distributor)

A / 1 / A1 X100.01-1
1
A / 1 / A2 X100.01-2
2
A / 2 / A1 X300.01-3
3
Wiring routing (Part 2) – A / 2 / A2 X300.01-4
Terminal 4
distributor allocation

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A3 – 1
Exercise 3

Title

Closed control loop synthesis and design of

binary control systems

Introduction and motivation

The objective of the practical exercise is the commissioning of a filling

level control loop, i.e. the main points to be addressed by the student
are
Investigation of experimental areas,
Establishing of static behaviour of the controlled system,
Determining the dynamic behaviour of the controlled system,
Controller configuration and parameterisation and
Controller test

Part exercise 3-1

Investigate the method of operation of the filling level control loop

(closed control loop in manual operation, type of action of sensors
and actuators).
Develop a strategy for computer-aided measured-value acquisition.
Determine the static characteristic curve of the ultrasonic sensor, i.e.
the correlation between filling level and the respective current or volt-
age signal.
Note: Record a sufficient number of interpolation points.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A3 – 2
Exercise 3

Part exercise 3-2

Determine the static behaviour of the filling level control system.

Note: Record the corresponding controlled variable for each correc-
ting variable in the steady-state condition.
Represent the results in a diagram in the form of a static charac-
teristic.
Evaluate the static characteristics determined (e. g. linear/non-linear)
and compare the results with those determined in the theoretical pro-
cess analysis.
Define the operating point for the dynamic analysis (identification) of
the controlled system.

Part exercise 3-3

Determine the dynamic behaviour of the control system (identifica-

tion) for the selected operating point.
Note: Carry out step-change experiments around the selected opera-
ting point; observe the form of static characteristic curve to define
the step change height. Also, try to record the correcting variable in
parallel with the controlled variable.
Determine the characteristic values (proportional coefficient, time de-
lay, transient time) of the controlled system, using the inflectional
tangent method.
Note: If necessary, also establish an average of the measured
values. Use a sampling interval of 0.2 to 0.5 s for the data acquisi-
tion.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A3 – 3
Exercise 3

Part exercise 3-4

Determine a favourable controller configuration for the controlled

system behaviour.
Parameterise the controller according to the Chien, Hrones and Res-
wick method.
Set the controller parameters on the compact controller (Bürkert con-
troller).
Note: Please note that with the Bürkert compact industrial controller
Type 1110, the scale range also enters into the proportional coeffi-
cient KR.

Part exercise 3-5

Examine the control characteristics of the closed control loop around

the operating point (triggering of setpoint step-change).
Evaluate the results obtained according to the following criteria:
– How are the dynamics of the correcting variable to be evaluated?
– Does the controlled variable achieve the new setpoint value after a
finite time?
– Is it necessary to correct the set controller parameter?

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A3 – 4
Exercise 3

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A4 – 1
Exercise 4

Title

Process protection measures

Introduction and motivation

One important task of project design work is the definition ("estab-

lishing") of the necessary EMCS (Electronic Measuring Control System)
points. To do this, the extent and functional requirement of the EMCS
points are to be determined on the basis of a specified process flow
diagram and corresponding exercise definitions.
This task can only be accomplished on the basis of experience (heu-
ristics) and must therefore be sufficiently evolved using suitable exam-
ples.

Part exercise 4-1

Draft the PI flow diagram for the process flow diagram provided (fig. 4-1
Flow method A / Flow method B), integrating the EMCS functions for
control, monitoring, structure variation and process protection into the
process flow diagram in an adequate form.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A4 – 2
Exercise 4

Type of operation A

B32
0.2m LC

B31 L<0.35m
L>0.05m

Outflow
P31

Inflow
Type of operation B

B32
0.2m LC

B31 L<0.35m
L>0.05m

Outflow
P31

Fig. 4-1:
Process flow diagram for Inflow
filling level control

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A4 – 3
Exercise 4

Complete the PI flow diagram.

Fig. 4-2:
PI flow diagram for filling level control (Open and closed loop control and process protection)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A4 – 4
Exercise 4

Part exercise 4-2

Compile the EMCS points drawn up in part exercise 4-1 in a table

(EMCS points table), providing an explanation of the function of the
individual EMCS points.

EMCS point Function Closed loop Open loop control Process protection
control

Table: For functioning of EMCS points of PI flow diagram – Filling level control

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A5 – 1
Exercise 5

Title

Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors

Introduction and motivation

Pt100 temperature sensors are widely used in many parts of a system

and can be connected in a variety of different ways.

Part exercise 5-1

Determine the effects of the supply lines using 3-wire connection

– if Rl1 = Rl2 = Rl3, or

– with different Rl’s.

Rl1= Rl2= Rl3 Rl1= Rl2= Rl3

with short with long Rl1 increased Rl2 increased Rl3 increased
supply line supply line

Temperature
°C °C °C °C °C
displayed

Discuss the result.

Note
Conduct the measurements in quick succession at a constant water
temperature.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A5 – 2
Exercise 5

Part exercise 5-2

Determine the effects of the supply lines using two-wire connection.

– if Rl1 = Rl2, or
– with different Rl’s.

Rl1= Rl2 Rl1= Rl2

with short with long Rl1 increased Rl2 increased
supply line supply line

Temperature
°C °C °C °C
displayed

Discuss the result.

Note
Conduct the measurements in quick succession at a constant water
temperature.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A6 – 1
Exercise 6

Title

Closed loop control technology

Introduction and motivation

Technical controllers are component parts of automation systems,

whose main task is that of process stabilisation. Different methods are
used in practice to set the control parameters.
Exercise 6

Setting of control parameters to Ziegler/Nichols

– Determine the operating point:
Set the controller to ‘Manual’ and determine the possible control
range by means of changing the correcting variable. Select the
operating point so that the controller has sufficient "reserve" in
both modulation directions, (e. g. in the centre of the control ran-
ge).

Correcting variable Actual value

Y = 0% X1 =

Y = 100% X2 =

Selected operating point (X1 + X2) / 2:

W=
– Configure the controller as a P controller: To do this, set Tn at the
highest possible value (9999.) and Tv at 0.
– Determine the critical amplification Kr (stability limit, closed control
loop is in the process of carrying out continuous oscillation), by
analysing small setpoint step-changes around the operating point
after each newly set amplification. This determines the critical
amplification factor KKR and the period of oscillation Tk of this
continuous oscillation.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A6 – 2
Exercise 6

Kp closed control loop closed control loop

oscillates does not oscillate

10 Lower Kp Increase Kp

– Note:
The flow and filling level control systems have been selected in such
a way that the oscillating process can be observed without any auxi-
liary equipment (just eyes and ears).

Controlled system parameter

KKR

TK

– The control parameters Kp, Tn, and Tv are determined according to

controller type with the help of the table.

Controller type Kp Tn Tv

P 0.5 KKR – –

PI 0.4 KKR 0.85 • Tn –

PID 0.6 KKR 0.50 • TK 0,12 • TK

Selected parameters:

Controller type Kp Tn Tv

PI

PID

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 A6 – 3
Exercise 6

– Verify the determined control parameter of a PI controller by

carrying out a setpoint step-change from approx. 20 % to 60 % of
the modulation range.
– What is the closed control loop behaviour if you increase (e. g.
double) Tn?
– What is the closed control loop behaviour if you increase the am-
plification (e. g. by 30 %)?
– In addition, also carry out the setpoint step-changes.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

A6 – 4
Exercise 6

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B–1
Fundamentals

Part B

Fundamentals

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of closed-loop control technology

1.1 What is closed-loop control technology? . . . . . . . . . B1-2
1.2 What is a system? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-4
1.3 Open-loop and closed-loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-6
1.4 Basic terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-9
1.5 Controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-12
1.5.1 Description of the dynamic response
of a controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-14
1.6 Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-16
1.6.1 Control response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-17
1.6.2 Time response of a controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-18
1.6.3 Technical details of controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-20
1.7 Mode of operation of various controller types . . . . . B1-21
1.7.1 The proportional controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-21
1.7.2 The integral-action controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-23
1.7.3 The PI controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-24
1.7.4 The PD controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-25
1.7.5 The PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-26
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-27

Chapter 2 Projecting of automated systems

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-2
2.1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-2
2.1.2 Configuration of small-scale experimental system . . . . B2-2
2.1.3 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-4
2.2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for
the project design of automation systems . . . . . . . . B2-7
2.2.1 Comments regarding project configuration . . . . . . . . B2-7
2.2.2 Tender specification - Performance specification . . . . . B2-9
2.2.3 PI flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-11
2.2.4 EMCS block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-19
2.2.5 Notes regarding the project design of auxiliary power . B2-38
2.2.6 Notes regarding assembly project design . . . . . . . . B2-42

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Fundamentals

2.3 Closed control loop synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43

2.3.1 Introductory comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
2.3.2 Process analysis / Model configuration . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
2.3.3 Controller configuration and parameterisation . . . . . . B2-73
2.4 Selection of automation devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-83
2.4.1 Introductory comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-83
2.4.2 Essential fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-85
2.5 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102

Chapter 3 Commissioning and maintenance

3.1 Commissioning of
process and automation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-2
3.1.1 Introductory comments – Commissioning strategy . . . . B3-2
3.1.2 Connection of auxiliary power (Part 1 and Part 2) . . . . B3-4
3.1.3 Testing of closed control loops, binary control systems
and safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-10
3.1.4 Establishing the stand-by mode
of the technical process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-11
3.2 Upkeep of technical process systems
(small-scale experimental system) . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-12
3.3 Fault finding and error handling
– Damage prevention training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-13

Chapter 4 Fault finding

4.1 What is meant by maintenance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-2
4.1.1 Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
4.1.2 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
4.1.3 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-4
4.2 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction . . . . . . B4-5
4.2.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-5
4.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-7
4.3 Fault finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-7
4.3.1 Systematic fault finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-8
4.3.2 Fault documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-9
4.3.3 Fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-11
4.4 Final analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-12

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B1 – 1
Closed-loop control

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of closed-loop
control technology

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B1 – 2
Closed-loop control

This chapter outlines the differences between closed-loop and open-

loop control and gives an introduction to closed-loop control technology.
The control loop is explained, enabling you to carry out the following:
Recognize closed-loop control systems
Analyze a control loop
Understand the interaction of the individual systems
Set a controller
Evaluate control response

1.1 What is closed-loop control technology?

Variables such as pressure, temperature or flow-rate often have to be

set on large machines or systems. This setting should not change when
faults occur. Such tasks are undertaken by a closed-loop controller.
Control engineering deals with all problems that occur in this connec-
tion.
The controlled variable is first measured and an electrical signal is crea-
ted to allow an independent closed-loop controller to control the vari-
able.
The measured value in the controller must then be compared with the
desired value or the desired-value curve. The result of this comparison
determines any action that needs to be taken.
Finally a suitable location must be found in the system where the con-
trolled variable can be influenced (for example the actuator of a heating
system). This requires knowledge of how the system behaves.
Closed-loop control technology attempts to be generic – that is, to be
applicable to various technologies. Most text books describe this with
the aid of higher mathematics. This chapter describes the fundamentals
of closed-loop control technology with minimum use of mathematics.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Closed-loop control

Reference variable

In closed-loop control the task is to keep the controlled variable at the

desired value or to follow the desired-value curve. This desired value is
known as the reference variable.

Controlled variable

This problem occurs in many systems and machines in various techno-

logies. The variable that is subject to control is called the controlled
variable. Examples of controlled variables are:
Pressure in a pneumatic accumulator
Pressure of a hydraulic press
Temperature in a galvanizing bath
Flow-rate of coolant in a heat exchanger
Concentration of a chemical in a mixing vessel
Feed speed of a machine tool with electrical drive

Manipulated variable

The controlled variable in any system can be influenced. This influence

allows the controlled variable to be changed to match the reference
variable (desired value). The variable influenced in this way is called
the manipulated variable. Examples of manipulated variable are:
Position of the venting control valve of a air reservoir
Position of a pneumatic pressure-control valve
Voltage applied to the electrical heater of a galvanizing bath
Position of the control valve in the coolant feed line
Position of a valve in a chemical feed line
Voltage on the armature of a DC motor

Controlled system

There are complex relationships between the manipulated variable and

the controlled variable. These relationships result from the physical in-
terdependence of the two variables. The part of the control that descri-
bes the physical processes is called the controlled system.

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Closed-loop control

1.2 What is a system?

System

The controlled system has an input variable and an output variable. Its
response is described in terms of dependence of the output variable on
the input variable. These responses between one or several variables
can normally be described using mathematical equations based on phy-
sical laws. Such physical relationships can be determined by experi-
mentation.
Controlled systems are shown as a block with the appropriate input and
output variables (see Fig. B1-1).

Input variable Output variable

System

Fig. B1-1:
Block diagram of a
controlled system

Example
A water bath is to be maintained at a constant temperature. The water
bath is heated by a helical pipe through which steam flows. The flow
rate of steam can be set by means of a control valve. Here the control
system consists of positioning of the control valve and the temperature
of the water bath. This result in a controlled system with the input vari-
able "temperature of water bath" and the output variable "position of
control valve" (see Fig. B1-2).

Water
Steam

Control valve
Fig. B1-2:
Water bath Helical heating pipe
controlled system

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B1 – 5
Closed-loop control

The following sequences take place within the controlled system:

The position of the control valve affects the flow rate of steam through
the helical pipe.
The steam flow-rate determines the amount of heat passed to the
water bath.
The temperature of the bath increases if the heat input is greater
than the heat loss and drops if the heat input is less than the heat
loss.
These sequences give the relationship between the input and output
variables.

Advantage of creating a system

The advantage of creating a system with input and output variables and
representing the system as a block is that this representation separates
the problem from the specific equipment used and allows a generic
view. You will soon see that all sorts of controlled systems demonstrate
the same response and can therefore be treated in the same way.
Section B 1.4 contains more information on the behaviour of controlled
systems and their description.

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Closed-loop control

1.3 Open-loop and closed-loop control

Having defined the term "controlled system" it only remains to give defi-
nitions of closed-loop control as contained in standards. First it is useful
to fully understand the difference between open-loop control and
closed-loop control.
Open-loop control

German standard DIN 19 226 defines open-loop control as a process

taking place in a system where by one or more variables in the form of
input variables exert influence on other variables in the form of output
variables by reason of the laws which characterize the system.
The distinguishing feature of open-loop control is the open nature of its
action, that is, the output variable does not have any influence on the
input variable.

Example
Volumetric flow is set by adjusting a control valve. At constant applied
pressure, the volumetric flow is directly influenced by the position of the
control valve. This relationship between control valve setting and volu-
metric flow can be determined either by means of physical equation or
by experiment. This results in the definition of a system consisting of
the "valve" with the output variable "volumetric flow" and the input vari-
able "control valve setting" (see Fig. B1.3).

l/h

Applied pressure
p [bar]
Measuring
device
Control valve

Fig B1-3: Volumeric flow

3
Open-loop control of V [m /s]
volumetric flow setting

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B1 – 7
Closed-loop control

This system can be controlled by adjusting the control valve. This al-
lows the desired volumetric flow to be set.
However, if the applied pressure fluctuates, the volumetric flow will also
fluctuate. In this open system, adjustment must be made manually. If
this adjustment is to take place automatically, the system must have
closed-loop control.

Closed-loop control

DIN 19 226 defines closed-loop control as a process where the control-

led variable is continuously monitored and compared with the reference
variable. Depending on the result of this comparison, the input variable
for the system is influenced to adjust the output variable to the desired
value despite any disturbing influences. This feedback results in a
closed-loop action.
This theoretical definition can be clarified using the example of volume-
tric flow control.
Deviation

Example
The volumetric flow (the output variable) is to be maintained at the pre-
determined value of the reference variable. First a measurement is
made and this measurement is converted into an electrical signal. This
signal is passed to the controller and compared with the desired value.
Comparison takes place by subtracting the measured value from the
desired value. The result is the deviation.

Manipulating element

In order to automatically control the control valve with the aid of the
deviation, an electrical actuating motor or proportional solenoid is requi-
red. This allows adjustment of the controlled variable. This part is called
the manipulating element (see Fig. B1-4).

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Closed-loop control

Measuring element
Applied pressure Control valve Volumetric flow
3
p [bar] V [m /s]

Manipulated variable
Fig. B1-4: Reference variable
Closed-loop control
of volumetric flow

The controller now passes a signal to the manipulating element de-

pendent on the deviation. If there is a large negative deviation, that is
the measured value of the volumetric flow is greater than the desired
value (reference variable) the valve is closed further. If there is a large
positive deviation, that is the measured value is smaller than the desi-
red value, the valve is opened further.

Setting of the output variable is normally not ideal:

If the intervention is too fast and too great, influence at the input end
of the system is too large. This results in great fluctuations at the
output.
If influence is slow and small, the output variable will only approxi-
mate to the desired value.
In addition, different types of systems (control system) require different
control strategy. Systems that respond slowly must be adjusted careful-
ly and with forethought. This describes some of the control engineering
problems faced by the closed-loop control engineer.
Design of a closed-loop control requires the following steps:
Determine manipulated variable (thus defining the controlled system)
Determine the behaviour of the controlled system
Determine control strategy for the controlled system (behaviour of
the "controller" system)
Select suitable measuring and manipulating elements.

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Closed-loop control

1.4 Basic terminology

In Section B 1.3 we look at the difference between open-loop and

closed-loop control using the example of volumetric flow for a control
valve. In addition we look at the basic principle of closed-loop control
and basic terminology. Using this example, let’s take a closer look at
closed-loop control terminology.

Controlled variable x

The aim of any closed-loop control is to maintain a variable at a desired

value or on a desired-value curve. The variable to be controlled is
known as the controlled variable x. In our example it is the volumetric
flow.

Manipulated variable y

Automatic closed-loop control can only take place if the machine or

system offers a possibility for influencing the controlled variable. The
variable which can be changed to influence the controlled variable is
called the manipulated variable y. In our example of volumetric flow, the
manipulated variable is the drive current for the positioning solenoid.

Disturbance variable z

Disturbances occur in any controlled system. Indeed, disturbances are

often the reason why a closed-loop control is required. In our example,
the applied pressure changes the volumetric flow and thus requires a
change in the control valve setting. Such influences are called distur-
bance variables z.
The controlled system is the part of a controlled machine or plant in
which the controlled variable is to be maintained at the value of the
reference variable. The controlled system can be represented as a
system with the controlled variable as the output variable and the mani-
pulated variable as the input variable. In the example of the volumetric
flow control, the pipe system through which gas flows and the control
valve formed the control system.

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Closed-loop control

Reference variable w

The reference variable is also known as the set point. It represents the
desired value of the controlled variable. The reference variable can be
constant or may vary with time. The instantaneous real value of the
controlled variable is called the actual value w.

Deviation xd

The result of a comparison of reference variable and controlled variable

is the deviation xd:
xd = w - x

Control response

Control response indicates how the controlled system reacts to changes

to the input variable. Determination of the control response is one of the
aims of closed-loop control technology.

Controller

The controller has the task of holding the controlled variable as near as
possible to the reference variable. The controller constantly compares
the value of the controlled variable with the value of the reference vari-
able. From this comparison and the control response, the controller de-
termines and changes the value of the manipulating variable (see Fig.
B1-5).

Manipulated
Controlled variable x - Deviation xd Control variable y
response
(actual value) (algorithm)
+

Fig. B1-5: Reference variable w

Functional principle of (desired value)
a closed-loop control

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Closed-loop control

Manipulating element and servo-drive

The manipulating element adjusts the controlled variable. The manipu-

lating element is normally actuated by a special servo drive. A servo
drive is required if it is not possible for the controller to actuate the
manipulating element directly. In our example of volumetric flow control,
the manipulating element is the control valve.

Measuring element

In order to make the controlled variable accessible to the controller, it

must be measured by a measuring element (sensor, transducer) and
converted into a physical variable that can be processed by the control-
ler is an input.

Closed loop

The closed loop contains all components necessary for automatic clo-
sed-loop control (see Fig. B1-6).

Controlled Controlled variable x

system (actual value)

Manipulated
variable y

Controller Reference variable w

(desired value) Fig. B1-6:
Block diagram
of a control loop

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Closed-loop control

1.5 Controlled system

The controlled system is the part of a machine or plant in which the

controlled variable is to be maintained at the desired value and in which
manipulated variables compensate for disturbance variables. Input va-
riables to the controlled system include not only the manipulated vari-
able, but also disturbance variables.
Before a controller can be defined for a controlled system, the behav-
iour of the controlled system must be known. The control engineer is
not interested in technical processes within the controlled system, but
only in system behaviour.

Dynamic response of a system

The dynamic response of a system (also called time response) is an

important aspect. It is the time characteristic of the output variable (con-
trolled variable) for changes in the input variable. Particularly important
is behaviour when the manipulated variable is changed.
The control engineer must understand that nearly every system has a
characteristic dynamic response.
Example
In the example of the water bath in Section B1.2, a change in the
steam valve setting will not immediately change the output variable
temperature. Rather, the heat capacity of the entire water bath will
cause the temperature to slowly "creep" to the new equilibrium (see
Fig. B1-7).

Valve Temperature
setting water bath
Water bath

Valve
setting [%]

100

50

Time t
Temperature
water bath [°C]

80
70
60
Fig. B1-7: 50
Time response of 40
the controlled system Time t
"water bath"

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Closed-loop control

Example
In the example of a valve for volumetric flow control, the dynamic re-
sponse is rapid. Here, a change in the valve setting has an immediate
effect on flow rate so that the change in the volumetric flow rate output
signal almost immediately follows the input signal for the change of the
valve setting (see B1-8).

Valve Volumetric
Valve
setting flow
Valve
setting [%]

100

50

Time t
Volumetric
3
flow [m /s]

80
70
60
50
40
Fig. B1-8:
Time t
Time response of the
controlled system "valve"

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Closed-loop control

1.5.1 Description of the dynamic response of a

controlled system
In the examples shown in Fig. B1-7 and Fig. B1-8, the time response
was shown assuming a sudden change in input variable. This is a com-
monly used method of establishing the time response of system.

Step response

The response of a system to a sudden change of the input variable is

called the step response. Every system can be characterized by its step
response. The step response also allows a system to be described with
mathematical formulas.

Dynamic response

This description of a system is also known as dynamic response. Fig.

B1-9 demonstrates this. Here the manipulated variable y is suddenly
increased (see left diagram). The step response of the controlled vari-
able x is a settling process with transient overshoot.

y x

t t

Manipulated variable y Controlled Controlled variable x

system
Fig. B1-9:
Step response

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Closed-loop control

Equilibrium

Another characteristic of a system is its behaviour in equilibrium, the

static behaviour.

