G.V.N.UDAYASRI, B.Sc, M.

Ed, PGPD, MR

GCE OLEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES

2014
This book consists of
G.C.E OLevel Biology key
points and a brief notes
for the syllabus
specification.

1. Cell structure and organization:

1.1 Plant and animal cell 1.2 specialized cells, tissues and organs.
a) Examine under the microscope an animal cell (eg. From fresh liver) and a plant cell (e.g. from
Elodea, a moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable locally available material), using an appropriate
temporary staining technique, such as iodine or methylene blue.

b)

draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined above

Terms to remember:
Cell: structural and functional unit of cell, responsible for the vital functions
Protoplasm: the cell contents, cytoplasm and nucleus
Cytoplasm: contains all cell organelles, and gelatinous with all chemical molecules dissolved
Nucleus: a spherical dense structure which contains chromosomes, made up of DNA
Chloroplast: biconvex organelle, which consist of chlorophyll pigment for light absorption in plant cells
Sap vacuole: large space filled with cell sap, surrounded by tonoplast.
Mitochondria: sausage shaped organelles for cellular respiration in all cells.
Cell membrane: lipid protein layer around the protoplasm, partially permeable.
Food storage granules: starch in plants, and glycogen in animal cells.

Preparation of slides to view cells under microscope: (practical 1)

1

Plant cell slide preparation

Animal cell slide preparation

Take, onion and cut/ take a moss leaf and peel

Put few drops of iodine on the tissue

Take a piece of liver and chop it in mortar/ or

use a sterile cotton bud and rub against cheek to
take the cells
Transfer the cells by rubbing the cotton bud on
glass slide/ take chopped liver and place it on
glass slide
Put a few drops of methylene blue on the tissue

Lower a cover slip on the tissue, using a mounting

needle carefully to avoid air bubbles
Remove excess stain using tissue paper and press
gently.
Place the slide on the stage of microscope and
adjust low power magnification
Adjust the coarse knob to bring the slide closer to
the lens till the cells are visible and fine knob to
make a clear image.

Lower a cover slip using a mounting needle on

the tissue carefully to avoid air bubbles
Remove excess stain using tissue paper and
press the cover slip gently
Place the slide on the stage of microscope and
adjust low power magnification
Adjust the coarse knob to bring the slide closer
to the lens till the cells are visible and fine knob
to make a clear image

Use a forceps peel and transfer the small layer and

spread it on the glass slide

state the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell;
Explain how cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins. It is partially permeable.
That means allows only certain small molecules to pass through.
It allows the useful substances such as oxygen and glucose enter the cell.
Waste substances like urea and carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cell.
Large molecules like storage granules starch and glycogen cannot pass through the membrane and so do
not leave the cell.
State the function of cell wall in maintaining turgor (turgidity) with in the cell.
Cell wall in plant cells is made up of cellulose ( a complex carbohydrate) which makes the wall tough and
gives strength
When more water moves into the cell by osmosis, the cell gets turgid, and tough. The cell wall resists the
osmotic pressure and prevents the cell from bursting.
The young plants depend on the cell turgidity to stand firm.
However in big trees, the xylem vessels provide mechanical support to the trunk.
State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following:
2

Specialized cell
palisade
mesophyll cell;
photosynthesis.

Root hair cell; anchor the plant

and absorb water and mineral
ions.

Structure
1. Long cylindrical
2. Large number of
chloroplasts

1. Can contain more number of

chloroplasts.
2. Chloroplast consists of
chlorophyll to absorb
sunlight for photosynthesis.

1. Cell wall is
elongated to hair
like extensions.
2. Large vacuole
which takes is
absorbed water and
turgid.

Red blood cell; transport

oxygen in the body

Xylem
vessels;
transport
and
support.

1. Biconcave disc
shaped
2. Nucleus is
absent
3. Contain
haemoglobin

1. Made of dead
cells joined end
to end.
2. Cell walls lined
with lignin

sperm cell; have half

number of chromosomes

nerve cellconduct
impulses

Related to function

1. This will increase the

surface area of the cell to
absorb water and mineral
ions from soil.
The extensions penetrate in
between the soil particles and
anchor the plant firmly in the
soil.
1. Increases surface area
.and easily roll in blood
2. Provides more
haemoglobin and carry
more oxygen
3. Haemoglobin combines
with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin and
give out oxygen to the
tissues.
1. No cytoplasm and
nucleus make the
vessel hollow to
conduct water.
2. Provides mechanical
support to the vessel
and to the stem.

muscle cell; contract and

guard cells; control the

causes movement .

opening and closing of

stomata.

and fertilize with ovum.

Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system as illustrated by examples covered in sections 1 to 12,
15 and 16.
Cell: the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms. Responsible for metabolic
activities.
Tissue: group of similar cells performing a specific function forms a tissue. Example:
mesophyll tissue of leaf, vascular tissue of plants, muscle tissue, blood tissue..
Organ: group of tissues forms an organ and perform a function. Example: heart, lungs, leaf,
stem, etc..
Organ system: group of organs performing a particular function in the body. Example:
circulatory system, respiratory system, root system, shoot system in plants, etc.

2. Diffusion and osmosis

(a) Define diffusion as the movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration, down a concentration gradient;
(b) Define osmosis as the passage of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane;
d) define active transport as the movement of ions into or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from
a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration
gradient, using energy released during respiration
Diffusion

Osmosis

Active transport

Molecules move from their higher

concentration to lower concentration
down the concentration gradient.

Water molecule move from

high water potential solution
region to low water potential
region through a partially
permeable membrane.
no energy is required

Molecule move from lower

concentration region to
higher concentration
region, against the
concentration gradient.
Energy produced during
respiration is needed.
Ions such as nitrates,
magnesium, photsphate.

No energy is required
Example: small molecule such as
carbon dioxide, oxygen, glucose.

Example : water molecules

Water potential: ability of water molecules to leaves a solution.

Strong solutions ( concentrated solutions low water potential)

Dilute solutions and pure water- high water poteintial.
Water potential depends on the amount of the solute mixed in the solvent
Water moves from soil to root hair cells by osmosis
From xylem to mesophyll cells

(c) Describe the importance of a water potential gradient in the uptake of water by plants and the effects
osmosis on plant and animal tissues;
Water potential gradient is important in plants to absorb water from soil through root hairs and transport
it from cell to cell with in the plant. In animals also it is important to control the amount of water in the
bodies and in intercellular transport and maintain osmoregulation in living cells.
Animal cell
Plant cell
*Water molecules are
more out side the cell.
*They move into the
cell by osmosis through
the cell membrane into
the cell.
* Cell gains more water and burst
(haemolyzed) because animal cells do
not have cell wall to resist osmotic
pressure.

*water molecules in
side the cell are less
than out side.
* They move in to
the cell by osmosis
through the cell membrane.
* cell gains water , vacuole swells,
and cell wall resists pressure make
the cell turgid.

Cells placed in solutions

that have same
concentration than

no concentration
gradient between the
cell cytoplasm and
solution . no net
movement of
molecules of water. Cell remains
same.

no concentration
gradient between
the cell
cytoplasm and
solution. no net
movement of
molecules of water. Cell remains
same.

Cells placed in solutions

that have high
Concentration that cell
cytoplasm

*Water molecules are

more in side the cell
than out side.
*They move out of the
cell by osmosis through
the cell membrane into
the cell.
* Cell loses more water and shrinks
(crenated) because animal cells do not
have cell wall to resist osmotic pressure.

*water molecules
in side the cell are
more than out
side.
* They move out of
the cell by osmosis
through the cell
membrane.
* cell loses water , vacuole
shrinks,cell membrane is pulled
away from cell wall and the cell
gets flacid ( shrink)

cells placed in distilled

water or solutions
that have less concentration
than the cell cytoplasm

Practical 2: Investigating osmosis in plant tissues:

* In the experiment salt solution level
increased in the hollow potato.
* Water from beaker enters the
potato cup by osmosis.
Explanation for the result:

Observation: the level of liquid in capillary tube rises.

Water level in the beaker decrease (fall).
Explanation: inside the visking tubing sucrose
concentration is more and so less water molecules
present. Hence water from the beaker enters in to the
visking tubing by osmosis through the tubing
membrane.

(e) Discuss the importance of active transport as an energy-consuming process by which substances are
transported against a concentration gradient, as in ion uptake by root hairs and glucose uptake by cells in
the villi.
Active transport of ions from soil to the root hair cells:
The size of root hair cell is small and ions dissolved in the
cytoplasm are more concentrated than the ions dissolved in
soil water. Roots absorb oxygen and respire to produce
energy. This energy is used to take up the ions from soil by
the root hair cells. Without this active transport mechanism
plant would not be able to absorb mineral ions needed for
their growth. Plants growing in soil with less oxygen respire
less and produce less energy (ATP). This would reduce the
ion uptake and plant growth would be reduced.
Active transport of glucose amino acids in human
intestine: carbohydrates and proteins are digested to simple
molecules glucose and amino acids. There are diluted in the intestine as it is very long and have large
area. From the ileum lumen to cells of villi (finger like projections of the inner wall of intestine) glucose
and amino acids move by active transport.

3. ENZYMES
(a) Define catalyst as a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction;
Catalyst is a chemical that speed up the chemical reaction. It is not changed by the reaction and remains
the same.
(b) Define enzymes as proteins that function as biological catalysts;
Enzymes are group of proteins act as biological catalyst. They catalyze metabolic reactions in the living
cells and speed up chemical reactions. The chemical reaction may include the synthesis of large
molecules from small such as photosynthesis and protein synthesis (anabolism) and of breaking down of
large molecules to simple form such as respiration and digestion (catabolism). Enzymes being proteins
sensitive to pH and temperature. They work best at optimum temperature and pH.
(c) Explain enzyme action in terms of the lock and key hypothesis;
*Enzyme molecules have specific sites for the substrate molecules to bind,
called as active sites.
* These active sites are complementary to substrate molecules (a chemical
molecule that is undergoing a chemical reaction is called substrate) So that
a substrate molecule can fit into the active site.
* The enzyme acts as lock and allows a specific substrate to fit into it. The substrate is like a key which
fits into a specific lock.
* When the substrate binds with active site of enzyme the chemical reaction occurs faster to produce
products.
Example of some enzymes that work in human digestive system:
Enzyme

Substrate

Product

Optimum pH

Active in part of the

alimentary
Canal

Amylase Starch (complex

carbohydrate)

Maltose (simple sugar with two

smaller units)

Neutral ( 7 to 8)

Pepsin

Protein

Peptides and amino acids

Acidic (2 to 5)

Trypsin

Protein

Amino acid

Neutral (7-8)

In mouth and
duodenum
In stomach as it
contains HCl
duodenum

lipase

Fats (lipids)

Fatty acids and glycerol

Neutral (7-8)

Duodenum.

(d) Investigate and describe the effect of temperature and of pH on enzyme activity.
Experiment 1: To investigate the effect of temperature on enzyme activity: Take 1% starch solution of 10 cm3 in
a boiling tube and pippete 2 cm3 of 1% amylase solution into it. Place this boiling tube in water bath set at 10o C.
Start the stop watch and after every minute take few drops of reaction mixture and test with iodine in a cavity tile.
Record the time taken for the starch to digest into sugar. Repeat the experiment with other temperatures.
7

Observation: observe the time taken for the reaction mixture failed to give blue black colour. (initially when the
starch is not digested, the reaction mixture turns blue black, when all the starch is digested; solution remains
yellow brown when tested with iodine)

Data analysis: the results can be recorded on

graph to check the optimum temperature of this
enzyme to work best.
Explanation: an increase in 100 C temperature
increases the rate of reactions (enzyme activity)
to double this is because the molecule to get
kinetic energy with increase in temperature and
more substrate can collide and bind with the
enzyme active sites. So more product forms. The
rate of reaction increases up to the optimum
temperature and further the rate decreases. Since
enzymes are proteins they denature at high
temperatures. Means the active site deforms and
substrate can no longer binds with active site to form product.
2. Experiment to investigate effect of pH on enzyme activity.
As mentioned in experiment 1, take enzyme and substrate in the
boiling tube and add buffer solution (acid or alkali of various pH) to
the reaction mixture. Record the time taken to the substrate digest.
Observe at which pH the reaction occurs fast. Draw graph to analyze
results. Each specific enzyme works best at a particular pH and it is
called its optimum pH. See the figure beside the different pH at
which different enzyme work.

4. Plant nutrition
Learning outcomes
(a) understand that photosynthesis is the fundamental process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials;
Photosynthesis: is a process by which all green plants synthesize carbohydrates (glucose) using raw
materials such as carbon dioxide from air, and water from soil. This chemical reaction uses solar energy
absorbed by the chlorophyll present in the leaf cells.
(b) explain why most forms of life are completely dependent on photosynthesis
During this process glucose produced is converted to starch and is stored in leaves and other storage
organs of the plant. It is also a source of food for other organisms. That is why plants are called the
producers in terms of ecology. The plant uses the carbohydrates to produce energy during respiration,
which is important to its metabolism such as protein synthesis, enzymes and hormones necessary for
growth. The oxygen released is a bye product and released out of the leaves and is useful for the other
organisms to breathe. Hence this process is important for the plant growth as well as the other organisms
and to maintain oxygen concentration in the atmosphere.
(c) State the equation (in words or symbols) for photosynthesis;