Static behaviour

Static behaviour of a system is reached when none of the variables

change with time. Equilibrium is reached when the system has settled.
This state can be maintained for an unlimited time.
The output variable is still dependent on the input variable – this de-
pendence is shown by the characteristic of a system.

Example
The characteristic of the "valve" system from our water bath example
shows the relationship between volumetric flow and valve position (see
Fig. B1-10).

3
Volumetric flow [m /s]

3
at applied pressure p

Fig. B1-10:
1 2 Valve setting y [mm] Characteristic curve of
the "valve" system

The characteristic shows whether the system is a linear or non-linear

system. If the characteristic is a straight line, the system is linear. In our
"valve" system, the characteristic is non-linear.
Many controlled systems that occur in practice are non-linear. However,
they can often be approximated by a linear characteristic in the range in
which they are operated.

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Closed-loop control

1.6 Controllers

The previous section dealt with the controlled system - the part of the
system which is controlled by a controller. This section looks at the
controller.
The controller is the device in a closed-loop control that compares the
measured value (actual value) with the desired value, and then calcu-
lates and outputs the manipulated variable. The above section showed
that controlled systems can have very different responses. There are
systems which respond quickly, systems that respond very slowly and
systems with storage property.
For each of these controlled systems, changes to the manipulated
variable y must take place in a different way. For this reason there are
various types of controller each with its own control response. The con-
trol engineer has the task of selecting the controller with the most suit-
able control response for the controlled system.

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Closed-loop control

1.6.1 Control response

Control response is the way in which the controller derives the manipu-
lated variable from the system deviation. There are two broad catego-
ries: continuous-action controllers and non-continuous-action control-
lers.

Continous-action controller

The manipulated variable of the continuous-

action controller changes continuously de-
pendent on the system deviation. Controllers
of this type give the value of the system de-
viation as a direct actuating signal to the
manipulating element. An example of this
type of controller is the centrifugal governor.
It changes its moment of inertia dependent
on speed, and thus has a direct influence on
speed.

Non-continous-action controller

The manipulated variable of a non-continuous-action controller can only

be changed in set steps. The best-known non-continuous-action con-
troller is the two-step control that can only assume the conditions "on"
or "off".
An example is the thermostat of an iron. It switches the electric current
for the heating element on or off depending on the temperature.

Temperature

Bi-metallic switch

Heating
element

This section only deals with continuous-action controllers as these are

more commonly used in automation technology. Further, the fundamen-
tals of closed-loop control technology can be better explained using the
continuous-action controller as an example.

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Closed-loop control

1.6.2 Time response of a controller

Every controlled system has its own time response. This time response
depends on the design of the machine or system and cannot be influ-
enced by the control engineer. The time response of the controlled
system must be established through experiment or theoretical analysis.
The controller is also a system and has its own time response. This
time response is specified by the control engineer in order to achieve
good control performance.
The time response of a continuous-action controller is determined by
three components:
Proportional component (P component)
Integral component (I component)
Differential component (D component)
The above designations indicate how the manipulated variable is calcu-
lated from the system deviation.

Proportional controller

In the proportional controller, the ma-

nipulated variable output is proportio- Input

nal to the system deviation. If the

system deviation is large, the value t
of the manipulated variable is large.
If the system deviation is small, the
value of the manipulated variable is Output
small. As the manipulated variable is
proportional to the system deviation,
the manipulated variable is only pre- t

sent if there is a system deviation.

For this reason, a proportional controller alone cannot achieve a system
deviation of zero. In this case no manipulated variable will be present
and there would therefore be no control.

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Closed-loop control

Integral-action controller

An integral-action controller adds the

system deviation over time, that is it
is integrated. For example, if a
Input system deviation is constantly
present, the value of the manipulated
variable continues to increase as it is
t dependent on summation over time.
However, as the value of the mani-
pulated variable continues to increa-
Output
se, the system deviation decreases.
This process continues until the sy-
t stem deviation is zero. Integral-action
controllers or integral components in
controllers are therefor used to avoid
permanent system deviation.

Differential-action controller

The differential component evaluates

the speed of change of the system
Input deviation. This is also called differen-
tiation of the system deviation. If the
system deviation is changing fast,
t the manipulated variable is large. If
the system deviation is small, the va-
lue of manipulated variable is small.
Output
A controller with D component alone
does not make any sense, as a ma-
t nipulated variable would only be pre-
sent during change in the system de-
viation.
A controller can consist of a single component, for example a P control-
ler or an I controller. A controller can also be a combination of several
components - the most common form of continuous-action controller is
the PID controller.

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Closed-loop control

1.6.3 Technical details of controllers

In automation technology controllers are almost exclusively electrical or
electronic. Although mechanical and pneumatic controllers are often
shown as examples in text books, they are hardly ever found in modern
systems.
for voltage 0 ... 10V -10 ... +10V

for current 0 ... 20mA 4 ... 20mA

Electrical and electronic controllers work with electrical input and output
signals. The transducers are sensors which convert physical variables
into voltage or current. The manipulating elements and servo drives are
operated by current or voltage outputs. Theoretically, there is no limit to
the range of these signals. In practice, however, standard ranges have
become established for controllers:
Internal processing of signals in the controller is either analog with ope-
rational amplifier circuits or digital with microprocessor systems
In circuits with operational amplifiers, voltages and currents are pro-
cessed directly in the appropriate modules.
In digital processing, analog signals are first converted into digital
signals. After calculation of the manipulated variable in the micropro-
cessor, the digital value is converted back into an analog value.
Although theoretically these two types of processing have to be dealt
with very differently, there is no difference in the practical application of
classical controllers.

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Closed-loop control

1.7 Mode of operation of various controller types

This section explains the control response of various controller types

and the significance of parameters. As in the explanation of controlled
systems, the step response is used for this description. The input vari-
able to the controller is the system deviation – that is, the difference
between the desired value and the actual value of the controlled vari-
able.

1.7.1 The proportional controller

Proportional controller

In the case of the proportional controller, the actuation signal is propor-

tional to the system deviation. If the system deviation is large, the value
of the manipulated variable is large. If the system deviation is small, the
value of the manipulated variable is small. The time response of the P
controller in the ideal state is exactly the same as the input variable
(see Fig. B1-11).

xd y

y0
x0
t t

System deviation xd Manipulated variable y

Controller
Fig. B1-11:
Time response of
the P controller

The relationship of the manipulated variable to the system deviation is

the proportional coefficient or the proportional gain. These are designa-
ted by xp, Kp or similar. These values can be set on a P controller. It
determines how the manipulated variable is calculated from the system
deviation. The proportional gain is calculated as:
Kp = y0 / x0

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Closed-loop control

If the proportional gain is too high, the controller will undertake large
changes of the manipulating element for slight deviations of the control-
led variable. If the proportional gain is too small, the response of the
controller will be too weak resulting in unsatisfactory control.
A step in the system deviation will also result in a step in the output
variable. The size of this step is dependent on the proportional gain. In
practice, controllers often have a delay time, that is a change in the
manipulated variable is not undertaken until a certain time has elapsed
after a change in the system deviation. On electrical controllers, this
delay time can normally be set.
An important property of the P controller is that as a result of the rigid
relationship between system deviation and manipulated variable, some
system deviation always remains. The P controller cannot compensate
this remaining system deviation.

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Closed-loop control

1.7.2 The I controller

Integral-action controller

The I controller adds the system deviation over time. It integrates the
system deviation. As a result, the rate of change (and not the value) of
the manipulated variable is proportional to the system deviation. This is
demonstrated by the step response of the I controller: if the system
deviation suddenly increases, the manipulated variable increases conti-
nuously. The greater the system deviation, the steeper the increase in
the manipulated variable (see Fig. B1-12).

xd y

t t

System deviation xd Manipulated variable y

Controller
Fig. B1-12:
Time response of
the I controller

For this reason the I controller is not suitable for totally compensating
remaining system deviation. If the system deviation is large, the mani-
pulated variable changes quickly. As a result, the system deviation be-
comes smaller and the manipulated variable changes more slowly until
equilibrium is reached.
Nonetheless, a pure I controller is unsuitable for most controlled
systems, as it either causes oscillation of the closed loop or it responds
too slowly to system deviation in systems with a long time response. In
practice there are hardly any pure I controllers.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B1 – 24
Closed-loop control

1.7.3 The PI controller

PI controller

The PI controller combines the behaviour of the I controller and P con-

troller. This allows the advantages of both controller types to be combi-
ned: fast reaction and compensation of remaining system deviation. For
this reason, the PI controller can be used for a large number of control-
led systems. In addition to proportional gain, the PI controller has a
further characteristic value that indicates the behaviour of the I compo-
nent: the reset time (integral-action time).

Reset time

The reset time is a measure for how fast the controller resets the mani-
pulated variable (in addition to the manipulated variable generated by
the P component) to compensate for a remaining system deviation. In
other words: the reset time is the period by which the PI controller is
faster than the pure I controller. Behaviour is shown by the time re-
sponse curve of the PI controller (see Fig. B1-13).

xd y

t t
Tr
Tr = reset time

System deviation xd Manipulated variable y

Fig. B1-13: Controller
Time response of
the PI controller

The reset time is a function of proportional gain Kp as the rate of

change of the manipulated variable is faster for a greater gain. In the
case of a long reset time, the effect of the integral component is small
as the summation of the system deviation is slow. The effect of the
integral component is large if the reset time is short.
The effectiveness of the PI controller increases with increase in gain Kp
and increase in the I-component (i.e., decrease in reset time). However,
if these two values are too extreme, the controller’s intervention is too
coarse and the entire control loop starts to oscillate. Response is then
not stable. The point at which the oscillation begins is different for every
controlled system and must be determined during commissioning.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B1 – 25
Closed-loop control

1.7.4 The PD controller

PD controller

The PD controller consists of a combination of proportional action and

differential action. The differential action describes the rate of change of
the system deviation.
The greater this rate of change – that is the size of the system devia-
tion over a certain period – the greater the differential component. In
addition to the control response of the pure P controller, large system
deviations are met with very short but large responses. This is expres-
sed by the derivative-action time (rate time).

Derivative-action time

The derivative-action time Td is a measure for how much faster a PD

controller compensates a change in the controlled variable than a pure
P controller. A jump in the manipulated variable compensates a large
part of the system deviation before a pure P controller would have
reached this value. The P component therefore appears to respond
earlier by a period equal to the rate time (see Fig. B1-14).

xd y

t t
Td
Td = derivative-action time

System deviation xd Manipulated variable y

Controller Fig. B1-14:
Time response of
the PD controller

Two disadvantages result in the PD controller seldom being used. First-

ly, it cannot completely compensate remaining system deviations.
Secondly, a slightly excessive D component leads quickly to instability
of the control loop. The controlled system then tends to oscillate.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B1 – 26
Closed-loop control

1.7.5 PID controller

PID controller

In addition to the properties of the PI controller, the PID controller is

complemented by the D component. This takes the rate of change of
the system deviation into account.
If the system deviation is large, the D component ensures a momentary
extremely high change in the manipulated variable. While the influence
of the D component falls of immediately, the influence of the I compo-
nent increases slowly. If the change in system deviation is slight, the
behaviour of the D component is negligible (see Section B1.6.2).
This behaviour has the advantage of faster response and quicker com-
pensation of system deviation in the event of changes or disturbance
variables. The disadvantage is that the control loop is much more prone
to oscillation and that setting is therefore more difficult.
Fig. B1-15 shows the time response of a PID controller.

xd y

t t
Tr Td Tr = reset time
Td = derivative-action time

System deviation xd Manipulated variable y

Fig. B1-15: Controller
Time response of
the PID controller

Derivative-action time

As a result of the D component, this controller type is faster than a P

controller or a PI controller. This manifests itself in the derivative-action
time Td. The derivative-action time is the period by which a PID control-
ler is faster than the PI controller.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B1 – 27
Closed-loop control

1.8 Summary

Here is a summary of the most important points to be taken into ac-

count when solving control problems.
1. Assignment of controlled variables
Which machine or plant variable is the controlled variable, reference
variable, manipulated variable etc. Where and how do disturbance
variables occur? The selection of sensors and actuators is based on
these factors.
2. Division of the control problem into systems
Where is the controlled variable measured? Where can the system
be influenced? What is the nature of the individual systems?
3. Controlled system
Where is the controlled variable to be adjusted to the desired value?
What is the time response of the controlled system (slow or fast)?
The choice of controller response is based on these factors.
4. Controller
What type of control response is required? What time response must
the controller have, particularly with regard to fault conditions? What
values must the controller parameters have?
5. Controller type
What type of controller must be implemented? Does the time re-
sponse and controlled system require a P, I, PI or PID controller?

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B1 – 28
Closed-loop control

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 1
Project design

Chapter 2

Project design of
automation systems

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 2
Project design

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Motivation
Based on the fact that currently engineering training in the field of auto-
mation technology is principally dominated by the theory of open and
closed loop control, the main purpose of this training concept is to pro-
vide would-be practical automation specialists with a sound knowledge
of automation methods and project design methods for automation
systems. In the sense of holistic training this means that training mat-
ters such as the selection and sizing of automation equipment, project
design methods, information, electrotechnology, as well as open and
closed loop theory must always be taught within a joint context, demon-
strated through relevant, practical examples and consolidated by means
of practical exercises (learning by doing).
With this type of vocational and further training of engineers and other
specialists in mind, many years’ experience has been gathered by both
Festo Didactic (e. g. Modular Production System / MPS), and the De-
partment of Automation of the Technical University of Dresden, and, as
part of a joint project, used to design and develop a small-scale trial
station for the automation of continuous processes as in process tech-
nology.

2.1.2 Configuring a small-scale experimental module

Adopting the idea of automating process technology operations as a
starting point, the first important point is the question regarding process
parameters. By evaluating the experiences gained, typical process
parameters such as filling level, throughput, pressure, temperature and
quality (pH value) have been incorporated into suitable modules (pro-
cess technology modules) based on the well-known MPS concept.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 3
Project design

This means that these modules represent individual process sections

and are designed according to a standard structure (fig. B2-1).

Industrial process section/process technology module

e.g. • Temperature module

• Filling level module
• Flow module Terminal
Process section box-field level
• Pressure module*
(PS) (TBF) for
• pH-value/ EMCS signals
quality module*
TBF

Module

Base plate
(for module configuration) Display/operating module – local (optional)
Supply of electrical auxiliary energy

Fig. B2-1:
Design of a
* currently being developed at the Department of Automation
process technology module

As such, the modules filling level, throughput, pressure, temperature

and quality are available for individual use, but can also be combined or
duplicated via a central EMCS (Electronic Measuring Control System)
terminal and operated as a complex process technology system (fig.
B2-2).

Pipe connections – various connection options

KKF 1 KKF 2 KKF 3

PA 1 PA 2 PA 3 EMCS connections
(wiring)
– freely applicable on
EMCS terminal point-
Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 field level

EMCS terminal point – field level

Process control technology

Moveable

EMCS terminal point – process control console

Fig. B2-2:
Process control technology Configuration of the
Fixed process technology
modules

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 4
Project design

2.1.3 Overview of project design procedure

As already mentioned, the holistic training concept requires the tea-
ching of a sound knowledge of the different training contents typical of
automation technology, plus their integration into an effective project
design methodolgy. Fig. B2-3 provides an initial clarification of the ex-
tent and technical diversity of the exercises to be completed.

Open and
Automation Electrical Pneumatics/ Information
closed-loop
tools technology Hydraulics technology
control technology

Use of CAE
Determining
Determining resources Design and
Selecting the
the for commissioning
and auxiliary
required project design of closed control
sizing of energy
power; and the loops and binary
sensors/ requirements,
distribution of design of control systems;
actuators distribution
electrical closed-loop integration into
and of this
auxiliary control systems automation
processors auxiliary
energy and binary concepts
energy
control systems
Fig. B2-3:
Overview of extent
and technical diversity of
of the basic knowledge
involved in the
project design of Project design of automation systems
automation systems

The broad knowledge base required for this can only be mastered and
put to effective use for project design work by means of a systematic
approach (project design know-how). From this viewpoint alone, the
small-scale trial station represents an important auxiliary means for the
tuition of the necessary training contents and for the development of the
required technical and practical competence by means of systematically
applying the "learning by doing" concept.
If you now set the task of working through a project design task using
the example of this small-scale trial station or an industrial installation in
process technology, the project design know-how forms the crucial
basis for this. Fig. B2-4 therefore provides an initial introduction of the
scope and sequence of the actual project design work in the form of an
overview.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 5
Project design

The starting point of every automation project are the project require-
ments, which are placed on the automation system. Generally, an invi-
tation to tender is drawn up by the customer for this which, in the sense
of the traditional DIN interpretation is characterised by the specification
and process flow diagram. The contractor, as a rule the project design
company, draws up a proposal (including quotation) and documents the
project design work (specification) to be completed via a so-called con-
figurational draft in the form of the PI flow diagram (piping and installa-
tion flow diagram).

Core project –
Project requirements

• Tender specification/
Problem definition
• Process flow diagram

Pneumatic and Core project – Electrical

hydraulic project Configurational draft project
Project design of • PI flow diagram Project design of
pneumatic and
• EMCS block diagrams electrical auxiliary
hydraulic auxiliary
– preliminary energy supply
energy supply

Core project –
Final draft

• EMCS block diagrams

– final
• Wiring lists

Assembly project design

and commissioning

• Assembly project
• Commissioning
specifications Fig. B2-4:
Sequence and content of
project design work

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 6
Project design

These tasks are drawn up in the form of a complete set of project

documentation by means of the preliminary EMCS block diagrams
(electronic measuring control system block diagram) and the final draft
(final EMCS block diagrams/wiring lists).
The subsequent assembly project design also forms part of the project
design task and ensures the assembly of the automation system in the
sense of the desired performance range. Finally, some additional tasks
need to be fulfilled for the commissioning of this automation system
(e.g. specifications for the controller configuration and parameterisa-
tion), which form an essential component part of this overall project.
Of parallel importance to the project design of this EMCS part, is the
implementation of the electrical and the pneumatic and hydraulic pro-
ject. Fig. B2-4 provides a schematic illustration of the interaction of
these three project components.
The core project design now provides a methodology, which sets out
the systematic preparation of this broad spectrum of tasks (the core
project), and at the same time the linking up with the additional project
design tasks (electrical project / pneumatic and hydraulic project).
In summary of fig. B2-4, the core project design (the core project) also
encompasses the allocation of the specification, the PI flow diagram
and list of EMCS points, the EMCS preliminary block diagrams with the
so-called fittings lists and allocation lists, including wiring lists. More-
over, the components System Assembly and Commissioning of the
automation system are identified.
To begin with, the core project design is discussed in detail in order to
provide a better understanding.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 7
Project design

2.2 Core project design – Basic methodology for

the project design of automation systems

2.2.1 Comments regarding project configuration

In practice, process technology, as on the small-scale experimental mo-
dules, an automation system, apart from the field instrumentation (sen-
sors/actuators), is dominated by process control and instrumentation
technology. These tools for automation are fitted into a basic structure
of the automation system, which is universally accepted as a means of
reference. This basic configuration comprises the typical components
process control console, switchroom and fieldlevel (fig. B2-5) and clear-
ly sets out the use of the tools for automation, which are important as
far as project design is concerned.

Components – Process Process flow diagram

control console (PCC)
Process control system
Automation equipment
Processors
Compact controller and
PLC and process control
technology/display technology

Control cabinets/container system

Components –
switchroom (SR)

Automation equipment

Measuring transducers

Components –
Process/field level (local)

PI LI+
305
Automation equipment LI-

Sensors and actuators

(analogue / binary)

Fig. B2-5:
Basic structure of an
automation system

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 8
Project design

According to this, it is possible to proceed on the assumption of the

following allocation:
Process control console ⇒ Processor technology / PLC technology
Switchroom ⇒ Measuring transducer technology
Process / Field level ⇒ Sensors / Actuators and
measuring transducer technology

By recollecting the basic configuration of the single-loop control loop

and the binary control system (fig. B2-6) in this conjunction, it is also
possible allocate these in the basic configuration with the help of the
automation tools used. This also works for the simple measuring chain
(separate measuring point).
Finally, it is crucial to define all the EMCS points (electronic measuring
and control points) required for the solution of an automation task.
As already established, the tender specification or customer’s invitation
to tender is generally available for this, on the basis of which the desi-
gner (contractor) can draw up the specification.

Process input signals Prozess output signals

(analogue/binary) (analogue/binary)

Interference Process
Z xe (controlled xa
system/
Utilisation of information contol circuit) Processing acquisition
via via

Actuators/control technology y Sensors/measuring technology

(analogue/binary) Control signals (analogue/binary)
(analogue/binary)
Measuring transducers Measuring transducers
Setpint values (analogue/binary =
Processors /
W installation point of
controller
binary sensors
Processing of information via

Compact controller as well as PLC

and process control technology/
display technology

Fig. B2-6:
Automation equipment of a single-loop closed control loop and the binary control system

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 9
Project design

2.2.2 Tender specification – performance specification

VDI/VDE 3694 formally specifies that the tender specification or perfor-
mance specification forms the basis of any automation project, i.e. ac-
cording to VDI/VDE
The tenderspecification contains the requirements from the user’s
viewpoint, including all parameter conditions

"The tender specification defines,

WHAT is to be solved and the PURPOSE of the solution ".

(The tender specification is drawn up by the customer or commis-

sioned by him. It acts as a basis for the invitation to bid, the quota-
tion and/or contract basis.)

and

the performance specification contains the tender specification and

also details the user tasks and, enlarging on the tender specification,
describes the implementation requirements, taking into consideration
concrete solution approaches.

"The performance specification defines

HOW and WITH WHAT the requirements are to be implemented."

(The performance specification is generally drawn up by the contrac-

tor in cooperation with the customer once the order has been
placed.)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 10
Project design

In industrial practice, reference is almost always made to the invitation

to tender again, which also defines the process technology and the
corresponding automation tasks, although generally not to the extent
and depth required for the tender specifications as specified in
VDI/VDE 3694. It is therefore essential for the contractor (project de-
signer) to give maximum consideration to the planning and calculation
of his quotation (performance specification), i.e. contents, size and
costs of the automation project to be realised.
For a tried and tested practical approach, the project design engineer
should therefore start with an analysis and the functional sequence of
the respective process technology (evaluation of the process flow dia-
gram, including the corresponding process description).
The process flow diagram for continuous processes is drawn up accor-
ding to DIN 28004 guidelines and is the diagrammatic representation of
the piping and devices. An attached description and additional entries
of process parameters in the process flow diagram complete the initial
general documentation of the process technology and automation
tasks. As such, it becomes necessary to define in detail the automation
tasks (EMCS points). This is done by entering the EMCS points in the
process flow diagram, i.e. the process flow diagram becomes the PI
flow diagram.
The PI flow diagram is therefore the first concrete project step, which
defines the number and function of the required EMCS points.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 11
Project design

2.2.3 PI flow diagram

Symbols

As detailed, the necessary EMCS points are entered in the process

flow diagram, and the number and function of the individual EMCS
points precisely defined.
To obtain a PI flow diagram in conformance with the standard (DIN
19227/Part 1), the type, inclusion into the basic structure of the auto-
mation system and the functionality (letter code) are to be defined in
accordance with steps 1 to 3:

Step 1 – Type of EMCS point

Depending on the functional scope of the EMCS point (designation
scope of letter code) the following symbols are used

Round
and

Oblong

if a process control system is used

Square with
inscribed circle
and
Rectangle with
inscribed oblong

or if a programmable logic controller is used

(PLC technology)

Hexagon

and

extended hexagon

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 12
Project design

Step 2 – Integration of EMCS point into the basic structure of the

automation system
If we go back to the basic structure of the automation system intro-
duced in section 2.2.1, the EMCS point initially determined according
to type is to be further modified into

EMCS point -"local / local"

(in the process / at field level
/ of the installation),

EMCS point process control console

and
EMCS point local control console.

The project designer also defines what the EMCS point will be or
which components of the basic structure of the automation system it
will cover.

Step 3 – Functional content of EMCS point

The functional content of the respective EMCS point is uniquely defi-
ned by the letter code; the letter code selected for each EMCS point
specifies whether it is to be entered in the process flow diagram as a
separate measuring point, closed control loop or binary measuring
system.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 13
Project design

Letter code of PI flow diagram

In accordance with DIN 19227 (Part 1/Sheet 6), the use of the letter
code and the design of the PI flow diagram (interpretation of the EMCS
point) are explained with the help of the introductory example (fig. B2-7).

Initial letter
T Temperature
Second letter
I Display
1st subsequent letter
A Alarm devices
TIAH
2nd subsequent letter
117 H High/upper limit value
Container
Fig. B2-7:
Introductory example
EMCS point number demonstrating the
letter code in the
PI flow diagram
(using the example of a
temperature measuring
point)

Generally, letters are to be used in the following order:

Initial letter for typical process technology process parameters, e. g.
T – Temperature
P – Pressure
F – Flow rate / throughput
L – Filling level /height and
Q – Quality (e. g. pH-value)

Second letters for the modification of these process parameters, e. g.

D – Difference
F – Relationship
J – Measuring point sensing

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 14
Project design

Subsequent letters (1st subsequent letter/2nd subsequent letter) – for

the typical functions for the automation of process technology opera-
tions, e. g.
C – Closed loop control
I – Display
R – Registration
S – Circuit, sequence control/logic control system and
Y – Arithmetic function
The EMCS point number which is also defined in the introductory ex-
ample is introduced dependent on the project and can, for instance,
comprise three, four or more characters.

Selected examples

In accordance with the main process sections of process technology

(see for instance small-scale trial system), a number of different exam-
ples are set out to provide a complete overview of EMCS points in the
diagram.

EMCS point 1
(Pressure measurement with display at process control console)

PI PDI
305 707

Container EMCS point 3

(Differential pressure
LIAL with local display)
306
Piping system

Fig. B2-8: EMCS point 2

Representation of separate (filling level measurement with display and
measuring points alarm facility at process control console)
(in PI flow diagram)

To begin with, the type of each of the EMCS points in the example
shown in fig. B2-8 is used to demonstrate how the different measuring
points on containers or the piping system are represented in a form
which conforms to DIN.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 15
Project design

Based on this form, the entering of closed control loops also becomes
clear. Fig. B2-9 illustrates that, apart from the letter code for the
functions of the closed control loop, this symbolic representation also
defines the measuring place (the measuring signal) and the actuator
with manipulation point (actuating signal).
Finally, the binary control systems also have an important part within
the framework of the extent of EMCS points. Fig. B2-10 also shows an
example of how the binary control system fit into the PI flow diagram.
Again, the measuring place (measuring signal) and actuator with mani-
pulation point (control signal) have been entered for the EMCS points.

a)
EMCS point 1 (flow control at
process control console)
FIC
315 Measuring signal
Control signal (controlled variable x)
y
Container
Outflow
(to consuming device)
Pump

b)
EMCS point 2 (filling level control at
process control console)
LIC
320
Control signal Measuring signal
y (controlled variable x)

Pump
Container
Outflow
(to consuming device) Fig. B2-9:
Representation of
closed control loops
(in PI flow diagram)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 16
Project design

Notes regarding the planning of the actuating method

Further to the examples demonstrated in B2-9 and B2-10, some addi-

tional information is required regarding the use of symbols for the ac-
tuators (actuating devices), because even at the stage of drawing up
the PI flow diagram, the project design engineer already needs to know,
which actuating devices are to be used. A closed control loop always
entails the use of an actuating device consisting of actuator and regula-
ting valve/proportional valve, and for the binary control system an ac-
tuator with on/off valve (binary valve). This valve specification does not
make the PI flow diagram explicitly clear, but merely enables the
placing of the valve type used by looking at the letter code of the
EMCS point.

EMCS point 1 (filling level control at

process control console)
LIC
320 EMCS point 2 (binary control system
with upper and lower limit value
monitoring at process control console)

Inflow

Control On/off LSO±

valve valve Container 322

Outflow
Fig. B2-10: (towards
Representation of On/off
valve consuming
binary control systems device)
(in PI flow diagram)

In contrast with this, the actuator is already easy to classify from the PI
flow diagram. Hence, actuators (actuating devices) using pneumatic
auxiliary energy are often used which, apart from the advantages of–
high correcting speed/ruggedness – assume the preferred state "on" or
"off" in the event of failure of the air supply, depending on the construc-
tional arrangement of the spring (see fig. B2-11). The majority of electri-
cal actuators, for instance, do not have this characteristic and remain in
the position assumed at the time of failure of the electrical auxiliary
energy.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 17
Project design

Symbol Meaning in PI flow diagram

Final control element/actuator with valve

(control or on/off valve) –
closing in the event of auxiliary energy failure

Final control element/actuator with valve

(control or on/off valve) –
opening in the event of auxiliary energy failure

Final control element/actuator with control valve – Fig. B2-11:

steady-state in the event of auxiliary energy failure Method of operation of
servo controlled equipment
(in PI flow diagram)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 18
Project design

The practical implementation of the PI flow diagram

The PI flow diagram therefore forms the definitive basis for further reali-
sation of the automation system project with regard to technical en-
gineering. This requires a corresponding project classification, e. g. for
the selection of sensors, actuators and processors. Within this context,
the selection of sensors and actuators is also designated in the form of
field instrumentation and the additionally required second task of confi-
guration in the form of – selection of the process control technology –.
This enables the task to be subdivided and very often translated into
practical team work. This means that, one section of the team prepares
the field level instrumentation, and the other section the selection and
commissioning of the process control system.
To provide a better understanding, the small-scale trial system is used
as an example to introduce the official PI flow diagram in accordance
with DIN, followed by the PI flow diagram variant favoured by the De-
partment of Automation. The latter is also within the framework of DIN
19227, but specifies the allocated sensors as additional EMCS point for
each closed loop control and binary control system. This creates a
central interface, the EMCS points terminal, which provides the field
signals for the connection of the process control technology (figs. B2-12
and B2-13).

optional operation of filling level control

in B4 or B5 by retrofitting of ultrasonic sensor
FIC
20
TIC
1 2 10

HSO
LIC
30
B2 20
B4 B5

V7 B1
V12 LS
V11 B3 M M Vr7 10

V9
V8
P3 P2 Vout1
V10
Outflow

V6 V4 V2

Vout3 Vout2 V5 V3 V1
a a

Outflow Outflow
P1
M

Filling level module Flow module Temperature module

Fig. B2-12:
PI flow diagram conforming to DIN

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 19
Project design

2.2.4 EMCS block diagrams

Introductory comments

Within the framework of the core project design, the PI flow diagrams
are followed by the so-called EMCS block diagrams. In the sense of a
level-graded project specification, a preliminary EMCS block diagram
and a final EMCS diagram are prepared for each EMCS point, where-
by the preliminary EMCS block diagram defines the connection of the
automation equipment involved in the configuration of an EMCS point
and the final EMCS block diagram documents the detailed wiring based
on this.

FIC
LI 20
30 TIC
1 2 10

HSO
FI
LI B2 20
20
31
B4 B5
LIC
30
V7 B1
V12 LIA-
TI
10
V11 B3 M M Vr7 10 LS
10
V9
V8
P3 P2 Vout1
V10
Outflow

V6 V4 V2

Vout3 Vout2 V5 V3 V1
a a

Outflow Outflow
P1
M

Filling level module Flow module Temperature module

Fig. B2-13:
PI flow diagram – modified

Again, suitable symbols are used when drawing up these EMCS block
diagrams to indicate how the so-called standardised signals are used to
connect the automation devices deployed.
To provide a better understanding, this standardised signal concept is
therefore described in greater detail first.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 20
Project design

Concept of standardised signals

Working on the premises of the basic structure of the automation

system specified in fig. B2-5 and taking into consideration the individual
automation devices allocated, the question of simple and clear inter-
connectability of these different types of automation equipment is of
some importance, particularly when considering the wide range of pro-
ducts on offer from the various automation equipment manufacturers.
The introduction of the so-called standardised signals solves this prob-
lem.
Today, these standardised signals are used worldwide by manufac-
turers of automation equipment
for electrical auxiliary energy
4...20 mA (preferably)
0...20 mA
0...5 mA
0...10 V
-10 V...+10 V

for pneumatic auxiliary energy

20 kPa...100 kPa or
0.2 bar ...1 bar

Fig. B2-14 demonstrates this way of thinking and as such expands on

the contents of fig. B2-5.
This standard conforming representation of the integration of stand-
ardised signals into the structure of the automation system is used as a
basis for the creation of the following project documentation.
At the same time, it can be seen that advanced automation tools are
generally moving towards the use of standardised signals, i.e. sensors
immediately provide standardised signals or the actuators are directly
pressurised (e. g. pneumatic actuating devices) by means of stand-
ardised signals. As such, the integration of the standardised signals
shown in fig. B2-14 is modified so that, as shown in fig. B2-15, a direct
connection is realised between process and process control system (eli-
mination of measuring transducer and signal converter). The switch-
room is therefore only used to provide the electrical auxiliary energy
(power supply) and for the so-called routing of field signals. This routing
of field signals takes place in such a way that their distribution to the
basic units of the process control system used offers the best possible
process reliability (redundancy thanks to favourable distribution of moni-
toring signals).

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Project design

Components –
Process control
console (PCC)
Process control system

Electrical EMCS terminal point

standardised – process control console
signals

Components –
Switchroom
(SR)
Power
Measuring transducers/
current
signal converters
supply

Natural measuring signals/

pneumatic standardised
signals/ control signals –
pneumatic or electrical

Components –
process/field Terminal box-field level
level (local) (TBF)

Process Fig. B2-14:

with sensors and actuators Introduction of
standardised signals
into automation system
structure

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 22
Project design

Components –
process control
console (PCC)
Process control system

Electrical EMCS terminal point –

standardised process control console
signals

Components –
switchroom (SR)

Power
Control console racks
current
for wiring block
supply

Electrical
standardised
signals

Components –
process/field
level (local)
Terminal box-field level
(TBF)

Fig. B2-15: Process

Modified linking of with sensors and actuators
standardised signal path
in the automation
system structure

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 23
Project design

Symbols

As already mentioned, appropriate symbols are used for the creation of

preliminary and final EMCS block diagrams (DIN 19227/Part 2), where-
by the automation equipment actually used in the configuration of an
EMCS point are defined. If we refer to the sample structure indicated in
fig. B2-16, this begins with a practical method of approach with the
symbols for field instrumentation, and then deals with the processors or
other components (e. g. displays).
In conformance with DIN 19227/Part 2, the term ’detector’ is now also
given for sensors (measuring technology) and the following symbols are
recommended:

Basic symbol for sensor/detector

(general representation)

(Examples used – Sensors)

Turbine flow sensor for flow rate

(Turbine flow meter)

Diaphragm sensor for pressure

(pressure sensor)

Capacitive sensor for filling level

(Filling level sensor –capacitive)

Ultrasonic sensor for filling level

(Ultrasonic sensor)

Float for flow sensing

Thermo element
(for temperature measurement)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 24
Project design

The following symbols are to be used for the actuators deployed at

field level (process):

Basic symbol for diaphragm servo-drive

and motor drive

(Examples used – Actuators)

Servo-drive/Valve actuator (pneumatic) with

regulating valve (opens in the event of auxiliary
energy failure)

Servo-drive/valve actuator (pneumatic) with

regulating valve (closes in the event of auxiliary
energy failure)

Servo-drive/valve actuator (electrical) with

regulating valve (maintains position in the event
of auxiliary energy failure /steady-state)

Servo-drive/valve actuator (pneumatic)

with attached position controller,
analogue and binary actuator acknowledgement
and with regulating valve

Flap actuator with limit signal generators

at 3 % and 97 % of travel

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 25
Project design

DIN 19227 also provides a series of symbols for the measuring trans-
ducers / signal converters (adapters / safeguarding of standardised
signal concept) installed in the switchroom.

Basic symbol for measuring transducer

(Examples used – Measuring transducers)

Measuring transducer for temperature with electrical

standardised signal output and electrical isolation

Measuring transducer for level

with pneumatic standardised signal output

Converter for electrical standardised signal

into pneumatic standardised signal

Finally, appropriate symbols also need to be used for the automation

equipment of the process control console (process control
system / compact controller / display).

Basic symbol for closed-loop controller

(Examples used – Controllers)

PID-controller with rising output signal

during rising input signal

Two-point controller with switching output

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 26
Project design

Additional symbols are used as a result of the displays (outputs), which

are also located in the process control console.

Basic symbol for display

(Examples used – Display/ outputs)

Display – analogue

Display – digital

Limit signal generator / Limit monitor

for lower and upper limit value

Printer

The following symbols are used to represent the binary control systems,
which are also required to automate process technology operations.

Basic symbol – binary control system

This set of symbols covers all the important automation equipment to

be recorded in the EMCS block diagrams.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Project design

Finally, appropriate symbols also have to be used for the connection of

of this automation equipment to identify the corresponding transmission
lines in accordance with DIN 19227/ DIN 19227/Part 2.

(Examples used – Transmission lines)

Standardised signal line, electrical

Standardised signal line, pneumatic

Coaxial line (e. g. for use of bus systems)

Fibre-optic cable

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 28
Project design

One concluding consideration of significance for the immediate prepara-

tion of these EMCS block diagrams, arises from the question concer-
ning the type of hardware used for automation equipment.
The following should be noted in this context:
The proposed symbols for sensors and actuators are to be used
independently of the basic hardware used (e. g. size, constructional
design, etc.).
The symbols you are now familiar with are modified as follows for
the equally essential processor and display technology, as well as
the measuring transducers and binary control system, which can
also be realised, e.g. in a process control system, by means of soft-
ware functions:

Controller realised as software function

Display realised as software function

Measuring transducer/adapter realised as

software function

Binary control system realised as software

function

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Project design

Preliminary EMCS block diagram

As already indicated, the preliminary EMCS block diagram connects the

automation equipment required for the configuration of EMCS points.
The small-scale installation is used as an example to set out the preli-
minary EMCS block diagram for the filling level closed control loop (fig.
B2-16).
To this end, the following have been configured, based on the structure
of an automation system: Sensors and actuators at the field level;
measuring transducers in the switchroom, plus for instance also a com-
pact controller (PLC technology), and the operating and monitoring
computer in the process control console.
In parallel with the preliminary EMCS block diagram, the so-called
Equipment_list (Table 1) is prepared.

EMCS Loca- Auxiliary

Displ. Device Range No. *
point tion energy

Analogue Field
LIC30 1 0 to 20 mA 24 V DC 1
ultrasonic sensor level

Drive of centrifugal Field

LIC30 1 0 to 24 V DC 4
pump with pump level

Electr. measuring IN: 0 to 10, 24 V DC

Field
LIC30 1 transducer OUT: 0 to 10 V DC 24 V DC 3
level
(thyristor controller)

Digital controller/ IN: 0 to 20 mA 230 V

LIC30 1 SR 2
compact controller OUT: 0 to 10 V DC AC

Electr. measuring IN: 0 to 20 mA

LIC30 1 SR 5
transducer Table 1:
Equipment list for
Master computer 230 V filling level
LIC30 1 PLW 6
(PC) AC closed control loop (LIC 30)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 30
Project design

Process control console

Master computer

E
H / A-
conversion 5
Switchroom

W PID
H
X
2

0 to 10V

E 3
0 to 20mA
0 to 24V
Field level

L
4

Ultrasonic sensor Pump

Fig. B2-16: (analogue) (with actuation)
Preliminary EMCS block
diagram – filling level
closed control loop

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Project design

This list is drawn up for each EMCS point and in that order contains the
automation equipment for sensor, actuator, transducer and processor
technologies with precise designation so that, apart from the purpose of
documentation, it also contains the necessary ordering information.
In addition, the so-called allocation lists are also prepared on the basis
of the preliminary EMCS block diagrams.
The allocation lists are geared to the container systems used in the
automation system and as such provide the assembly specification for
the attachment of the automation equipment deployed (fig. B2-17). In
this context it should be noted that the container systems used are
subdivided into assembly levels and these again into assembly posi-
tions.
The allocation list is therefore a clearly arranged document used direct-
ly for the assembly of the automation equipment.

Assembly levels

Control cabinet 1 Control cabinet 2 Control cabinet n

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
A A A
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
B B B
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
C C C
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
D D D

Fig. B2-17:
Terminal distributors Allocation list –
basic configuration

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 32
Project design

Final EMCS block diagram

Based on the preliminary EMCS block diagram, the final EMCS block
diagram documents the detailed wiring of the automation equipment
and thus represents the basis for the creation of the wiring documenta-
tion. To provide a better understanding, reference is again made to the
structure of an automation system defined in fig. B2-5, which now po-
ses the task of interconnecting the components process control conso-
le, switchroom and field by means of wiring.
The basis of this wiring are the respective wiring harnesses and the
corresponding terminal distributors. Fig. B2-18 illustrates the structure
of the wiring paths and the assembly points of these terminal distribu-
tors defined in the container units of process control console, switch-
room and as such in the terminal boxes at field level. This illustrates
that the terminal distributors are the major support points for the wiring
paths, since they accommodate the incoming cables and route them via
corresponding wiring blocks to the assembly levels of the control cabi-
nets or other container units.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 33
Project design

Process control console

(PCC)
Process control status
Assembly levels

Path 5
PLC technology
(built-in)
Path 4

Terminal distributor
(process control console)
X100.01

Path 3 Assembly places

Path 6 Switchroom
1 2 racks
A
Switchroom 3 4
B Assembly
(SR) Path 3 Path 8 levels
C (A, B, C, D)
Path 2/7
Path 3/8
D X200.02
Terminal
distributor
(switchroom)
Path 8 X200.01
Path 1

Field Terminal distributors / terminal boxes-field level

(Process) (TBF)

X300.01 . . . X300.12

PROCESS
Fig. B2-18:
Structure of wiring path

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 34
Project design

Fig. B2-19 provides an initial introduction to the principle designation of

a terminal distributor.

X300.01
Terminal distributor Consecutive number
Ordinal number
Fig. B2-19:
Project-specific definition
Basic designation of a
terminal distributor

It should be noted generally that the terminal distributor designation al-

ways starts with the letter X, and completed by an ordinal number and
a consecutive number. Here, the hardware design of the terminal distri-
butors is also of interest.

Ordinal number
general identification symbol consecutive number

Terminal distributor 02 X200.01

(consec. number) Assembly
in terminal box-field level area 3
(ordinal number) Input I1
Assembly
Terminal (e.g. of a
level
measuring transducer)
X307.02-15 C / 3 / E1
1
2
3

Fig. B2-20: 100

Design of a
terminal distributor

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 35
Project design

Fig. B2-20 provides a closer introduction of this design. In the sense of

a general evaluation, it is always important to ask where a line (cable)
is coming from (from which terminal distributor) and where it is to lead
to (to which terminal distributor / assembly area).
For instance, if you consider a designation proposal (nomenclature) in
this context, the following allocation is also feasible taking into account
fig. B2-16:
Terminal distributor – field level / Terminal boxes-field level
X300.01; X300.02...X 300.nn
Terminal distributors – switchroom
X200.01...X200.nn
Terminal 196 process control console
X100.01...X100.nn
In addition, the main wiring paths are also clearly defined in fig. B2-18,
and can be used as a general orientation for any automation system.
On the assumption that the respective sensors and actuators are con-
nected to the terminal boxes at field level, the following wiring paths can
be defined in sequence:
Path 1
From terminal box-field level to terminal distributor-switchroom
e. g.: X300.01 ⇒ X200.01

Path 2
From terminal strip-switchroom to assembly area switchroom
racks
e. g.: X200.01 ⇒ Level A/Area 1

Path 3
From assembly area switchroom racks via terminal distributor
switchroom to terminal distributor process control console
e. g.: Level A/Area 1 ⇒ X200.02 ⇒ X100.01

Path 4
From terminal distributor-process control console to PLC
e. g.: X100.01 ⇒ P-I/O card of PLC (DE 1)

Path 5
From PLC to terminal distributor-process control console
e. g.: P-I/O card of PLC (DA 11) ⇒ X100.01

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 36
Project design

Path 6
Terminal distributor-process control console to terminal distributor-
switchroom e. g.: X100.01 ⇒ X200.01

Path 7
Terminal distributor-switchroom to assembly area-switchroom racks
e. g.: X200.01 ⇒ Level A/Area 2

Path 8
Assembly area-switchroom racks via terminal distributor switchroom
to terminal box field level
e. g.: Level A/Area 2 ⇒ X200.02 ⇒ X300.01

The wiring lists are then set out in accordance with these wiring paths
and, as such, the connections documented in the final EMCS block
diagram of the automation equipment involved in the configuration of
the EMCS points, are put into an easily manageable form for the pro-
cess control engineer.
Fig. B2-21 also uses the example of the filling level control (LIC30
small-scale experimental modules) to introduce the final EMCS block
diagram and to give a partial representation of a wiring list (table 2).
The wiring list is partially represented in table 2, and set out in accord-
ance with the configuration already described in section B.3.3.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 37
Project design

Section 1
to controller in switchroom
24V 24V
0V 0V
I 0.0
I 0.1
Wiring terminal (filling level module)

I 0.2
I 0.3
I 0.4
I 0.5 21 11
I 0.6 22 12
I 0.7 23 13
0V 24 14
25 15
O 0.0 41 31 -
O 0.1 42 32
+
O 0.2 43 33 M
O 0.3 44 34
Field level

O 0.4 45 35 M3
O 0.5
O 0.6
O 0.7 X3.2
0V
24V
24V

X3 24V 24V
0V 0V

-R3 1

200 Ω 2

WH Cable colour white

-S31 -H3 -S32 1 -S33 GR
1 3 1 3 5 1 -B31 GR Cable colour green
X3.1 WH L
BN BN Cable colour brown
2 4 2 2 4 6 2

Terminal box-field level Control console-field level Ultrasonic sensor Pump

Pump actuation

Section 2
Master computer
PCC

PROFIBUS

L1 L1
N N
PE PE
X3.3 Rear side of terminals/controller
Switchroom

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 13 14 15
Field level

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

X3 Wiring terminal (filling level module)

towards process (filling level module)

Fig. B2-21:
Final EMCS block diagram – Filling level closed control loop (LIC 30) (Part 1 and 2)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 38
Project design

Terminal strip X3.3

from X3.3 to

Location/ Terminal Terminal

Terminal strip
Terminal strip number number

Field level/X3 3 33
Profibus cable to master
Field level/X3 4 34 computer
Field level/X3 18 29
Table 2:
Wiring list (excerpt A)
using the example of the
13 Protective
filling level closed control
loop (LIC30/Part 2) earth PE

2.2.5 Notes regarding project design of auxiliary energy

Introductory comments

As already shown in figure B2-6, the project design work also includes
the appropriate project documentation for the provision of the electrical,
pneumatic and hydraulic auxiliary energy, apart from the core project.
Due to the technical specifics and considerable amount of work invol-
ved, the electrical project accounts for the greater part except for the
core project. The principal outlines of the electrical project design are
therefore introduced in shortened form.

Determining the required electrical power (connected load)

The first point to be established is what electrical connected load is to

be made available for the operation of the automation system. This is
assessed on the basis of the preliminary EMCS block diagram and the
automation equipment set out in the equipment list and the required
electrical voltages (e. g. 230 V AC, 24 V DC) and capacities estab-
lished. All EMCS points are subject to these analyses and the entire
electrical power required determined by way of coordinating these.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 39
Project design

Regarding the connection/combination of electrical project and core project

The EMCS block diagram based on the preliminary EMCS block dia-
gram also defines the detailed cabling for the required voltage supplies.
This highlights the relevance of the question for an interface for the
respective reduction of the required voltages. Fig. B2-22 illustrates a
structure, which provides a solution to this problem.

Project components for

automation system

Pneumatic and Core project/ Electrical

hydraulic project EMCS project project
Connec-
Distribution tors Connection of Terminals
of pneumatic Distribution of
sensors/
and/or electrical
Connector actuators Connection auxiliary power
hydraulic
list and processes list
auxiliary energy

Requirements
regarding explosion Fig. B2-22:
Combination of
and lightning protection
core project with
and EMC electrical and pneumatic
project

This means that the selection of a voltage-proof terminal distributor pro-

vides a means of connecting the voltages resulting from the electrical
project established on the input side and conducting these to the EMCS
points on the output side of the terminal distributor. This allocation
(block diagram) is uniquely documented in the so-called connection
list. As fig. B2-22 also shows, this principle is also used to realise the
supply of pneumatic and hydraulic auxiliary energy (connection list).
Moreover, reference is also made to the additional problems to be sol-
ved of EMC and lightning and explosion protection.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 40
Project design

Distribution of auxiliary electrical power

Based on the established connected load, a favourable structure is to

be developed for the distribution of this electrical power. In accordance
with the PI flow diagram familiar from the core project design, a general
structure is also required for the distribution of the electrical auxiliary
power with regard to the electrical project. Fig. B2-23 shows a generally
applicable and typical structure for this. When the electrical project is
further configured, this needs to be expanded by a second version
comprising documentation of basic wiring and switching devices.

Electrical auxiliary energy from power plant

Distributor station of central electricity

generating board (transformer station)

Industrial installation
System components – Office and staff
Automation system
process technology facilities complex

400 V AC 230 V AC 24 V DC 230 V AC

For three-phase for processors/ for processors/ for latching
current consuming PLC technology/ PLC technology connections
Fig. B2-23: devices measuring transducers (also binary sensors (consuming device group)
Basic structure for (e.g. pumps, and actuators) processors and
distribution of heating systems, three-phase current
stirring apparatus) consuming devices)
electrical auxiliary energy

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 41
Project design

Breakdown of general structure

Depending on the extent of the electrical project, this general overview

is followed by a further breakdown into one or several levels, by develo-
ping the so-called circuit diagrams, which are also based on the EMCS
block diagrams realised during the core project design. These circuit
diagrams define the detailed distribution (wiring) of the electrical auxilia-
ry power.
The example of a typical component is used – connection of the auxilia-
ry electrical power – to define the circuit diagram (fig. B2-24) for the
latching connection of processors and three-phase current consuming
devices. This circuit diagram illustrates for instance that the processors
and current consuming devices must always be connected separately
or that for reasons of safety, two contactors (C1/C2; C3/C4) must al-
ways be released when these are switched off or in the case of an
emergency-stop.

L1 50Hz 230VAC
N

-X-S1A2-1
-X-S1A2-1

1 ON 1
EMERGENCY-
OFF 1 STOP 2 2
-S2
2 Process
control
-X-S1A2-1 console
1 3
EMERGENCY- -K3
STOP 2 4
ON 1 3
-K1 Switchroom
2 4 -X-S1D1-1 3 -X-S1C1-1
3 1
-K4
4
-K2 EMERGENCY-
4 STOP 2

A1 A1 Field level A1 A1
-K1 -K2 -K3 -K4
-X-S1A2-1 A2 A2 A2 A2
1

3 4 3 4
OFF 3 4 3 4
2
...

...

...

...

Latching – Latching –
Processors/PLC technology Three-phase consuming devices

Fig. B2-24:
Circuit diagrams for electrical auxiliary energy (self-latching)
for processors/PLC technology and three-phase consuming devices

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 42
Project design

Brief evaluation and comments

Understandably, the above information merely provides an idea of the

extent and technical contents of electrical project design.
In the sense of a holistic preparation of the project of an automation
system, it is essential to remember that, apart from the core project
design, the electrical project design is the fundamental basis.
This fact should be taken into account with regard to the time schedule
and cost plan to ensure the success of the project design work.

2.2.6 Notes regarding assembly project design

Apart from the core and electrical project design, the assembly project
design represents the most important aspect for the realisation of an
automation system. It takes into account all the construction and as-
sembly technological aspects. Based on the design of the process
technology system, including any associated building components, the
assembly project design deals with problems such as
configuration of the cable run guides (for EMCS and
electrotechnology),
determining of material requirements for cable runs
(number of cable run components, supports, brackets, etc.),
determining of cable lengths and types of cable,
design and construction of cable harnesses,
spatial planning of the required container units and
auxiliary units (e. g. compressor room, emergency power source)
etc.
These services must also be implemented with the greatest of care,
since they are crucial in determining the cost efficiency and schedule
effectiveness of the practical realisation (assembly) of an automation
system.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 43
Project design

2.3 Closed control loop synthesis

2.3.1 Introductory comments

Another important task of project design work is undoubtedly the confi-
guration and commissioning of the designed closed control loop and the
binary control system. On the basis of the automation of process tech-
nology, the most important task in this respect is the commissioning of
the closed control loop. The following therefore explains the main
aspects involved in the solution of this problem.

2.3.2 Process analysis / Model configuration

To be able to solve an automation task (configuration and commis-
sioning of closed control loops), it is essential to have the most compre-
hensive information possible with regard to the static and dynamic char-
acteristics of the control system (processes) to be automated. The at-
tainable quality of the solution is largely dependent on the qualitative
and quantitative knowledge available concerning the technical process
to be automated, in order to be able to define in detail appropriate
algorithms for its control and the required hardware and software tools
for its realisation.
The analysis of the behaviour and the characteristics of technical
systems (controlled systems) is known as process analysis or model
configuration; the result of which is known as a process model or, in
short, model. Models of this type not only assist in the design of auto-
mation systems, but also are of fundamental importance for other areas
of technology, natural sciences, economics, etc.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

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Project design

Behavioural models

In the area of technology, so-called behavioural models play a major

part and are intended to reflect accordingly the system behaviour with
regard to cause, effect and correlation. Behavioural models are mainly
used to predict events. They are used with the intention of being able to
determine future system behaviour with sufficient accuracy, i.e. to deter-
mine the reactions of the system to causes (input signals), which are
not yet of importance at the model configuration point.
A "good" model reflects the behaviour of the original concept as ade-
quately as possible with the use of simple means. It should merely re-
flect the behaviour of the original, which is of relevance to the solution
of a particular task. Being a substitute of the original, the objective of
the model must be in agreement with the functional behaviour of its
original. The performance (quality) of models must therefore be suffi-
ciently tested with regard to application prior to its practical utilisation,
e.g. for the design of automation systems.
Since system behaviour is largely dependent on the signals acting upon
the system (correcting and disturbance variables), a process model ge-
nerally consists of a system model and a signal model. To design a
controlling device, you need to know whether a system is operated pri-
marily by means of step-type, periodic or accidental signals. A signal
analysis therefore generally also forms part of the process analysis; in
some cases, the signal analysis is the sole aim of the process analysis.
Models are therefore used in the design of open and closed control
systems for the
selection and definition of appropriate measured variables and cor-
recting variables
detection and evaluation of interference signals
description of static and dynamic behaviour of
controlled systems
detection of functional links between process variables
simulative calculation of design variants
selection of control algorithms and dimensioning of the characteristic
values of the controlling device.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 45
Project design

Model configuration strategies

The model can be configured along theoretical and/or experimental

lines (fig. B2-25).
In the case of theoretical model configuration, the physical/chemical
processes occurring in an actual technical system are analysed and
mathematically formulated with the help of the familiar laws of mecha-
nics, thermodynamics, etc.
With experimental model configuration, the input and output signals of
the actual technical systems are measured and evaluated, whereby arti-
ficially modulated or naturally occurring input signals such as step-
change signals may be used. To a certain degree, the objects to be
modelled are therefore analysed externally.

Model configuration

Theoretical Experimental
process analysis process analysis
Fig. B2-25:
Fundamentals
of model configuration

At this point, it should be emphasised that a model obtained along this

experimental line seldom permits any information about the actual phy-
sical/chemical processes in the process. The model merely describes
the interaction between input and output variables and is therefore also
known as an I/O model. It is therefore quite common for the two
methods of model configuration to be combined by determining the mo-
del configuration by means of theoretical system analysis and the mo-
del parameters (characteristic system values) by means of experimen-
ting .

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 46
Project design

Model configuration

In automation technology, calculation models (behaviour models in the

narrower sense) are primarily used, which quantitatively describe the
main relationships between process variables, e. g. in the form of ma-
thematical correlations, characteristic functions, performance data, etc.
Fig. B2-26 illustrates the basic structure of this form of model.

Fig. B2-26:
Basic structure of
calculation models,
y – correcting variable,
z – main disturbance
variable,
v – negligible
disturbance variable,
x – output variable

This provides an initial illustration of the line of action of the process

signals, without the sometimes complicated "process content". More-
over, it is assumed that all process variables (e. g. flow rate, tempera-
ture, filling level, etc.) are dependent merely on time, but not on location
(such as in the case of process technology systems of significant physi-
cal dimensions) .
In accordance with fig. B2-26, the calculation models now have to
quantitatively represent the dependence of the output variable x on the
input variable y, z and possibly also v, whereby a differentiation should
be made here between static and dynamic models.

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The relationship between the input and the output variables of a techni-
cal system in its steady-state condition is known as the static behaviour.
A simple example of this is shown in fig. B2-27, in the form of a so-
called correcting characteristic of a controlled system, i.e. the relations-
hip between, for example, the valve position y as a process input varia-
ble and the temperature x as a process output variable with the main
interference z (e. g. pressure) as a performance data parameter.

Fig. B2-27:
Control characteristic curve
in the form of
steady-state model

The index zero designates the working point values (process signal
values during nominal operation).
However, input and output signals change from time to time during the
operation of technical equipment, due to starting and shut down proce-
dures and varying, unforeseeable disturbances. This is why it is often
essential for the process model to include the description of the rela-
tionship between these time-related signal changes, which is also
known as dynamic behaviour. Dynamic models in the form of linear
models are often adequate, even for example for the important task of
process stabilisation with the help of a closed control loop. This is pos-
sible in cases where the process signals operate sufficiently closely to
the working point during the execution of technical processes, so that
the process behaviour does not perceptibly change even during transi-
tional phases. In the case of practical operation of automation equip-
ment, it then becomes necessary to consider the limits of the linear
operating range. If these are exceeded, then the results achievable in
the course of the system design using the linear models are put into
question.

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Model configuration through experimental process analysis

The following describes the procedure of experimental model configura-

tion in greater detail. The main feature of this is that, with the help of
suitable experimental technology, the analyses are carried out immedi-
ately on the technical system and the data obtained can be converted
into a process model graded according to different levels (starting with
the simple manual analysis method through to computer assisted data
evaluation) (fig. B2-28).

y1
Controlled system
x
yn (process)
Fig. B2-28:
Basic structure
for experimental Input signals Output signals
process analysis

The main points and problems of an experimental process analysis

consists of
the formulation of requirements demanded of the model (application
aim, accuracy, validity range)
the preparation and implementation of the experiments
the selection of suitable methods for the analysis of the process data
recorded and
error estimation and model verification.

As part or the preliminary stage of the experiment, the following should

be considered
the auxiliary hardware and software devices
the model structure (e. g. in the form of qualitative information regar-
ding the process behaviour)
the main process influencing variables, in particular also the distur-
bance variables
the required measuring times.

The hardware and metrology preparations include

the assembly of suitable control, measuring and recording techni-
ques, unless already available on the process and
the verification of the experimental techniques/technology under ope-
rating conditions.

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As part of the experiments, it is often necessary to carry out preliminary

experiments in order to establish modulation ranges, adequate signal-
to-disturbance ratio and main influencing variables. With the main ex-
periments it is important to ensure that sufficient data material is regi-
stered to determine the working point values (initial values at start of
measurement). Useful signals at the system output must have sufficient
noise ratio; in the case of experiments with step-type input signals, they
should therefore be modified by approximately 10 % of their correcting
range (caution: observe linearity range!).
Fig. B2-29 shows an example of the undisturbed (theoretical), i.e. faulty
(determined during practical operation) step response x(t) of a technical
system. A simple quantitative measure of the signal/disturbance ratio is
AS
the amplitude ratio S = of disturbance signal and useful signal in the
AN
steady-state condition.

1.2

x(t) Useful signal +

interference signal AS
1.0
Useful
signal

0.8

0.6

AN

0.4

0.2

Fig. B2-29:
Illustration of
0 disturbance/useful signal
0 5 10 15 Time t 20 ratio using the example
of a faulty step response

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Step responses of technical systems

When planning the experiments, two aspects are of particular impor-
tance:
the selection of suitable test signals (system input signals) and
the selection of the observation time, during which the signals are
acquired.
The test signal must activate the system to be analysed sufficiently so
that it is possible to detect the system characteristics with as large a
signal-to-disturbance ratio as possible. It should also be as easy as
possible to realise and detect. This is where test signals are particularly
suitable which, at the start of the experiment, perform so-called step-
changes, i.e. by a specific amount (zero-point stage). Examples of this
are electro-mechanical or electro-thermal devices, which change their
operating status during the switching on or connection of electrical vol-
tages or outputs, or the control of material or energy flow in process
technology systems via (solenoid) valves or pumps. Step-type test
signals of this type are often used in practice and with success. They
should therefore also be used here for the experimental process analy-
sis.

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The reaction of a system to a step-change signal is known as step-re-

sponse. If this step response is related to the step-change height of the
input signal (standardised representation), then this is known as the
transient function of a system. This is always on the assumption that
the linearity range around the operating point is not exceeded during
the transition process and that the system was in the stationary state at
the operating point to starting the experiment. Fig. B2-30 illustrates this
process.

Input signal Technical Output signal

Y (t) system X (t)
Fig. B2-30:
Experimental determining
of step response x(t)
Y X
y (t) = Y (t) - Y0
X0, Y0 – working point values
∆y x (t) = X (t) - X0 y – step-change height of
Y0 X0 input signal y(t)
(t)
t t h(t) = x – transient
∆y
function

At least with regard to practical matters, the step response, i.e. the
transient function represents the most important form of a linear dyna-
mic system model.

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Depiction of response characteristic

The signal response characteristic of technical systems can be depicted
qualitatively with the help of the transient function. Depending on the
pattern of the transient function for long time periods (t → ...), we diffe-
rentiate between systems with P-action (P elements), I-action (I-ele-
ments) and D-action (D-elements). Following step activation, propor-
tional elements acquire a new stationary status, differing from the
operating point value; integral elements assume a constant rate of
change of the system output variable for long time periods (warning:
observe linearity range), and in the case of differential elements, the
output variable reverts to the stationary state of the operating point
value. These basic characteristics of technical systems are illustrated in
fig. B2-31.

h
Transient phase Behaviour for t → ∞

I – action

P – action

Fig. B2-31:
Qualitative depiction of D – action
transient behaviour t
with the help of
transient function

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The inflectional tangent model

In numerous technical applications, particularly in the areas of process
or energy technology, the system step responses occur without any os-
cillation ratio and only display proportional or integral action in connec-
tion with dead time. The transient function shown in fig. B2-32 in the
form of a linear dynamic model is therefore often used.
The system behaviour is therefore considerably simplified, charac-
terised by the three characteristic values: Proportional or integral coeffi-
cient, time delay and transient time.

h
K

Inflectional tangent
Experimentally
recorded
step response
Smoothed curve
(standardised) Fig. B2-32:
∆h Frequently used transient
function model (inflectional
∆t tangent model)

K – proportional coefficient
Tu – time delay
t Tg – transient time
∆h K
Tu Tg KIS = = – Integral
∆t T g
coefficient

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The inflectional tangent used to obtain the characteristic values Tu and

Tg is for instance entered freehand into the experimentally determined
step response. If this is subject to high-frequency interference, then a
smoothing out should be carried out, if necessary by eye (or computer-
assisted). In the case of low frequency interference, the process cannot
be evaluated. Here, a number of repetitions of the experiment and
smoothing by means of averaging can be of help.
Table 3 contains the characteristic model values of typical controlled
systems.

Variable to be Time delay Transient time

Type of system
controlled Tu Tg
Annealing furnace

Laboratory 0.5 ... 1 min 5 ... 15 min

Temperature Industry 1 ... 3 min 10 ... 30 min

Distillation tower 1 ... 5 min 40 ... 60 min

Superheater 1 ... 2 min 20 ... 100 min

Space heating 1 ... 5 min 10 ... 60 min

Table 3:
Model characteristic values Flow rate Piping-Gas 0 ... 5 s 0.2 ... 10 s
of typical
controlled systems Flow rate Piping-Fluid 0 0

Tg
From the quotient , it is incidentally already possible to estimate the
Tu
degree of difficulty to be expected in the control of a system:

Tg
Ratio Degree of complexity
Tu

> 10 Easily controllable

Table 4:
Evaluation of 6 Just controllable
degree of complexity
<3 Controllable with difficulty
of closed-loop control

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The total time constant model

Another simple basic model of proportional action controlled systems
without oscillation ratio, which lends itself well for the controller design,
can be determined in accordance with Strejc in the following way:
The times | t20 or t80 are taken from the illustration of the system
transient function, with which the function h(t) has achieved 20 % or
80 % of its final value,

h
K
0.8 K

0.2 K
Fig. B2-33:
t20 t80 t Controlled system transient
function

the transient behaviour of the system is then again described via

three characteristic values:
K – Proportional coefficient of system
T – System time constant
Tt – System dead time.

Time constant T and dead time Tt are calculated from the time values
t20 and t80 in accordance with the following formulae:

T = 0.721 (t80 -t20)

Tt = 1.161 t20 - 0.161 t80

The total of the two characteristic values T and Tt is referred to as total

time constant TΣ.

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Model configuration for selected controlled systems

Flow control system

In the experimental state, the flow control system consists of a piping
system, with which the water is removed from and returned to a con-
tainer via a centrifugal pump (see fig. B2-34). The automation task is to
regulate the flow Q in the piping.

Container

Water
Flow sensor

Flow Q
Hand valve

Control valve

Pump

Fig. B2-34:
Schematic representation Exhaust valve towards container
of flow control system

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Theoretical model configuration

Leaving apart the hardware and software details, the flow behaviour in
the flow control system can be represented in a considerably simplified
manner as follows (fig. B-35).
This means:

∆p0 = kpN2 – Maximum delivery pressure of the centrifugal pump

at speed N (for Q = 0)

Fig. B2-35:
Physical model of
flow process in
flow control system

∆pStat = pg(hA - hW) für hA ∀ hW, otherwise zero

– Differential pressure as a result of height difference

∆pi = kiQ2 – Pressure drop as a result of "internal resistance"

of centrifugal pump

∆pR = kR Q2 – Pressure drop through the piping system

Q2
∆pV = KS 2 – Pressure drop through the control valve
Kv (Y)

KV – Kv value (defined in section B2.4.2)

Y – Valve travel.

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Static model of controlled system

In the stationary state (Q = const.), there must be a balance between
the pressures, this means:
o = ∆p0 − ∆pstat − ∆pi − ∆pR − ∆pV
or
1  2
0 = kpN2 − ρg (hA − hW) − ki + kR +KS ⋅ 2  Q

KV (Y) 

If a linear characteristic flow curve is assumed with

KV (Y) = kY
in the operating range (0 to 100 %) of the valve, then the following
relationship is obtained from these equations assuming a constant wa-
ter level hW and constant speed N of the pump

Q (Y) = 
√kpN2 − ρg (hA − hw)
1
ki + kR + KS 2 2
k Y

Fig. B2-36 illustrates the qualitative pattern of this characteristic curve.

Linearised
Q
characteristic curve

q
Q0 y
A

Fig. B2-36:
Steady-state y0
characteristic curve of
controlled system if 0 Operating range 100% Y
control valve is used to of valve
control the flow rate

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In the area of the operating point A (Q=Q0 + q, Y=Y0 + y), the following
linear correlation then applies
q = Ky (linearised model).

If the flow is regulated above the pump speed N, then the following
linear relationship can be assumed in the operating range of the pump
Q(N) = k1 + k2N
between the correcting variable Pump Speed N and controlled variable
Flow Q (see also fig. B2-37).

Fig. B2-37:
Steady-state
characteristic curve of
0 Operating range 100% N controlled system if
of pump pump is used to
control the flow rate

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Linear dynamic controlled system model

The flow control system for flow (input variable of valve position y, out-
put variable of flow q) provides a good approximation of pure propor-
tional behaviour without time delay. A change of the valve position re-
sults in a (practically) instant, proportional change in the flow. Transient
phenomena caused by the acceleration of the volume of water in the
piping system, can be disregarded here.
However, the time delay between the actuation of the control equipment
(standard voltage signal Ve) and the valve position y must not be igno-
red. Here, proportional action with delay of the first order is to be ex-
pected. Fig. B2-38 illustrates the qualitative pattern of the step re-
sponse of a transient element of this type.

Fig. B2-38:
Qualitative process
of system step response

However, due to the arrangement of the piping system and the measu-
ring technology and measured-value processing used, a (minor) system
delay dead time Tt still has to be expected when the system is operated
in practice, which will then have to be experimentally determined in the
same way as the controlled system values K andT.
The same deliberations apply with regard to the transient phenomena
relating to the use of the centrifugal pump. Here it must be assumed
that the pump speed variation does not immediately affect the flow but
that, due to the pump design, acceleration processes in the moving
volume of water will lead to delays in the process. The same delibera-
tions as above apply with regard to the dead time Tt.
All in all, these deliberations in the area of the operating point provide a
qualitative dynamic system model (configuration model), which contains
three parameters (Ks, Tt, T) still to be determined by experiment.

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Filling level control system

The filling level control system in the experimental state consists of con-
tainers connected via two pipes and a pump, which are located at dif-
ferent height levels (see fig. B2-39). The water is conveyed from the
lower to the upper container via the pump and pipe (1) and, from there,
can freely flow back to the lower container again via pipe (2) by means
of gravitational force. The purpose of the automation task is to regulate
the water level in the upper container.

Fig. B2-39:
Schematic representation of
level control system

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Theoretical model configuration

Model for the outflowing process from the upper container
This outflowing process can be represented in a very simplified form
(see fig. B2-40).

P0

HH
Qout
PB P0

Fig. B2-40: ∆p
Physical model of
outflow process

The following abbreviations mean:

p0 – Atmospheric pressure
pB = p0 + ρgHH – Pressure at the bottom
∆p = kR2Q2ab – Pressure drop via the pipe
Qab – Volumetric flow rate

and ∆p = pB - p0 = ρgHh

becomes the volumetric outward flow Qab = k √


ρgHH
Dynamic processes in piping systems, which could lead to delays of the
processes, are disregarded in this instance, since the dynamic behav-
iour is determined mainly by the storage processes in the two contai-
ners.

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Model for inflow process into the upper container

On the basis of the same deliberations as already described in detail, a
balance must again exist between the partial pressures in the system,
for which the following applies
0 = ∆p0 − ∆pstat − ∆pR − ∆pi
Using
∆pstat = ρg (HA + HH − HU)

∆pR = kR1Q2in

∆pi = kiQ2in

results in the condition

0 = kpN2 − ρg (HA + HH − HU) − (ki + kR) Q2in

Here it should be noted that if the containers are identical in design, the
total of the filling levels
HW = HU + HH
remains constant.

This finally results in the correlation

Qin = 
√kpN2 − ρg [HA + 2HH − HW]
k +k i R

between the pump speed N, level HH in the upper container and inflow
Qin in the upper container.
The filling level HH only changes if a difference ∆Q between inflow Qin
and outflow Qout,

∆Q = Qin − Qout’

occurs.

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Per time interval ∆t, the volume of water V in the upper container would
then change by

∆V = A ⋅ ∆HH = ∆Q ⋅ ∆t

If we use the inflow and outflow rates according to the equations quo-
ted above are used here, this results in the following correlation in re-
spect of the level change ∆HH per time interval ∆t

1
√  − k √
∆HH 2
k N − ρg (H − H + 2H ) 
=  p A
ρgH 
W H
∆t A k +k i R  H

Steady-state model of the controlled system

In the stationary state (HH = const.), the inflow and outflow in the upper
container must coincide,

Qin = Qout

and the correlation


√ k +k

kpN2 − ρg (HA − HW + 2HH)
i R
=k√

ρgHH

must therefore apply. If this equation is resolved with respect to the

filling level HH, this results in the following correlation for the interde-
pendence between pump speed N and height level HH in the stationary
state

kpN2 − ρg (HA − HW)

HH (N) =
ρg (2 + k2 [ki + kR]

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Fig. B2-41 illustrates the corresponding steady-state characteristic

curve of the controlled system.

HH

Operating point
of pump
A
HH0

N0 N Fig. B2-41:
0 100% Qualitative process
Operating range of steady-state
of pump characteristic curve
of controlled system

Linear dynamic controlled system model

The above mentioned correlation, which describes the connection be-
tween the status change ∆HH per time interval ∆t and the speed N or
the height level HH, applies in principle also to small process variable
changes by their operating point values

HH = HHO + hH N = N0 + n

and results in the linear correlation

∆hH
= −a ⋅ hH + b∆n
∆t

with the two controlled system parameters a and b, which are system
and operating point dependent.

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Starting with an initial status (e. g. hH=0) and specified time-related

course of speed variation n (e. g. step-type change at time t=0), this
equation can be resolved step by step and then results in the system
step response shown in fig. B2-37, if a sufficiently short time interval t is
used.

Fig. B2-42:
Step response of
level control system

This controlled system therefore also exhibits proportional behaviour

with delay of the first order at the operating point and its characteristic
values need to be experimentally determined according to the same
considerations set out in the section Flow control system.

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Temperature control system

The temperature control system of the small-scale experimental modu-
les in the experimental state consists of an electrically heatable contai-
ner, in which the water temperature in increased (fig. B2-43). To obtain
a better distribution of temperature in the container, the water can be
agitated by means of a centrifugal pump. This results in constant
thorough mixing, which prevents the formation of differing heat levels.
The purpose of the automation task is to control the water temperature
T (controlled variable) by means of the heat output Pel (correcting varia-
ble). The special characteristic of this controlled system is that the tem-
perature is lowered solely as a result of heat dissipated to the environ-
ment. The output of this process, i. e. the heat dissipation ∆Qout in the
time interval ∆t, is considerably less compared to the maximum heat
output.

Fig. B2-43:
Schematic representation
of temperature
control system

T Water temperature in the container

Tu Ambient temperature (air)

∆Qel Quantity of heat output by heater system in ∆t

∆QL Quantity of heat emitted directly to air in ∆t

∆QW Quantity of heat emitted through wall in ∆t

h Filling level in container

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Theoretical model configuration

The heating process in the temperature control system can be repre-
sented in a greatly simplified manner as follows (fig. B2-44).

Fig. B2-44:
Simplified representation of
temperature control system

The following mean

V=c⋅m⋅T – internal energy of volume of water with

m = ρV = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ h

∆ Qel = Pel ⋅ ∆ t – quantity of heat output via heating

system in time interval ∆t

∆ QL = α ⋅ AL ⋅ (T − Tu) ⋅ ∆ t – quantity of heat (heat transmission)

directly emitted to the air
via the exposed water level in ∆t

α – heat transmission coefficient

(water – air)

∆ QW = k ⋅ AW ⋅ (T − Tu) ⋅ ∆ t – quantity of heat (heat transmission)

emitted to the air via the wall in ∆t
k – heat transmission coefficient
(water – container wall – air)

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The quantity of heat supplied and removed during time interval ∆t, can
be noted as follows
∆ Qin = Pel ⋅ ∆ t or
∆ Qout = ∆ QW + ∆ QL

The temperature T only changes if a difference ∆Q occurs between the

quantities of heat:
∆ Q = ∆ Qzu − ∆ Qab

This difference is the change of the internal energy of the volume of

water
∆Q=∆U=c⋅m⋅∆T

Steady-state model of closed control loop

The supplied and removed quantities of heat must coincide in the sta-
tionary state (∆Q = const., ∆T = const.),
∆ Qin = ∆ Qout

and hence
Pel = α ⋅ AL ⋅ (T − Tu) + k ⋅ AW ⋅ (T − Tu)
must apply. With an assumed constant ambient temperature, this equa-
tion results in the correlation
Pel
T (Pel) = + Tu
α ⋅ AL + k ⋅ Aw
which indicates the dependence between heating capacity output and
water temperature in the stationary state. Fig. B2-45 shows the steady-
state characteristic curve of the temperature control system.
An assumed constant ambient temperature becomes less and less valid
with increased heat dissipation. With increasing ambient temperature,
the lost heat flow decreases, (∆Qab ~ T-Tu), whereby the water tempe-
rature becomes higher than in the ideal case.

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The heating module used can be actuated intermittently, since it is

either switched on at full capacity or switched off completely (two-point
element). Any desired heat output can be achieved by means of peri-
odic switching on or off of the heating module. The periodic time tper is
used to calculate the output from the switch-on time ton and the heat
output in the switched on status Pelmax at
ton
Pel = Pel max ⋅
tper

Fig. B2-45:
Qualitative process of
steady-state
characteristic curve of
temperature control system
(ideal case)

The periodic time tper must be sufficiently long so as not to excessively

load the contactor in the control head in the heater modules as a result
of frequent switching. On the other hand, the periodic time selected
must be short, so that the temperature pattern remains even (fig. B2-
46). This means that is must be considerably shorter than the controlled
system time constant of the heating or cooling process
(e. g. tper = 10 s).

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To
Tm
Tu

Pelmax

Pel

Fig. B2-46:
Temperature and
t performance pattern
during on/off
ttot ton toff switching of heater module
(two-point element)

Linear dynamic controlled system model

If we now look at the following equation again
∆ Qin − ∆ Qout = c ⋅ m ⋅ ∆ T
and apply this for the supplied and dissipated quantity of heat, this re-
sults in the following correlation for the temperature change ∆T per time
interval

∆T 1
= ⋅ [Pel − (α ⋅ AL + k ⋅ AW) ⋅ (T − Tu)]
∆t c⋅m

This controlled system section represents a sufficiently small ∆t selec-

ted, and is the basis of the behaviour shown in fig. B2-47a.
The temperature control system therefore has a proportional action with
a delay of the first order. The change in heat output causes a gradual
temperature change.

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Again, it should be pointed out that the rate of change in temperature is

not the same for heating and cooling. Fig. B2-47 shows the qualitative
pattern of the two processes.
In addition, a considerably shorter dead time Tt occurs in the case of
heating compared to the system time constant THeating. This is caused
by the heat capacity of the heater module and the heat conduction
speed in the water. This latter time constant can be lowered by moving
or stirring the water. The parameters K, THeating and TCooling are to be
determined by experiment.

T T

Tend Tt=0

K
Tt=0 Tend
Fig. B2-47:
Qualitative representation
of system step response
t t
a) Heating THeating TCooling
b) Cooling

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2.3.3 Controller configuration and parameterisation

Technical controllers are a component part of automation systems,
whose main task is that of process stabilisation. They are used with
the aim of
bringing about and maintaining specific process states (mode of op-
eration) automatically
eliminating the effects of interference on the process sequence and
preventing unwanted coupling of part processes in the technical pro-
cess.
The process states addressed primarily refer to specific process para-
meters, such as pressure, flow, temperature, filling level and quality (pH
value).

Mode of operation of closed control loop

Fig. B2-48 shows the basic structure of a closed control loop; its mode
of operation can be described as follows:

Object of closed-loop control

Disturbance variable Z
Controlled system
(system)
Controlled
variable
Correcting X
variable System
Y deviation
Controlling -
e Setpoint value W
equipment
(controller) Fig. B2-48:
Mode of operation
of closed control loop

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The required value of the controlled variable X, i. e. its desired charac-

teristic as a function of time, is specified by the setpoint value W. This
can be done manually on the control equipment of the controller or also
by a controlling device, which is of higher-order to the controller. In the
case of a fixed setpoint value, we talk of a fixed setpoint control, and in
the case of a time varying setpoint value of a setpoint control or servo
control. The controlled variable X is continually measured via a suitable
measuring device (or at permissible time intervals) and compared with
the setpoint value W by means of subtraction.
The system deviation e = W - X indicates, how much and in which
direction (e. g. valve to be opened or closed more) intervention in the
process is necessary via the correcting variable Y in order to eliminate
the occurring system deviation. The controlling device is used as an
information processing system, which calculates the correcting variable
Y appropriate for the control process from the existing system deviation.
Technical controlled systems are subject to a multitude of interference
(load variations, changes in the quality of materials used, etc.). To sim-
plify matters, fig. B2-48 therefore only includes one main disturbance
variable Z. All disturbances have an effect on the controlled variable
and change (e. g. in the case of a fixed setpoint control) its required
operating point value Xo = Wo. As such, all disturbances are therefore
reflected in the system deviation, and the above described control pro-
cess, which is carried out continually and automatically, then ensures
as complete a diminution of the system deviation as possible and thus
the elimination of the effect of the disturbance on the controlled vari-
able.
The success of a control system obviously depends critically on the
time-related characteristic of the disturbance variables (and time varying
setpoint values), the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of the control-
led system and information processing in the controlling equipment.

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Steady-state behaviour of the closed control loop

Similar to the deliberations regarding the simulation of the steady and

dynamic behaviour of the technical system to be controlled (in this case
controlled systems), it is also essential to discuss the concepts and
descriptions regarding the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of clo-
sed control loops.
The description of the steady-state closed control loop behaviour again
entails the use of characteristic curves or characteristics, in this case,
the steady-state models of controlled system and controller. Hence fig.
B2-49a illustrates the steady-state characteristic of the controlled sy-
stem and fig. B2-49b the steady-state characteristic of a proportionally
acting controller. Here, Y designates the correcting variable (e. g. valve
position) and X the controlled variable (e. g. temperature).

Performance characteristic of Performance characteristics of

controlled system control device Fig. B2-49a + b

Both characteristics can be represented jointly if identical scaling is se-

lected (Fig. B2-50).
The interface between the valid characteristics for the controlled system
(Z = Z0) and the controlling equipment (W = W0) result in the operating
point Ao and hence the operating point values Y0 or X0 for the actua-
ting signal Y or for the controlled variable signal X.
If the interference then changes from Z = Z0 to Z = Z1, then, in the case
if a fixed valve position Y0 (to remain with the example), i.e. with a
controller which is switched off or has not been started up, the opera-
ting point would drift from A0 to A1 and the controlled variable X (e. g.
the temperature) would assume the value X1 .

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However, if the controller is active then, on the basis of the same consi-
derations which apply to the interface A0, the operating point A2occurs,
since the now operative characteristic curves of the controlled system
for Z= Z1 and of the controlling device for W = W0 (with unchanged
setpoint value) now need to be intersected. The operating point in this
case therefore drifts from A0 to A2. The corresponding operating point
values are Y2 and X2. In order to prevent the unwanted increase of the
controlled variable from X0 to X1 at least to some extent, the setpoint
value is reset via the controller from Y0 to Y2 and the steady-state
controlled variable value X2 set.
The flatter the form of the characteristic curve of the controller in fig.
B2-50, the more effective the controller probably is with regard to the
steady-state behaviour of the closed control loop. In the borderline case
of a horizontally running controller characteristic curve, the control ob-
jective of complete diminution of the stationary system deviation es =
W0 - X2, could even be completely achieved. However, a horizontally
running controller characteristic curve as shown in fig. B2-50 means a
vertical pattern in fig. B2-49b, and as such an infinitely high proportional
coefficient of the controller assumed to be of proportional action. That
this optimum steady-state closed control loop behaviour can actually be
realised, can only be seen by further pursuing deliberation regarding
information processing in technical controllers.

Fig. B2-50:
Steady-state performance
characteristics
of closed control loop, 1. Working point variation with fixed setpoint value Y0
Interference changes from 2. Working point variation with active closed-loop control
Z0 to Z1

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Function mode of operation of technical controllers (control algorithms)

Control algorithms have proved to be a tried and tested method of cal-

culating the correcting variable Y from the system deviation e, which
relates back to the basic behaviour patterns described in the section
Depiction of the response characteristic (P-, I-, D-action) of technical
systems. Each action assumes its own particular role in the course of
this processing of information. Fig. B2-51 shows the signal flow diagram
(the graphic representation of signal processing) of the controller.
The purpose of P and D-action is to ensure an as quick as possible but
smooth process of the transient phenomenon in closed control loops.
The D-action does not have any effect on the stationary state of a clo-
sed control loop, since even with a steady-state deviation es (τµ) 0, the
output signal YD decays towards zero and therefore does not contribute
towards the stationary value of the control signal Y. However, the effect
of this action comes into force particularly quickly with variable system
deviations. To some degree, the D-action therefore contributes in ad-
vance, i.e. in anticipatory manner to the control signal Y.
The actual action function is to keep the controller characteristic curve
in fig. B2-49b vertical and thus to completely correct any permanent
interference. This relates to the previously illustrated characteristic of
integral-action systems to generate a constant rate of change of the
system output variable after a jump activation. This is how the system
output (in the case of the controller, the signal YI) can assume any
value within its control range, even though the input signal (in this case
the system deviation e) attains the value zero again after a transient
response. An integral action system therefore has a steady-state effect
in the same way as a proportionally acting system with infinitely signifi-
cant proportional coefficient. Over a sufficiently long period of time, the
smallest uni-dimensional input signal values lead to an output signal of
some significance.
In order to be able to calculate the overall effect of the controller on the
closed control loop behaviour and as such the time-related response of
controlled variables X and Y in relation to the task, the controller ac-
tions can be introduced into the calculation of the values of setpoint
specification Y. For this, every PID controllers has three freely adjusta-
ble parameters (characteristic controller values):
the proportional coefficient KR for the adjustment of the P-action
the correction time Tn for the adjustment of the I-action and
the derivative-action time Tv for the adjustment of the D-action.

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Dynamic closed control loop behaviour requirements

The adjustment of the characteristic controller values KR, Tn and Tv

largely depends on
the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of the controlled system
the disturbances acting on the controlled system
the demands placed on the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of
the closed control loop.
The steady-state behaviour of the closed control loop (working point
setting, steady-state system deviation, functions and effect of the I-ac-
tion in the controller) has already been described in detail in the section
Steady-state behaviour of the closed control loop.

a) b)
P-action

YP

Fig. B2-51:
Signal flow diagram of I-action
PID-controller
W e YI Y W e Y
a) with individual - -
representation of controller x x
actions P, I and D
D-action
b) with overall
representation YD
(Addition of
individual representations)
of controller transient
function hR(t)

The same preconditions should be assumed for the discussion of the

dynamic behaviour as those applied in section B.2.3.1.3 for the linear
dynamic model of technical systems. Here, it is assumed that all pro-
cess signals during the control processes occur in the vicinity of their
working points and do not in practice deviate from the linearity range. In
this way, the demands placed on the dynamic behaviour of the closed
control loop, e. g. in the form of step responses can be precisely defi-
ned. However, this means that during the practical operation of the clo-
sed control loop, the boundaries of the linear working range around the
working point must be observed. If these are exceeded, then the results
achievable in this case with the controller settings based on the linear
dynamic models are also called into question.

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Fig. B2-52 illustrates a behaviour of the controlled variable x(t) after

the sudden change of the setpoint value w (control step response of the
closed control loop), which should be aimed for. This behaviour can be
described roughly by two characteristic values:
the overshoot time Tm and
∆h∗
the standardised overshoot amplitude ∆ h = .
w
The overshoot amplitude ∆h usually requires a value between 0 and
20 %t. Overshoot time requirements Tm depend on the dynamic be-
haviour of the closed control loop and must always be viewed in con-
junction with the process dead times and process constants.
If the inflectional tangent model introduced in the section The inflectio-
nal tangent model is used to describe the controlled system behaviour,
then the overshoot time should not be less than half the total of the
time delay and the transient time specified (reference value). This en-
sures that the control signal y does not assume untenably high values
during the transient stage.

Fig. B2-52:
Favourable behaviour of
control step response
of a closed control loop

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A similar process can be adopted with regard to a favourable course of

the interference step response of the closed control loop (step-change
response of the closed control loop at its input). Fig. B2-53 shows a
favourable course of this process from the control technology viewpoint.

Fig. B2-53:
Favourable behaviour of
interference step response
of a closed control loop

Here too, the process can be described roughly by means of two char-
acteristic values (Tm and ∆h* or xm).

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Setting rules for PID controller

Setting rules to Ziegler/Nichols

Right at the initial stage of modern control technology, J.G. Ziegler and
N.B. Nichols have specified setting rules, which are still widely used
today. These are intended for cases where
no model (or inflectional tangent model) of the controlled system is
available and
the closed control loop can be operated safely along the stability
limit.
These rules are as follows:
1. Set the controller as a P-controller (Tv = 0 Tn = ...).
2. The amplitude factor KR of the controller is increased until the closed
control loop is on the point of performing unattenuated oscillations
(stability limit).
This determines the critical amplitude factor KRk and the period of
oscillation Tk of this sustained oscillation.
3. Based on these two parameters (KRk, Tk), the
controller parameters KR, Tn and Tv are then to be calculated as
per controller type according to the following specification and
set on the computer.

KR Tn Tv

P-controller 0.5 KRk – –

PI-controller 0.45 KRk 0.85 Tk – Table 5:

Setting rules to
PID-controller 0.6 KRk 0.5 Tk 0.12 Tk Ziegler/Nichols

However, experience shows that these setting values only lead to

workable closed control loop behaviour, if the ratio of transient time Tg
to time delay Tu of the controlled system is not too great, i.e. the
system in the model of the transient function shows a noticeable time
delay.

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Setting rules to Chien/Hrones/Reswick

If we are dealing with an inflectional tangent model of the controlled
system, then the setting rules of Chien, Hrones and Reswick are to be
used. The setting rules for this are shown in the following table.

Con-
Overshoot amplitude 20 % no overshoot (0%)
troller
after step-change after step-change
Type

of disturbance of disturbance
of setpoint value of setpoint value
variable variable
w w
z z

0.7 Tg 0.7 Tg 0.3 Tg 0.3 Tg

P KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅
KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu

0.7 Tg 0.6 Tg 0.6 Tg 0.35 Tg

KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅
PI KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu
Tn ≈ 2.3 ⋅ Tu Tn ≈ Tg Tn ≈ 4 ⋅ Tu Tn ≈ 1.2 ⋅ Tg

1.2 Tg 0.95 Tg 0.95 Tg 0.6 Tg

KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅ KR ≈ ⋅
KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu KS Tu
Table 6: PID
Tn ≈ 2 ⋅ Tu Tn ≈ 1.35 ⋅ Tg Tn ≈ 2.4 ⋅ Tu Tn ≈ Tg
Setting rules to
Chien/Hrones/Reswick Tv ≈ 0.42 ⋅ Tu Tv ≈ 0.47 ⋅ Tu Tv ≈ 0.42 ⋅ Tu Tv ≈ 0.5 ⋅ Tu

1
For I-controlled systems the expression is to be used instead
KIS ⋅ Tu
Tg
of .
KS ⋅ Tu
These rules can also be applied to a total time constant model, provi-
ded
Tu = Tt and Tg = T
are set.

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2.4 Selection of automation equipment

2.4.1 Introductory comments

Now that the essential aspects of the project design work have been
explained in sections 2.2 and 2.3, the following concentrates on the
equally important questions in this context of the selection of automat-
ion equipment. These selections are particularly relevant for the prepa-
ration of the EMCS block diagrams and equipment lists since, apart
from the functional integration of the automation equipment into these
diagrams, their layout is also of importance (e.g. measuring ranges/sen-
sors and correcting ranges/actuators).
In general, the task of the project engineer is to select the automation
equipment so that it represents the optimum solution for the automation
system to be constructed.
Initially, the following generally applicable requirements can be listed for
this:
Realisability
The automation task is to be solved by an appropriate means of
automation equipment.
Reliability
The fail-safe aspect of the automation equipment used must be ade-
quate for the operation of hazardous processes.
Process condition
The conditions characteristic of process technology operations such
as temperatures, pressures, aggressive media, explosion risks, irra-
diation, electro-magnetic fields etc, must be taken into consideration
as a whole.
Customer requirements
Customers frequently specify from which manufacturer and with what
functionality the automation equipment is to be procured.
Integratability
It should be possible to realise the expansion of an existing automat-
ion system by means of additional automation equipment with the
least possible expense/trouble (e.g. without changing of existing
auxiliary energy).
Energy consumption
The energy directly taken up by the automation equipment (auxiliary
energy) or the energy expenditure required in the process (e.g. con-
trol valves, pump motors, etc.) is to be utilised in the most efficient
way possible.
Cost determinants
The price comparison of different automation equipment for the solu-
tion of an equivalent task represents an important factor of project
costing.

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Miscellaneous
The aspects to be considered under this heading are, for instance,
size, weight, possible installation of automation equipment, customer
service, etc.
Moreover, the importance of the various evaluations of these require-
ments should be considered in this context whereby, for instance, the
guarantee of process reliability is always of greater importance than a
reduction of costs.
If we now revert back to the already mentioned small-scale experimen-
tal modules or other process technology systems, then the analysis of
the PI flow diagrams and the EMCS block diagrams clearly shows that
the selection of automation equipment mainly applies to actuators and
sensors.
The following lists the essential fundamentals for the selection of this
automation equipment, integrating it into a strategy for selection.

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2.4.2 Essential fundamentals

General

Using the example of flow and filling level control you are familiar with
from the small-scale experimental modules, there now follows an expla-
nation of the essential fundamentals of the theory of flow. Both closed
control loops start from the premise of one fluid flow (water throughput),
whereby flow q and pressure p represent the characteristic process pa-
rameters. Here, it should be noted that in the relevant literature on
pump function and pump design, the term ’output flow’ is often used
instead of flow rate.
The object of the exercise now is to realise a corresponding flow rate or
output flow for the respective specifications.
In process technology, centrifugal pumps (also adjustable) and control
valves are primarily used for this purpose.

The centrifugal pump

Fig. B2-54 initially provides a more detailed account of the design and
configuration of the centrifugal pump.

Pressure side

Impeller vanes

Fig. B2-54:
Suction side Drive shaft Design of a centrifugal
pump (front and side view)

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The most important characteristic of the centrifugal pump is the unclo-

sed pump chamber, whereby the fluid is sucked into the pump housing,
accelerated by the rotating impeller and due to the available centrifugal
force forced through the outlet opening again. This creates a pressure
difference between the pump inlet and outlet, whereby a vacuum is
created on the pump input side as a result of the outward flow of the
fluid from the impeller axis. Consequently, if for instance the pump
draws in fluid from a container at a lower level, the lift is limited by the
difference between the container vacuum and achievable vacuum.
If a vacuum is created on the pump input side, which is less than the
so-called vapour pressure of the fluid, this results in evaporation, so
that when the created gas bubbles are imploded this may lead to
damage of the impeller in areas of higher pressure. This phenomenon
is known as cavitation.
Moreover, the constructional design of a centrifugal pump means, that it
cannot be closed off. With excessive reverse pressure, this leads to an
opposing flow. To prevent this, a non-return valve is to be fitted in the
pipe downstream of the pump, which only opens if there is a delivery
pressure.
However, a centrifugal pump is also able to operate for a shorter period
of time against a closed valve (shut-off valve) without overloading or
damaging the drive unit. In the case of large centrifugal pumps, it is
necessary to keep the shut-off valve closed during start-up and
shut-down.

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Furthermore, the centrifugal pump is characterised by the so-called

Pump characteristic curve. This indicates the correlation between output
flow and delivery pressure at a constant speed.
With increasing output flow, a rising pressure drop is created on the
internal flow resistance of the pump – housing and guide blade –. In an
ideal case, the delivery pressure of the pump will be ∆p, whereby
∆p = ∆p0 − ki ⋅ q2
applies.
∆p – Delivery pressure
∆p0 – Maximum delivery pressure (at Q=0)
ki – Fluidic constant of pump
q – Output flow.

As an addition, fig. B2-55 illustrates the equivalent electrical circuit dia-

gram of a centrifugal pump and should be regarded in this sense as a
reference to possible similar considerations, which will however not be
dealt with in this context.

ps – Pressure on pump suction side/vacuum

pD – Pressure on pump delivery side/excess pressure
∆pi – Pressure drop subject to internal resistence of pump
∆p = ∆po - ∆pi corresponds to differential pressure between Fig. B2-55:
pump output and input side Equivalent electrical circuit
diagram of a
centrifugal pump

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Very often the delivery pressure ∆p, the delivery head h in relation to a
specific fluid, is often specified as a typical pump parameter as an alter-
native to delivery pressure, e. g. example for water (density p = 1
g/cm3), the delivery head is calculated as
∆p
h=
ρ⋅g

This is how corresponding characteristic curves are obtained for diffe-

rent speeds (fig. B2-56) and the fundamentals of the efficiency factor of
a centrifugal pump can be discussed.

Delivery
pressure ∆p
Efficiency η ∆p(n2) n1 < n2

A ∆p(n1)
∆p0(n1)

B η(n2)
η(n1)

Fig. B2-56: C n1 n2
Qualitative representation
of pump and efficiency Output flow
characteristic curves

With an output flow of zero (point A in fig. B2-56), i.e. the pump is
operated against a closed valve or the static differential pressure in a
pipeline is identical to the delivery pressure, this results in a situation
where, although the pump is working, no fluid is transported. This
means that efficiency is 0 and the energy consumed is converted into
heat in the pump housing. However, over an extended period and with
insufficient cooling, this may lead to pump damage, whereby this wor-
king point can no longer be maintained over an extended period.

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Once the output flow has increased, the pump reaches its maximum
efficiency (point B) at a working point.
If the output flow further increases (point C), the recorded drive capacity
increases, which leads to a deterioration in efficiency in the case of a
squared degressive delivery pressure. The increase in power consump-
tion may lead to overloading of the drive motor. This is why a predeter-
mined output flow must not be exceeded.
If you now assume the task of selecting a centrifugal pump, this pro-
cess of selection can be conducted along the lines of a relatively simple
procedure.
First of all, differentation must be made between two types of pump
application. In the first case, the pump is used as a pressure increase
facility to maintain the flow (of the output flow) in a pipe, whereby the
pump operates at a constant speed. In the second case, the pump is
used as a throughput regulating element, whereby its speed is used as
a correcting variable.
Fig. B2-57 deals with the first case, i.e. the pump operates at a con-
stant speed. In addition, the steady-state characteristic curve of the
pump and system (system section) are entered in a diagram (fig. B2-
57) and the planned working point of the pump defined at the
point of intersection of the pump characteristic curve and system curve.
Furthermore, the efficiency of the pump is also used to determine the
working point (the nominal ratios) (fig. B2-58).

∆p Pump characteristic curve

Working point
Fig. B2-57:
∆pPump = ∆pSystem Selection of a
centrifugal pump
System characteristic curve with the help of the
steady-state
characteristic curve of
system section and pump
q0 q (qo – delivery rate within
working point)

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Fig. B2-58:
Efficiency of
centrifugal pump in relation
to delivey rate
(q0 – delivery rate within
working point)

This means that apart from defining the working point of the centrifugal
pump (output flow q0) at the intersection of the above characteristic
curves, it is also necessary to take into account the maximum efficiency
as a specification for the output flow q0. Depending on the pump selec-
tion available, it is often not possible to avoid a compromise in the
sense of deviations from ηmax.
In the case of the centrifugal pump with variable speed, the basic re-
quirement – definition of qmin and qmax – must be met to begin with (in
accordance with corresponding process technological specifications)
(fig. B2-59).

∆p n1 < n2 < n3
n3 Pump characteristic curves

n2 System characteristic curve

Fig. B2-59: n1
Characteristics of
a pump with
variable speed range q
qmin q0 qmax
(q0 – Delivery rate
within working point)

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Furthermore, the speed range /control range (speeds n1 to n3) of the

pump to be selected are to be defined. To this end, the characteristic
curves shown in fig. B2-59 illustrate, that any volumetric delivery can be
achieved by varying the speeds of the centrifugal pump. As far as the
optimum pump selection is concerned, one should again aim for a
pump speed to be effective in the working point (output flow q0), which
also represents the best possible efficiency for the output flow q0. The
required efficiency ηmax in this case is also available in the form of a
characteristics field (fig. B2-60) whereby, as already explained, a com-
promise to a certain extent is unavoidable, since the intersection of the
pump characteristic curve (speed at working point – e. g. n2) and
system characteristic curve do not always ensure the most optimum
efficiency ηmax (see fig. B2-60).

Fig. B2-60:
Efficiency characteristics
of a centrifugal pump in
relation to the delivery rate
(q0 – Delivery rate within
working point)

Based on a summary of the above mentioned descriptions, the fol-

lowing schematic drawing fig. B2-61 is obtained for the pump selection.

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Use of centrifugal pump as

Final control element

Pressure increasing device
with variable speed

Definition of

Control range q0 to
ηmax (n)
qmax and qmin ∆pPump = ηmax to q0
to q0 (n)
on the basis of ∆pSystem
process technology
considerations and
q0 to
∆pPump (n) = ∆pSystem

Fig. B2-61: Pump selection

Selection of a
centrifugal pump

The final control element (regulating valve / control valve / valve actuator)

The function of a final control element in a piping system is to change

the fluid throughput by means of its variable flow resistance
Fig. B2-62 provides a schematic representation of customary final con-
trol elements, of which the control valve is undoubtedly the most fre-
quently used regulating device.

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h h

Control valve Control slide Throttle valve Stop-cock Fig. B2-62:

(centred) Final control elements in
flow technology

Fig. B2-63 therefore illustrates the design of a control valve (schema-

tic), whereby an equivalent electrical circuit diagram is also provided to
facilitate any possible similar considerations (fig. B2-64).

Valve stem
Stroke y
Valve poppet Packing gland Valve closed

Sealing ring (flexible) Fig. B2-63:

Design of a control valve

Faced with the task of selecting a final control element, the first step is
to examine the basic behaviour of the final control element in a system
section (pipe section). In this context, it should be noted that due to the
flow resistance of this final control element a dynamic pressure drop
occurs ∆p, which quadratically depends on the flow velocity or
throughput. This means that part of the overall pressure available at the
start of the pipe is reduced in the final control element (loss of energy).

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Fig. B2-64:
Equivalent
electrical circuit diagram of
a control valve

Due to its nature, it follows that a process technological system will

always be equipped with numerous control valves, in that different flow
and pressure conditions will occur. It is therefore necessary to introduce
the main parameters and facts in order to classify these control valves.
To be able to make a permanently (experimentally) reproducible com-
parison of control valves, manufacturers work on the basis of a stand-
ard state (standard flow rate) of the valve to be used and define the
so-called kv value. This means that for a pressure drop of 0.98 bar
(0.98 − 105Pa), manufacturers specify water flow rates of (ρ = 103
kg/m3) passing through the valve. These standard flow rates depend
purely on the valve stroke y and are referred to as kv value. The
throughput associated with the nominal stroke of the control valve is
known as kvs value.

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The dependency of the kv values on the respective valve stroke is re-

corded in the so-called steady-state characteristic curve or basic char-
acteristic curve of the control valve. The most typical basic forms of
this basic characteristic curve can be most frequently found in
the linear characteristic curve (a variation of valve stroke causes a
change in linear throughput – see fig. B2-65) and
the equal-percentage characteristic curve (variation of valve stroke
and throughput have a non-linear correlation – see fig. B2-65).

100

80
kV / kVS in %

60 linear

40
equal-percentage
20
KVO
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. B2-65:
Stroke in % Basic characteristic curve
of control valves

On the basis of the actual automation task (design of process technolo-

gical system section) it has to be decided, which basic characteristic
curve is to be used. To give a practical indication, the following proce-
dure can be recommended:
If the static characteristic curve is known (estimation) for the process
technological section intended for the use of the valve, then the
basic characteristic curve of the control valve is to be selected in
such a way that, with the added superimposing of both characteristic
curves (with the interaction of system section, and control valve) a
as near as possible linear steady state characteristic curve (opera-
ting characteristics) is obtained for the flow behaviour.

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Project design

Furthermore, it should be noted that various control valves, depending

on the constructional design, do not completely seal during a zero valve
stroke. The resulting residual throughput is referred as thekVo value of
the control valve. From the point of view of cost and function, this
should not necessarily be regarded as a disadvantage, since the com-
paratively simple On/Off valves are often used to completely close off
pipes. Moreover, the control valve can be fashioned into a completely
closing version by means of corresponding design changes (e. g. use of
compressible seals). In this case, one also speaks of the so-called
zero-point suppression. In this case, the characteristic curve greatly de-
viates from the actual basic characteristic curve in the case of a small
stroke (fig. B2-66).

kV(y)

kvs
without zero suppression

kv0
Fig. B2-66: with zero suppression
kvr
Linear basic characteristic
curves of control valves 0 Stroke y in % 100
with and without
zero suppression

The parameters kvs and kvo are used to form the so-called theoretical
control ratio kvs/kvo, which is generally specified as a typical parameter
by the valve manufacturer and, in practice is often also replaced by the
effective control ratio kvs/kvr. This takes into account the tolerance be-
tween the targeted and the actually measured basic characteristic curve
(see also fig. B2-66).

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 97
Project design

If we now turn to the impending valve selection then, according to the

above information, we start with the kv value. For a pressure drop ∆p≈1
bar (specification resulting from practical experience) this can be deter-
mined as follows by the project engineer, taking into account the flow
rate of the system section (specification resulting from practical expe-
rience:
ρ
Kv = 0.032 ⋅ q ⋅ √
 ∆p

q – Output flow in m3/h (flow rate)

ρ – Density of passing medium in 103kg/m3
∆p – Pressure drop via control valve (specification 1 bar)

This means that by defining (estimating) the maximum and minimum

flow rates (qmax/qmin) in the system section in question, the following
characteristic values are calculated with the help of the above formula
ρ
kvs = 0.032 ⋅ qmax ⋅√
 ∆p

(maximum valve stroke y/ also Kv max) and

Kv
min
= 0.032 ⋅ qmin √∆ρp


(minimum valve stroke y).

For practical purposes, it should be noted that, in most cases it is not

possible to find a control valve with the kvs value calculated from the
system data. Consequently, for practical reasons, (e. g. also taking into
account any other occurring changes in the system data) one should
always select a control valve with a higher kvs value (than that calcula-
ted), i.e. the control ratio kvs/kvr.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B2 – 98
Project design

Additionally, it should be mentioned that by changing the formula to

determine the kv value, it is also possible to obtain a formula for the
above mentioned operating characteristics, which is as follows:

q = kv ⋅ 31.62 √∆ρp
 = g (y, ∆p)

However, in this case ∆p represents the actual pressure drop via the
control valve for the respective flow rate, which can only be recorded
metrologically, but in practice is not realised in the form of a measuring
point. The formula is therefore less relevant in practical terms and the
satisfactory (practically linear) operating characteristic can only be
achieved by means of the already mentioned superimposition of basic
characteristic curve and system characteristic curve.
In conclusion, a few comments should also be added with regard to the
classification /estimation of the steady-state characteristic curves of pro-
cess technology system groups.
As can be seen from fig. B2-69, differentiation is made between system
sections with dominant static pressure drop and dominant dynamic
pressure drop. However, in fig. B2-67, it can be clearly seen that in
systems with static pressure drop, this only marginally depends on the
flow rate, also known as output flow q.

Delivery
pressure
∆ptot Total pressure drop
∆p Piping characteristic
curve (without final
control element)
Pressure drop on
∆pSystem ∆p control valve
Fig. B2-67:
System with
steady-state pressure drop qmin qmax Output flow
(ideal case –
pump resistance neglected)

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 99
Project design

It therefore generally applies that the overall pressure drop remains

constant and as such also the pressure drops via the system section
and control valve.
In the case of system sections with dynamic pressure drop, the pres-
sure changes in relation to the output flow q and via the system section
itself, and via the control valve as per fig. B2-68.

Delivery
pressure
∆ptot Total pressure drop
Piping characteristic
curve (without final
∆p control element)

Pressure drop on
Fig. B2-68:
∆pSystem control valve System section with
qmin qmax Output flow dynamic pressure drop
(ideal case – pump
resistance neglected)

Fig. B2-69 represents a summary of the main considerations involved in

selecting a control valve, which are documented in the form of basic
rules of procedure via points 1 to 4.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 100
Project design

Theoretical and
experimental system analysis
for

Determining type Definition of pressure drop ∆p

of pressure drop via system on the control valve
as (preferred option ∆p = 1 bar) for

Steady-state Dynamic Calculation

(dominant) (dominant) of
1. 2.

linear equal- kVScalcul.= 0,032 qmax p kVmin = 0,032 qmin p

∆p ∆p
percentage
select select
Basic characteristic
curve of control valve kVS > kVScalcul. kV0 > kVmin
(proposed
appropriate allocation) 3.

4.
Calculation of
Taking into account control ratio
the process conditions kVS / kV0

Selection of control valve

Fig. B2-69:
Selection of a control valve

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 101
Project design

Selection of sensors

As a rule, the selection of sensors within the framework of an automat-

ion project is more straightforward than the selection of actuators des-
cribed in the last section.
The selection by means of evaluating the respective company literature
is relatively simple for the project engineer. By using the measuring
ranges associated with process technology, all that remains for him to
do is to select a corresponding sensor.
Fig. B2-70 illustrates this procedure. Needless to say, the environmen-
tal operating conditions of the sensor also are to be taken into account
(e. g. aggressive medium, assembly conditions, etc.).

Process
parameters Sensors

Measuring range
Temperature 1 from ….to Resistance
Process technology system

thermometer
Measuring range
Temperature 2 from ….to Thermo- Company literature
Measuring range element
Pressure from ….to Semiconductor
Measuring range pressure sensor
Filling level from ….to Ultrasonic
Measuring range sensor
Flow from ….to Inductive
flow meter
Fig. B2-70:
Selection of sensors

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 102
Project design

2.5 Process protection measures

Since the previous chapters solely represented an account of the main

aspects of project design work, the question of process protection has
not been dealt with explicitly. It therefore has to be said that this que-
stion can be a particularly important additional factor of project design
work in relation to process technology. For example, the requirements
for the automation of an atomic power station will be considerably
higher than those for the automation system of a brewery.
Consequently, the project design engineer must be aware of the re-
spective essential requirements for process protection and incorporate
these into the project design.
Fig. B2-71 sets out the basic aspects of process protection.

Process protection measures

by means of

Explosion EMC Lightning

protection protection Application
(Measures of
(Selection of regarding (lightning VDI/VDE
explosion-proof electro- protection 2180
automation magnetic measures)
Fig. B2-70: equipment) compatibility
Overview of basic aspects
of process protection

According to this, the project design engineer will be confronted with

problems such as explosion protection (explosion-proof design of auto-
mation equipment and systems). There is generally sufficient company
documentation available for this, whereby the requirements arising from
process technology can be implemented quite successfully.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 103
Project design

The problem of EMC (electro-magnetic compatibility), which is also

shown in fig. B2-71 is even more complex compared to an explosion-
proof design of automation equipment. However, depending on process
requirements it also needs to be taken into consideration in the design
of an automation system. Here, as with no other main area dealt with in
this book, the project engineer’s experience is of some importance,
since the appropriate know-how is at best only partially available in
technical literature. It is therefore, as previously mentioned, up to the
experience of individual companies to realise a well configured auto-
mation, system as far as EMC is concerned.
Similarly, the problem of lightning protection must be accorded its pro-
per place in this context, since it also plays an important role in advan-
ced system automation. Again, only fragmented specifications can only
be found in the technical literature, including DIN documentation; hence
the experience of the project design engineers is again crucial as far as
this aspect of process protection is concerned.
Apart from the above mentioned topics, which doubtless require further
details, there remains the important matter of VDI/VDE2180. In the
author’s experience, this guideline is of the greatest practical relevance
and is to be incorporated unequivocally and practically in the project
design.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 104
Project design

VDI/VDE guideline 2180 is based on the following basic precept. (fig.

B2-72):

Process variable
unacceptable
error range

Limit value of
permissible
error range

safety device

Limit value of
monitoring device
error range
Acceptable

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

(monitoring (safety (safety
Fig. B2-72: device) device 1) device 2)
Mode of operation
of monitoring and Time
safety equipment

In the case of a process technological system, differentiation is made

between the so-called acceptable range, the permissible error range
and the unacceptable error range. Here, it is assumed that a process
technological system in the course of normal operation (steady-state
operation) moves within the so-called acceptable range, i.e. in the
event of a drifting of process parameters from the working point, the
system operates in the permissible error range.
The protection of this operating regime is realised by means of the
actual automation system, whereby a corresponding monitoring
device (limit value encoded) ensures that if the acceptable range is
exceeded (steady-state operating status), the system is automatically
returned to the acceptable range or, if governed by the process tech-
nology, by manual intervention (case 1).

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B2 – 105
Project design

If this monitoring device fails, then a so-called safety device (safety

device 1) is indicated, which is also realised by means of a corre-
sponding limit value encoder and at the very least returns the pro-
cess parameters into the permissible error range (case 2).
Irrespective of these measures described, an additional safety de-
vice (safety device 2) must be provided, which comes into effect in
the event of failure of the previously described safety technology.
This safety device requires a hardware basis which is completely
independent of the previous automation equipment, which encom-
passes both sensors and actuators and also processors (case 3).
This ensures that in the event of failure of monitoring or safety equip-
ment 1, an additional automation structure becomes effective in the pro-
cess technology system, thereby preventing any drifting of the process
parameters into the unacceptable error range (system damage or
breakdown).
Depending on the process class, the project design engineer must
therefore decide to what extent the specifications of VDI/VDE 2180
must be incorporated in the project design work.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B2 – 106
Project design

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 1
Commissioning

Chapter 3

Commissioning and
maintenance

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B3 – 2
Commissioning

3.1 Commissioning of
process and automation systems

3.1.1 Introductory comments – Commissioning strategy

To be able to solve the tasks set out in the main heading, it is first of all
necessary to establish that the process technology system (the pro-
cess) and the automation system should always be regarded as one
entity. In this respect, the interaction between process (process techno-
logical system section) and the automation structure should always be
taken into account as far as commissioning is concerned.
Fig. B3-1 therefore provides an overview of the main aspects of com-
missioning of process and automation systems, categorised into levels I
and II. Here, it is of major importance, in which order (according to
which commissioning strategy) the individual commissioning actions are
carried out, thus determining the actual time period, costs arising and
the success of system commissioning. A first evaluation of fig. B3-1
enables you to define the following main activities for commissioning:

Level I. Commissioning of process technology systems

Connection Checking Basic test Establishing Testing Connection

Approaching
of auxiliary the of binary the of of auxiliary
of the system
energies operating control operational safety device energies
working
mode – systems readiness
points
(electrical, manual of the (VDI/VDE (Electrics –
pneumatic, mode (structure process 2180) large
(Closed
hydraulic) variation, consuming
control loops
testing of devices)
in
– Level 1 – monitoring
manual mode)
equipment) – Level 2 –

Establishing of Monitoring of
Level II. operating mode – steady-state
automatic mode initial start up

Fig. B3-1:
Main activities involved in the commissioning of technical process systems

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 3
Commissioning

Level I

Group 1 (step 1)
Connection of electrical (and pneumatic) auxiliary energy for proces-
sors and other automation equipment (with the exception of large
electrical consuming devices).
Checking the operating mode – manual mode – for the existing
closed control loops and binary control systems on the technical pro-
cess system.
Basic test of binary control systems, e. g. for the switching on and off
of pumps, open/closed valves, etc., structure variations of the system
and the testing of monitoring equipment.

Group 2 (step 2)
Establishing the operational readiness of the process, e. g. availabil-
ity of required media (basic materials) in the appropriate output con-
tainers, necessary filling of piping systems, etc., (all operating steps
in manual operation).

Group 3 (step 3)
Testing of safety devices (as specified in VDI/VDE 2180), whereby
safety device 1 (sensors, actuators and processor algorithms are to
be tested first, followed by safety device 2.
Connection of electrical auxiliary energy for large consuming devi-
ces.
Approaching of the working points of the process technological
system, i.e. the closed control loops are moved into the required
working points in manual mode, whereby the controller structure and
the controller parameters are programmed for each closed control
loop.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B3 – 4
Commissioning

Level II

Group 1
Establishing of operating mode – automatic mode – by means of a
smooth transition, manual/automatic changeover (control signal-
manual and control signal-automatic coincide).
Monitoring of steady-state initial start-up and testing of control and
disturbance behaviour.

3.1.2 Connection of auxiliary energies (Part 1 and Part 2)

As already discussed in section 2.2.5, the main concentration of work
concerning the connection of auxiliary energies (electrics, pneumatics,
hydraulics) is on the electrical auxiliary energy. This form of auxiliary
energy is the dominant factor in the operation of an automation system.
Because of the different groups of consuming devices (see power con-
sumption), the sequence of connecting different voltage levels is deter-
mined and a procedure (steps 1 to 3) introduced as shown in fig. B3-2,
whereby these voltages are made available:

Connection of electrical auxiliary energies

1. 2. 3.

Processors Large electrical

Sensors/actuators,
consuming
measuring
(PCS, devices
transducers
compact controller, (pumps, heaters,
Fig. B3-2: and safety devices
Principal aspects regarding PC's etc.)
the connection of
electrical auxiliary energy

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 5
Commissioning

Step 1:
Connection of electrical auxiliary energy for processors (process control
system, compact controller, PLC technology and PC’s)
Typical voltage levels
230 V AC and
24 V DC (made available via power supply units)

Step 2:
Connection of electrical auxiliary energy for automation equipment –
standard consuming devices (such as sensors, actuators, measuring
transducers and safety devices)
Typical voltage levels
230 V AC (main supply)
24 V DC (made available via power supply units)

Step 3:
Connection of electrical auxiliary energy for automation equipment –
Large consuming devices (such as pumps and heaters)
Typical voltage levels
400 V AC (main supply)
230 V AC.

Figs. B3-3 to B3-6 provide examples of this, which represent technical-

ly, a typical circuit solution in line with the connection procedure (steps
1 to 3).
Fig. B3-3 shows an example of how, by implementing steps 1 to 3, the
electrical auxiliary energy for the small-scale experimental module is to
be connected. This illustrates that the compact controller (processor) is
the first to be supplied with auxiliary energy, followed by the sensors,
actuators, small pumps and safety devices and, finally, the heater
(being a large consuming) device.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B3 – 6
Commissioning

Small-scale experimental
modules

230 V AC 1.
Compact controller, PC

230 V AC 2. 24 V DC
Sensors, actuators, pumps

230 V AC 3. 24 V DC

Safety device
230 V AC 4.

230 V AC 5.
Fig. B3-3: Heater
Connection of
electrical auxiliary energy
using the example
of a small-scale
experimental module

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 7
Commissioning

An individual example then illustrates, which proposed circuit is more

favourable for the supply of electrical auxiliary energy for the proces-
sors (fig. B3-4), whereby the safety device as well as the pneumatic
auxiliary energy is supplied via the additional contacts of contactors K1
and K2. (fig. B3-6). Fig. B3-5 demonstrates an example of the connec-
tion of electrical auxiliary energy for large consuming devices, whereby
the allocated pumps and heaters are supplied with the required 40 V
AC via contactors K3 to K6.

L1 50Hz 230V AC

Terminal with fuse

-X-S1A2-1

AUS 1
-S2
2 Terminals Terminals

-X-S1A2-1 2 3

EIN 1 13
-K1 -X-S1D1-1 1 2 3 4
-S1
2 14

13
-K2 A1 A1
14
-K1 -K2
A2 A2
-X-S1A2-1 4 5

1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4

5 6 5 6

13 14 13 14

Key: 15 16 15 16
-X-S1A2 / D1
Assembly levels in control cabinet 17 18 17 18
Fig. B3-4:
Connection of auxiliary
energy for processors

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B3 – 8
Commissioning

L1 50Hz 230VAC

Terminal with fuse

-X-S1A2-1

EMERGENCY-
12
STOP 1 1

-S4 Terminals
1 2
ON 1
9
-S3
2

EMERGENCY- 13 14
STOP 2 1

-S5
2 13
-K3
10 14
Terminals -X-S1C1-1
13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
EMERGENCY- -K4
14
STOP 3 1
13
-S6 -K6
2 14
A1 A1 A1 A1
13
11 -K3 -K4 -K5 -K6
-K5 A2 A2 A2 A2
14

OUT 1

-S7
13 14 13 14 13 14 13 14
2

Key:
-X-S1A2 / C1
Assembly levels in control cabinet

Fig. B3-5:
Connection of electrical auxiliary energy for heavy consuming devices

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 9
Commissioning

24VDC

Terminal with fuse

-X-S4C1-1 Terminals Terminals

1 -X-S4E0-1 -H21
-X-S1E0-1 3

Terminals
2 -X-S1E0-1 -X-S4E0-1 2 -X-S4A2-1 1 -X-S4A2-1 2

17

-K1 -X-S4E0-1 3 4
18

17

-K2
18
towards main valve
1
for connection of pneumatic
-YS1 auxiliary energy
Festo
2
from compressor station

-X-S4E0-2 9

Key:
-X-S4A2 / C1 / E0
Assembly levels in control cabinet
Fig. B3-6:
Connection of
pneumatic auxiliary energy

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B3 – 10
Commissioning

3.1.3 Testing of closed control loops, binary control systems

and safety devices
Now that required auxiliary energies have been made available, the
testing of the automation configuration/structure can be started. The fol-
lowing procedure is recommended to successfully realise this task (fig.
B3-7).

Step 1

Testing of binary control system

Step 2

Testing of safety device

Fig. B3-7: Step 3

Testing of
automation configuration Testing of closed control loops
of a
technical process system

With step 1, the binary control systems are tested as a first measure.
This involves, for example, the testing of the on/off valves provided for
configurational changes and their interaction with the corresponding bi-
nary controllers. In this connection, the signals resulting from the so-
called final control element feedback in particular (see also section
B.2.2.4) are to be evaluated visually or by means of binary monitoring
(binary control systems). Similarly, the allocated binary control systems
for the switching on and off of corresponding pumps and heaters are to
be tested. Here again, the allocated binary control systems are to be
tested via the manual control elements and corresponding feedback
sensors.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 11
Commissioning

Equally, the testing of safety devices also includes the monitoring of

binary control systems. However, to do this, the associated sensors are
to be activated by means of suitable manipulation and any actuators
thus actuated evaluated in the familiar manner for correct functioning
(visual and logic final control element acknowledgement).
If the binary control systems including safety devices are then fully
functional, the actual commissioning of the closed control loop can be
started. To do this, the closed control loops are brought into line with
the respective specified working points in manual mode and then swit-
ched over to automatic mode. After a sufficiently long evaluation of the
guiding and interference behaviour of the activated closed control loops,
the system can be handed over to the user.

3.1.4 Establishing the standby mode of a technical process

By utilising the available auxiliary energy (electrical and pneumatic) and
the operational automation configuration (binary control systems and
closed control loops in manual mode), the technical process is to be put
into standby mode, which guarantees the activation of the actual
steady-state operation of the continual process. In particular, the follo-
wing preparatory steps are to be carried out:
Filling and venting of necessary piping sections to ensure the deli-
very capacity of the pumps used.
Provision (pump supply) of a sufficient quantity of materials to the
output containers.
Configurational changes to container and piping system for the pro-
duction start-up by means of actuation of selected on/off valves and
corresponding hand valves.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B3 – 12
Commissioning

3.2 Upkeep of technical process systems

(small-scale experimental module)

Undoubtedly, the extent and cost of maintenance of modern technical

process systems is to a large extent determined by the quality of the
automation system (the automation project), whereby the use of mo-
dern automation equipment plays a vital role. Here, it should be ac-
knowledged that the recognised procedure for conventional instrumen-
tation has to be reconsidered for the maintenance and commissioning
of a technical process system. In this context, the following aspects
should be taken into account:
Modern automation equipment is highly reliable, requires little or no
readjustment, or can be easily adjusted via control and instrumenta-
tion systems or similar control elements, whereby any readjustments
can be easily made if required.
The universal use of process control engineering, being a typical
characteristic of modern automation systems, facilitates a new and
efficient approach to realising the required measures for mainten-
ance and upkeep.
The emerging use of fieldbus systems (bus systems in effect) simi-
larly is to be taken into consideration and also influences the main-
tenance and upkeep operations.
It is therefore essential, in particular as far as advanced process tech-
nology systems is concerend, to reconfigure any previously used main-
tenance and upkeep strategies, whereby the tried and tested (from pre-
vious practice) should be adopted and new strategies (e.g. by evalua-
ting the above points) should at the same time be pursued.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 13
Commissioning

3.3 Fault finding and error handling –

Damage prevention training

Fault finding and error handling represents an extensive area of

functions in a an operational technical process. A wide variety of errors
can occur, which need to be analysed and eliminated by maintenance
personnel. As far as a systematic grouping of these errors is concer-
ned, fig. B3-8 defines different categories which are discussed below.

Classification of malfunctions in
automation systems in process technology

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Process control Fig. B3-8:
Sensors / Transmission Transmitter
technology Classification
Actuators lines technology
and processors of malfunctions in
automation systems

Group 1 covers the typical errors, which are caused as a result of a

failure of sensors or also non-operational actuators. Here, the following
advice is given for error elimination.

Category 1

Sensor faults
Metrological checking immediately at the sensor terminals themsel-
ves or on the EMCS field terminal points.

Actuator faults
Testing of the incoming control signal on the actuator
Testing directly on the actuator – signal path from the positioning to
the servo drive (checking of calibrating accuracy)
Testing directly on the actuator – mobility of the valve poppet and
spindle (error – e. g. as a result of jamming or rusting of valve pop-
pet or spindle).

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

 B3 – 14
Commissioning

Category 2

Errors in transmission lines

Transmission measurements by means of checking of terminals on
the EMCS field terminal points and process control console.
Visual checking of cable guides or cable trays (cable racks) to deter-
mine any mechanical damage.

Category 3

Errors in transmitter technology

Checking of input/output behaviour by applying defined input signals
to the input terminals of the measuring transducer.
Checking of or repeating the calibration of the measuring transducer
(checking of supply voltage).

Category 4

Errors on processors
Checking of supply voltages
Checking of input/output signals according to allocations resulting
from algorithm processing (e. g. off-line testing of PLC or compact
controller).

Apart from the above mentioned typical errors on technical process

systems, which can generally always be eliminated with the help of ap-
propriate know-how, malfunctions can also occur, which may lead to
damage of entire system complexes, including personal injury or at the
very least serious danger.
However, with the help of so-called damage prevention training, all sy-
stem personnel are trained in how to react sensibly in the event, parti-
cularly of disaster, and to minimise any unavoidable material or perso-
nal damage. Doubtless, this damage prevention training is of particular
importance in high risk installations (e. g. in atomic power stations, po-
wer stations, chemical plants, etc., but generally always needs to be
adapted to the actual process technology.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B3 – 15
Commissioning

A number of fundamental main points are listed below regarding the

essence of damage prevention training.
First of all, the technical process system is to be broken down into
important individual sections from the point of view of process tech-
nology and system safety.
Personnel are then to be completely familiarised with this structural
breakdown (individual sections and their interaction), e.g. small-scale
experimental module divided into the individual sections of filling le-
vel, flow and temperature control systems and supply module).
On the basis of the breakdown of the system structure, a strategy is
to be developed for the isolation of individual technical process sy-
stem sections. To this end, manual intervention (emergency interven-
tion) with the help of the designed automation systems should be
possible which, owing to the configuration of the transmission lines
(e. g. stainless steel pneumatic lines), ensures a refractability of at
least 1 to 2 minutes even in an emergency.
Personnel are to be trained in the handling of these emergency in-
terventions.
Furthermore, appropriate fire extinguishing and other damage con-
trolling devices are to be incorporated in the emergency operation
training.
Finally, the most effective withdrawal of personnel from a damaged
installation is to be defined and taught in the event of any damage
occurring.
Personnel must also be given training in recognising any damage
which has occurred as a result of an emergency (e. g. environmental
damage), plus any other systems including personnel in danger, and
in informing any other parties in close proximity as appropriate (to be
evacuated) or to include these in the damage control.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B3 – 16
Commissioning

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 B4 – 1
Fault finding

Chapter 4

Fault finding

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

B4 – 2
Fault finding

4.1 What is meant by maintenance?

The term maintenance refers to all measures regarding the preserva-

tion and re-establishing of the setpoint status and the determining and
evaluation of the actual state of technical resources of the system (DIN
31051).

More specifically, maintenance can be divided into three areas

(see fig. B4-1):
Service
Inspection
Repairs.

Fig. B4-1:
Areas of maintenance

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Fault finding

4.1.1 Service
The term Service refers to preventive measures to prolong operating
times. Servicing of technical installations covers:

Fig. B4-2:
Service

4.1.2 Inspection

Fig. B4-3:
Inspection

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B4 – 4
Fault finding

4.1.3 Repairs

Fig. B4-4:
Repairs

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 B4 – 5
Fault finding

4.2 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction

In the event of an inadvertent interruption, repairs are to be carried out

according to the following plan.

Fig. B4-5:
Systematic repairs

4.2.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs

The basic prerequisite for systematic repairs and fault finding is
knowledge of the system. This means that only when you have familia-
rised yourself with the system and know how it is structured, will you be
able to carry out systematic repairs.
Familiarisation with the system by:
closely observing the installation.
making available the entire system documentation.
knowing the product and processing technology.
exchanging information with the user, operator.

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Fault finding

Structuring of the system into:

1. System and controller structure

Program flow charts
Function charts
Description

2. Mechanical design
Structure and support unit
Function units
Adjustment

3. Drive technology
Electrical system
Hydraulics
Pneumatics
Mechanical system

4. Final control element

same as 3

5. Control system
Electrical relay control
Programmable logic controller

6. Signal generator
Binary sensors
Analogue sensors
Digital sensors

7. Power supply
Electrical
Hydraulic
Pneumatic

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Fault finding

4.2.2 Procedure
The first thing that must be done in the event of an error signal is to
establish the actual status. The following options are available for this:
Discussing the fault with the user
(Does the system operate incorrectly?)
Start failure
Stopping during process step
Faulty process
Incorrect working practice

Fig. B4-6:
Acquisition of actual status

4.3 Fault finding

The actual fault finding starts once the actual status has been estab-
lished and compared with the required status. This comparison fre-
quently leads to the discovery of the error source, if the fault is
visible (e.g. mechanical damage to a signal generator),
audible (e.g. leakage on a valve),
detectable by smell (e.g. cable burnt out)
If this is not the case, the fault can only be found and eliminated by
means of a systematic procedure.

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B4 – 8
Fault finding

4.3.1 Systematic fault finding

Again, the required/actual status comparison forms the basis for sys-
tematic fault finding.

Fig. B4-7:
Systematic fault finding

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Fault finding

4.3.2 Fault documentation

Once a fault has been found, it is not sufficient just to rectify this, but at
the same time the cause of the problem should be determined. A useful
tool for this is a faults list, which should be kept with the installation.
This list describes the malfunctions and their causes. It may take a
number of different forms.
The following is an example.

Mach. No. Date / Time Fault Cause Fault index Rectified by

This list can be useful in detecting frequently recurring faults and their
causes. The fault index makes it easier to establish the nature of the
error.
A= Incorrect working practice
(e.g. a retaining screw is not properly tightened on an
assembly part)
M= Mechanical fault
(e.g. sensors are maladjusted)
E= Electrical fault
(e.g. relay is not energised or solenoid does not switch)
S= Controller error
(e.g. program or program part is not activated)
L= Leakage fault
(e.g. water escaping from threaded connection)
B= Operator error
(e.g. shut-off valve not closed)
W= Service error
(e.g. filter not cleaned)

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Fault finding

Example

Mach. No. Date / Time Fault Cause Fault index Rectified by

1303 04.01.95 / Part system Filling level, Filling level sensor M TZI
11.00 Controller does not operate maladjusted
correctly

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Fault finding

4.3.3 Fault analysis

With the help of the faults list, it is possible to establish whether a fault
or damage occurred and thus to pinpoint weak points in the system.
Once these have been identified, it is advisable to introduce technical
improvements. If damage has occurred, the following procedure should
be adopted.

Fig. B4-8:
Fault analysis

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B4 – 12
Fault finding

4.4 Final analysis

Fault finding and elimination means not just to render the system ope-
rational again, but also to identify and improve weak areas in the
system.
The basic prerequisite for this is a knowledge of all control technology
aspects and understanding of the function and interaction of hybrid
systems.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 1
Index

Index
A

Acceptable range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-104

Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-24
Allocation lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-31
Amplitude ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-49
Assembly levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-31
Assembly places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-31
Assembly project design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-6, B2-42
Automation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7
Automation equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7, B2-83
Auxiliary energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-38, B3-3
B

Basic characteristic curve of control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-95

Basic rule of procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-99
Basic structure of an automation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7
Basic symbol – Binary control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-26
Basic symbol – Closed loop controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-25
Basic symbol – Diaphragm actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-24
Basic symbol – Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-26
Basic symbol – Measuring transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-25
Basic symbol – Sensor/detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-23
Behavioural models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-44
C

Characteristic model values of typical control systems . . . . . . . . . B2-54

Cavitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-86
Centrifugal pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-85
Circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-41
Closed control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-3 - B1-4, B1-11 - B1-12, B2-73
Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-2
Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-3
Connection of auxiliary energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-4
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-7
Controlled variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-3, B1-12, B2-75
Controlled variable x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-9
Control behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-10
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-10, B1-16
Controller with D-action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-19
Controller with I-action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-19
Controller with P-action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-18

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

2
Index

Control ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-96

Control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-93
Correction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-24, B2-77
Correcting variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-3, B2-75
Correcting variable y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-9
D

D-action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-77
Damage prevention training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-13
Degree of complexity of closed loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-54
Delay of first order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-71
Delivery head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-88
Derivative-action time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-25 - B1-26, B2-77
Disturbance variable z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-9, B2-73
Dynamic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-14
Dynamic closed control loop behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-78

Efficiency of a centrifugal pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-88

Electrical equivalent circuit diagram of a centrifugal pump . . . . . . B2-87
Electrical equivalent circuit diagram of a control valve. . . . . . . . . . B2-94
Electro-magnetic compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-103
EMCS points terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-18
EMCS block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-6, B2-19
Equipment list. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-29
Error analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-11
Error documentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-9
Explosion protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102
F

Fault finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-7, B3-13

Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-13
Field instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-18
Field level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7
Final draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-6
Final EMCS block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-32
Fixed setpoint control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-74
Filling level closed control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-29
Filling level control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-61
Filling level control system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-36
Final control element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-7, B1-11, B2-92 - B2-93
Flow control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-56
Function mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-77

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

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Index

I-action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-77
I-controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-23
Inflectional tangent model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-53
Initial letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-13
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
Intermittent controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-17
I/O model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-45
L

Large consuming device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B3-3, B3-5

Letter code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-13
Lightning protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102 - B2-103
Linear dynamic system model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-60, B2-65, B2-71
Linearity range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-51
M

Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-3
Manipulation point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-15
Measuring element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-11
Measuring point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-15
Model configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43, B2-56
Model configuration strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-45
Model configuration through experimental process analysis. . . . . B2-48
Model forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-46
Monitoring device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-104
O

Open loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-6

Operating characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-95
Overshoot amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-79
Overshoot time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-79

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

4
Index

P-action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-77
P-controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-21
PD-controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-25
Performance specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-9
Permissible error range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-104
PI-controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-24
PID-controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-26
PI flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-5, B2-11, B2-40
Preliminary EMCS block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-29
Process analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-43
Process control console. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7
Process flow diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-5, B2-10
Process model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-44
Process protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102
Proportional coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-77
Pump characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-89
R

Reference variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-3

Reference variable W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-10
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-83
Response characteristic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-52

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 5
Index

Safety against explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-102’

Safety device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-105
Second letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-13
Selection of centrifugal pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-92
Selection of sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-101
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-101
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-23
Servo control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-74
Servo drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-11
Setpoint control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-74
Setpoint value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-74
Setting rules to Chien/Hrones/Reswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-82
Setting rules to Ziegler/Nichols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-81
Signal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-44
Software functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-28
Stability limit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-81
Standardised signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-20
Steady-state behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-15, B2-75
Steady-state condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-15, B2-47
Steady-state controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-17
Steady-state model of controlled system . . . . . . . . B2-58, B2-64, B2-69
Step-change height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-51
Step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-14, B2-50
Subsequent letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-14
Sustained oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-81
Switchroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-7
Symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-17
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-23, B2-27
System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-4
System characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-89
System dead time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-55
System deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-7, B2-74
System deviation xd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-10
System model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-44
System time constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-55

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

6
Index

Temperature control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-67

Tender specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-5, B2-9
Terminal distributor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-32
Test signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-50
Theoretical model configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-57, B2-62, B2-68
Time behaviour of a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-12
Total time constant model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-55
Transient function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1-14, B2-51
Transmission lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-27
Two-point element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-70
U

Unacceptable error range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-104

Upkeep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B4-2
W

Wiring paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-32

Working point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-47, B2-51, B2-74 - B2-75, B2-89
Working point of centrifugal pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2-90

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C–1
Solutions

Part C

Solutions

Solution 1 Overview of project design process . . . . . . . . . C1-1

Solution 2 Core project design – Fundamental methodology for

the project design of automation systems . . . . . . C2-1

Solution 3 Closed control loop synthesis and planning of

binary control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3-1

Solution 4 Process protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4-1

Solution 5 Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors . . . . . . C5-1

Solution 6 Closed loop control technology . . . . . . . . . . . . C6-1

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C–2
Solutions

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C1 – 1
Solution 1

Title

Overview of project design process

Solution to part exercise 1-1

Name (in brief) the main areas involved in core project design!

Project configuration

Tender specification/performance specification

PI flow diagram

Preliminary EMCS block diagram

Final EMCS block diagram

Wiring lists

Solution to part exercise 1-2

Explain, in principle, the procedure for the combining of the core, elec-
trical and pneumatic projects!

Project components for

automation system

Pneumatic and Core project/ Electrical

hydraulic project EMCS project project
Connec-
Distribution tors Connection of Terminals
of pneumatic Distribution of
sensors/
and/or electrical
Connector actuators Connection auxiliary power
hydraulic
list and processes list
auxiliary energy

Requirements
regarding explosion
and lightning protection
and EMC

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C1 – 2
Solution 1

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C2 – 1
Solution 2

Title

Core project design – Fundamental methodology

for the project design of automation systems

Solution to part exercise 2-1

Develop the PI flow diagram for the specified process flow diagram (re-
quirements: control of filling level in container 2 [B2]; monitoring of filling
levels in containers B2 and B1).

Complete the PI flow diagram.

Filling level control system –

PI flow diagram

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C2 – 2
Solution 2

Solution to part exercise 2-2

Develop the PI flow diagram for the specified process flow diagram (re-
quirements: control of temperature in container B1; monitoring of filling
level and temperature in container B1).

Complete the PI flow diagram.

Temperature control
system –
PI flow diagram

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C2 – 3
Solution 2

Solution to part exercise 2-3

Draft the preliminary EMCS block diagram for the EMCS points of the
PI flow diagram created in part exercise 2-1 (see solution, part exercise
2-1).

Complete the preliminary EMCS block diagram.

Process control

PID
console

H L L

0 ... 10V

24VDC
Switchroom

0 ... 20mA E E
E
0 ... 24V 0/24V 0/10V 0/24V 0/10V

M
Field level

L G G
Vs1 Vs2
P1

LIC 10 LIA+ 12 LIA+ 11

Filling level control system –
Preliminary
EMCS block diagram

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C2 – 4
Solution 2

Solution to part exercise 2-4

Draft the preliminary EMCS block diagram for the EMCS points of the
PI flow diagram created in part exercise 2-2 (see solution, part exercise
2-2).

Complete the preliminary EMCS block diagram.

Process control

PID
console

L H 0/24V L
Switchroom

230VAC
E E

0/10V 0/10V
0/24V 0/24V
230VAC
Field level

G T G
Vs1 Vs2
Temperature P1
control system –
Preliminary LIA- 12 LIA+ 11
EMCS block diagram

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C2 – 5
Solution 2

Solution to part exercise 2-5

With the help of the project configuration plan (process control console,
switchroom and field level), draw up two examples of wiring (e. g. simp-
le allocation of the switchroom terminal distributors X200.01 and
X200.02), whereby the terminal boxes/field level (X300.01 and
X300.02), the assembly levels A and B (switchroom rack) and the ter-
minal distributor X100.01 (process control console) are to be used as
additional components.

PLC
Process control
console (PCC)

(Terminal
X100.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
distributor))

1 2 3 4
Measuring Measuring
transducer transducer (Assembly position 3) (Assembly position 4) (Assembly
level A)
E1 E2 A1 A2 E1 E2 A1 A2
A

(Assembly
Switchroom

level B)
(SR)

B
Switchroom rackl

(Terminal
X200.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X200.02 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 distributor)

Terminal box
Field level

X300.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X300.02 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(process)

(field level)

Process

Wiring routing (Part 1) – Project configuration

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C2 – 6
Solution 2

X200.01
X300.01-1 A / 1 / E1
1
X300.01-2 A / 1 / E2
2
X100.01-7 A / 2 / E1
3
X100.01-8 A / 2 / E2
4

X200.02 (Terminal distributor)

A / 1 / A1 X100.01-1
1
A / 1 / A2 X100.01-2
2
Wiring routing A / 2 / A1 X300.01-3
3
(Part 2) – A / 2 / A2 X300.01-4
Terminal 4
distributor allocation

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 1
Solution 3

Title

Closed control loop synthesis and planning of

binary control systems

Solution to part exercise 3-1

Investigate the method of operation of the filling level control loop

(closed control loop in manual operation; type of action of sensors
and actuators).
Develop a strategy for computer-aided measured value acquisition.
Determine the static characteristic curve of the ultrasonic sensor, i.e.
the correlation between filling level and the respective current or volt-
age signal.
Note: Record a sufficient number of interpolation points.

Investigation of the experimental areas

Regarding communication between computer and process
The first step of the experimental analysis, is the investigation of the
available technical resources. These comprise the sensors and actua-
tors of the process to be examined and the auxiliary hardware and
software equipment required for data acquisition and evaluation.
In the case of computer assisted data acquisition, the communication
between the process and computer is effected via PC cards or via a
bus system (e. g. PROFIBUS). Here, it should be taken into account
that the majority of PC cards can only read an output of 0 to 10 V as
analogue signals, which necessitates a signal conversion. The ana-
logue ultrasonic sensor used in this system supplies a current signal of
6 to 20 mA analogue to the measured distance. This can be converted
into a voltage signal via a load resistance. From the description of the
sensor it can be seen, that the load resistance RL must be less than
400 Ω. For instance, if RL = 390Ω is selected, this creates a voltage
signal of 2.34 to 7.80 V, which can then be recorded via a PC-card (fig.
C3-1a).

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 2
Solution 3

If the measured data is recorded via a bus system, then a suitable

device is required for converting the signal (fig. C3-1b). A bus-compati-
ble digital controller can for instance be used for this. The bus transfer
rate is crucial with regard to the recording of step responses.

a) b)
PC with PC with
multifunction card bus connection

Vmeaß
Bus

RL = 390Ω

Fig. C3-1:
Communication between Sensor Sensor Digital controller
Computer and process with
a) via PC card bus connection
b) via bus

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 3
Solution 3

Determining the characteristic sensor curve

The technical description of analogue sensors generally indicates the
characteristic sensor curve (graphically or in the form of an equation
with tolerances). If this characteristic curve is missing, then it must be
determined by experimental means. This may also be necessary in
cases where the operating conditions affect the characteristic curve.
In the case of the controlled system for the filling level, the position of
the sensor, i. e. its location/height above the container, is of major im-
portance. It is used to measure the distance between the sensor head
and the water surface and not the actual filling level directly (fig. C3-2).

Ultrasonic sensor

hB

h
Fig. C3-2:
Configuration of
ultrasonic sensor

The filling level h can thus be calculated as follows:

h = d + hB - a

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 4
Solution 3

Distance Signal Filling level

mm mA mm

310 9.98 35

290 10.48 55

270 11.15 75

250 11.73 95

230 12.37 115

210 13.02 135

190 13.64 155

170 14.25 175

150 15.00 195

130 15.57 215

Output signal as a function of the distance between water surface

and sensor
350
mm
250
200
Distance

150
100
50
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 mA 16
Signal

Output signal as a function of filling level

250

mm

150
Filling level

100

50

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 mA 16
Fig. C3-3: Signal
Representation of
sensor characteristic

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 5
Solution 3

Mathematical evaluation

Correlation coefficient: -0.99966045

Slope: -31.76112
Y-section: Mean value 623.970
Deviation 1.234

Explanation regarding measuring process

The measurement of data is effected manually by means of a digital

multimeter. Starting with a full container the filling level was read in
steps of 20 mm. The value table obtained was noted and subsequently
evaluated in Microsoft Excel.
The value table does not take into consideration the filling level, but the
actual distance between the ultrasonic sensor and the water surface.

Solution to part exercise 3-2

Determine the static behaviour of the controlled system for the filling
level.
Note: Record the corresponding controlled variable for each correc-
ting variable in the steady-state condition.
Represent the results in a diagram in the form of a static charac-
teristic.
Evaluate the static characteristic determined (e. g. linear/non-linear)
and compare the results with those determined in the theoretical pro-
cess analysis.
Define the operating point for the dynamic analysis (identification) of
the controlled system.

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 6
Solution 3

Determining the static behaviour of the controlled system

As calculated in the course of the theoretical analysis of the controlled
system for the filling level, the filling level in the upper container in the
stationary status also depends on the volume of water in the total
system. This is expressed via the variable Hw. The parameters and
characteristic values determined subsequently therefore only apply for
one setting. The results specified were determined at HW = 40 cm.
The static behaviour of a controlled system is the relationship between
input and output variable in the steady-state condition /stationary state.
In the case of the controlled system for the filling level, the voltage
becomes the correcting variable for the changing of the pump speed
(input signal) and the filling level becomes the controlled system output
variable. Fig. C3-4 represents the static characteristic curve of the con-
trolled system with open and closed outflow.

35 Outflow open
Outflow closed
30
Filling level h in cm

25

20

15

10

5
Fig. C3-4:
Static characteristic curve 0
of filling level system 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
with open and
closed outflow Correcting variable in V

A comparison of the theoretically determined, qualitative pattern of the

static characteristic curve is to be made to check that it conforms to the
experiment.
The form of the characteristic curve indicates that the controlled system
for the filling level is a static non-linear system. Hence the subsequently
determined parameters merely apply to a sufficiently small area around
the operating point.
The operating point selected for open outflow is a 50% correcting vari-
able (5V) and a filling level of (6.72 cm).

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 7
Solution 3

Comment

From the static characteristic curve of this controlled system, it is poss-

ible to determine the delivery head of the centrifugal pump with closed
outflow in relation to the correcting variable (voltage) and not immedi-
ately in relation to the speed (fig. C3-5).

70

60
Pump delivery head in cm

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fig. C3-5:
Correcting variable in V Delivery head of
centrifugal pump

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 8
Solution 3

Solution to part exercise 3-3

Determine the dynamic behaviour of the controlled system (identifi-

cation) for the selected operating point.
Note: Carry out the step-change experiments around the operating
point selected; observe the form of the static characteristic curve to
determine the height of the step-change. Also, try to record the cor-
recting variable in parallel with the controlled variable.
Determine the characteristic values (proportional coefficient, time de-
lay, transient time) of the controlled system, using the inflectional
tangent method.
Note: If necessary, also establish an average of the measured
values. Use a sampling interval of 0.2 to 0.5 s for the data acquisi-
tion.

Determining the dynamic behaviour of the controlled system

The dynamic analysis is carried out around the selected operating
point. Because of the static non-linearity of the controlled system for the
filling level, the step-change height must be selected so that the newly
obtained operating point (as per step-change height) is not far removed
from the original operating point. As such, a linear correlation can be
assumed within this range. The step-change height is to be 10% of the
maximum possible correcting variable.
Fig. C3-6 illustrates the correcting variable step-change (50% to 60%,
i. e. from 5 V to 6 V) and the step response (filling level in cm). The
measured voltage signal (6.337 V to 5.915 V) has been converted into
the corresponding filling level values (cm).

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 9
Solution 3

11.0

Smoothed curve Filling level

60%
Correcting variable
50%

6.0
0 Time in s 250
Fig. C3-6:
Step response

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 10
Solution 3

The filling level step response has been averaged out and evaluated by
computer. As a result of this evaluation, the following controlled system
parameters have been determined:
Proportional coefficient KS = 2.76 cm/V
Transient time Tg = 68.14 s
These two parameters can be derived from fig. C3-6 with the help of
the inflectional tangent method. It is however not possible to read a
time delay in this way.
It simply needs to be estimated in order to be able to apply the setting
rules in accordance with Chien, Hrones and Reswick, i. e. when estima-
ting Tu, a considerably reduced time delay is selected compared to the
transient time, e. g. Tu= 0.5 s.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 11
Solution 3

Solution to part exercise 3-4

Determine a favourable controller configuration for the control-

ledsystem behaviour.
Parameterise the controller according to the Chien, Hrones and Res-
wick method.
Set the controller parameters on the compact controller (Bürkert con-
troller).
Note: Please note that with the Bürkert compact industrial controller
type 1110, the scale range also enters into the proportional coeffi-
cient KR.

Controller configuration and parameterisation

PI controllers are particularly suitable for controlled systems with pro-
portional behaviour and dead delay time.
With the setting rules according to Chien, Hrones and Reswick it is
possible not just to select the controller configuration, but also to deter-
mine the behaviour of the closed control loop after a disturbance or
setpoint step-change.
A PI controller for setpoint step-change and without overshoot is selec-
ted for the investigated filling level system. The controller parameters
can be calculated as follows:

0,35 Tg 0.35 ⋅ 68,14

KR ≈ ⋅ = ≈ 113 (practical setting value 10...20)
KS Tu 0.422 ⋅ 0,5
∆U
with KS = = 0.422
∆y
and
Tn ≈ 1.2 ⋅ Tg ≈ 81.77 s (setting value 82s).

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 12
Solution 3

Comments

Please note that the calculated value for KR ≈ 113 is obtained from
the estimated time delay Tu (see fig. C3-6) and therefore is to be
replaced by the practical setting value.
When setting the controller parameters in the digital controller the
existing scaling is to be observed (see page 54 of the operating
instructions of the digital industrial controller, type 1110 – Bürkert
open and closed loop control technology, 1994).

Solution to part exercise 3-5

Examine the control behaviour of the closed control loop around the
operating point (triggering of setpoint step-changes).
Evaluate the results obtained in accordance with the following cri-
teria:
– How are the dynamics of the correcting variable to be evaluated?
– Does the controlled variable reach the new setpoint value after
a finite time?
– Is it necessary to correct the set controller parameters?

Controller test
The pre-configured controller is to be used to control the filling level
system using setpoint step-changes (control behaviour). The same
scaling is to be selected for the controlled variable acquisition and the
setpoint specification.
Fig. C3-7 illustrates the step-change from 6.5 V to 6 V.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C3 – 13
Solution 3

6.8

6.5
Measuring signal in V

6.3

Controlled variable

6.0
Setpoint value

5.8 Fig. C3-7:

Setpoint step-change
0 40 Time in s 80 (Voltage in V)

This process is to be converted back to filling level values in accord-

ance with equation 2.2. (fig. C3-8).

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C3 – 14
Solution 3

10.0

Controlled variable
Setpoint value
8.92
Filling level in cm

7.5

5.65

Fig. C3-8:
Setpoint step-change
(Filling level cm) 0 40 Time in s 80

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C4 – 1
Solution 4

Title

Process protection measures

Solution to part exercise 4-1

Draft the PI flow diagram, whereby the EMCS functions for process
protection are to be integrated into the process flow diagram in com-
plete form.

HSO
301
Close water outflow due
LIC HSO
301 to LIA+ in container of
302
next module
LIA+
302
B32
US US US
301 302 306
LIA+
303
Vh301 Vh302 B31 LIA-
M
Vs305 304

Outflow
Vs301 Vs302 Vs307
P31
Vs306
Vs303

Inflow
Vr301 Vh303
Vs304
US US
305 303

US
304

HSO
304

PI flow diagram for filling level control (open and closed loop control and process protection)

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

C4 – 2
Solution 4

Solution to part exercise 4-2

Compile the EMCS points drawn up in part exercise 4-1 in a table

(EMCS points list), providing an explanation of the function of the indivi-
dual EMCS points.

EMCS Closed Open loop control Process protection

Function
point loop control

LIC 301 Filling level control Filling level – –

Limit-value monitoring in
LIA +- 302 – – –
B32

Limit-value monitoring in
LIA + 303 – – –
B31

Limit-value monitoring in
LIA - 304 – – –
B31

Switch through the

Select control mode
HSO 301 – control signal to –
(Pump/regulating valve)
selected actuators

Pump on/off B: Pump on (binary LIA+302 and A

HSO 302 –
Vs302 open/closed signal), Valve open

A: Vs301, 303, 304, 305

HSO 303 Select type of operation (A/B) – –
B: Vs306, 307

US 301 Signal switching for Vr301 – – LIA + 302

US 302 Signal switching for P31 – –

US 303 Signal switching for Vs301 – – LIA+ 303

US 304 Signal switching for Vs304 – – LIA + 302

US 305 Signal switching for Vs305 – – LIA + 303 then off

next module LIA+

US 306 Signal switching for Vs307 – –
then off

Table: Regarding function of the EMCS points of the PI flow diagram – Filling level control

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 C5 – 1
Solution 5

Title

Connection of Pt100 temperature sensors

No sample solution is provided in this instance.

The results of the resistance or temperature measurements are highly
dependent on the individual experimental design.

Festo Didactic • Process Controll System

C5 – 2
Solution 5

Process Controll System • Festo Didactic

 C6 – 1
Solution 6

Title

Closed loop control technology

The controller parameters for the individual control systems can be

found in the following table. The specified parameters are to be deter-
mined during test measurements. Your experimentally determined
values may vary from the values in the table.

Temperature control system Flow control system Filling level control system

Kp 4.00 Kp 3.50 Kp 28

Tn 2500 Tn 0.40 Tn 5.00

Tv 0.00 Tv 0.00 Tv 0.00 Controller parameters

Festo Didactic • Process Controll System

C6 – 2
Solution 6

Process Controll System • Festo Didactic

 D–1
Appendix

Part D

Appendix

Chapter 1 ProVis – Process visualisation software

1.1 System prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-2
1.2 Installation of ProVis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-2
1.3 Starting the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1-3

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

D–2
Appendix

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 D1 – 1
Software

Chapter 1

ProVis – Software
for process visualisation

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

D1 – 2
Software

1.1 System prerequisites

The ProVis software is a graphic operating system extension operating

in Windows. Your computer must fulfil the following requirements in or-
der to ensure a satisfactory program execution:
CPU:
486 or higher
Main memory:
at least 8 MB, 16 MB recommended
Hard disc:
at least 100 MB available hard disc capacity
Disc drive:
3.5", 1.4 MB memory capacity
Graphic card:
Graphic card with Windows 3.x driver, type according to desired image
resolution, recommended resolution 800 x 600
Screen:
Colour monitor
Interfaces:
parallel for one printer, serial for process connections, possibly a se-
cond serial interface for a mouse connection, if no system mouse is
used
DOS:
Version 3.3 or higher
Windows:
Microsoft Windows Version 3.x or higher
Software:
InTouch software package must be installed on your computer in order
to execute ProVis.
(Order No. of english version: 167 019).

1.2 Installation of ProVis in Windows

You have started Windows and are now in the Program Manager. In-
sert the ProVis diskette in your disc drive. Select File-Run in the Pull-
Down menu of the program manager. Enter the command line A:\
PCS_GB. ProVis is then installed.

Process Control System • Festo Didactic

 D1 – 3
Software

1.3 Starting the program

To start ProVis, proceed as follows:

Set the controller of your system to Remote.
Start the EZDDE program and set the interfaces COM1 and COM2.
Start the InTouch program.
Select ProVis in the application directory.
Start the InTouch Window Viewer,
The initial display of ProVis is loaded.

Fig. D1-1:
Initial display of ProVis

Components of Contains detailed and general information about components,

process automation which are used in process automation.

Closed-loop
Provides information about methods of controller setting.
control technology

Configuration and
Information is given regarding configuration
commissioning

The metrology facility enables you to carry out controller

Metrology facility
settings and read and evaluate measured values.

Course overview Contains predefined interactive exercises

Info Provides general information for Process Control System.

Table D1-1:
Description of
Safety Displays notes regarding safety. control buttons on
initial display of ProVis

Festo Didactic • Process Control System

D1 – 4
Software

Process Control System • Festo Didactic