(d)) understand that chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation
of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage;
During photosynthesis plants use light energy from the Sun. this light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll,
a pigment present in the organelle chloroplast of leaf mesophyll cells. The light energy absorbed thus
powers the photosynthesis reactions and is converted to chemical form (glucose). Glucose is a simple
carbohydrate that can be soluble and diffuse to adjacent cells and used up in respiration to produce
energy. So the glucose molecules are converted to complex form starch and are stored in the leaves, and
other storage organs of plant (root, stem and tubers). The carbohydrate can be converted to other simple
molecule sucrose and is transported from leaves to stem, root and from back to leaves under special
conditions.
(e) describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants; Carbon dioxide is taken into the leaf
mesophyll cells thorough stomata (pores ) present on the surface of the leaf. The gas diffuses in down
the concentration gradient. Water is absorbed by root hairs and is conducted to the leaf by xylem
vessels.
(f) identify and label the cuticle, cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in crosssection under the microscope, and describe the significance of these features in terms of function, i.e.
Distribution of chloroplasts photosynthesis; the palisade mesophyll cells consists of large number of
chloroplasts. These cells are just beneath the upper epidermis and so absorb light efficiently and
photosynthesize. The spongy mesophyll cells have less number and guard cells have few.
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 Stomata and mesophyll cells gas exchange; Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have stomata on their
lower surface in large number and few or none on upper surface. The spongy mesophyll cells are packed
irregularly leaving air spaces in between. The oxygen released during photosynthesis moves into the air
spaces from mesophyll cells and diffuses out down the concentration gradient. Carbon dioxide enters the
air spaces from the atmosphere through stomata. From there it diffuses to mesophyll cells and used for
photosynthesis.
Vascular bundles transport; the mid rib and veins of the leaf consists of vascular bundles with xylem
and phloem tissue. The xylem is situated to towards the upper epidermis in the vascular bundle and
transport water from roots to leaf. The phloem vessels transport the food synthesized by the leaf to the
other parts of the plants.
The external structure of leaf is adapted to get all the raw materials and
light needed for photosynthesis. The broad leaf blade (lamina) increases
the surface area for more light and carbon dioxide absorption. If the blade
has large surface more number of stomata are present. The mid rib and
veins consists of vascular bundles. Xylem vessels bring water to the leaf.
The arrangement of leaf facing facilitates light absorption.
The following figure shows the cross section of leaf (internal structure)

g) Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon

dioxide for photosynthesis, using appropriate controls;
In the leaf illustrated the area numbered as 4, is
covered with a light proof paper so that light
cannot reach the cells. The area numbered as 2
acts as control to compare the results of
experimental area 4. A control is normally
provided with all factors needed for the process.

10

The area numbered as 3 is used to check the need of chlorophyll, since this area is nongreen. This area is also compared with area 2, as it has chlorophyll.
Observation: the leaf can be destrached before the experiment means starch prepared previously should
be removed. Destarching can be done by keeping the potted plant in dark for about 36 to 48 hours.
During this period the starch present is converted to glucose and is used by the plant for respiration. This
ensures fair results of your experiment. The plant is kept in sun light for few hours and the leaf areas are
tested for starch.
Disc 1: is not having chlorophyll but provided with light. When tested with iodine remains brown.
Disc 2: have all factors and shows positive result with iodine tests, showing the presence of starch.
Disc 3: chlorophyll is missing; so gives negative results with starch iodine test.
Disc 4: light is missing, so this area of leaf cannot photosynthesize and no starch is produced.
Refer the following diagram to know the practical details of testing a leaf for starch. Iodine turns starch
to blue black.

Investigating the need of carbon dioxide: Set the apparatus

shown beside. The flask with potassium hydroxide acts as
experiment. This chemical absorbs any CO2 in the flask so
that the leaf does not get CO2. The flask with water acts as
control as it has CO2 in the flask for the leaf to absorb.
Leave this plant in sun light for few hours and test the
leaves for starch. The leaf without CO2 shows negative results with iodine, (does not turn blue black)
11

(h) Understand the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis;

If any factor supplied in short reduces the rate of the process, even all other factors are provided in
optimum, such factor is called as limiting factor. Eg. The plant is provided with sufficient light,
optimum temperature but low carbon dioxide levels; the process of photosynthesis slows down.
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature are the limiting factors of photosynthesis.
If any of these factors are not in optimum amount of carbohydrates (glucose) produced will be less.
(i) Investigate and state the effect of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged aquatic plants);
Rate of photosynthesis means the speed at which the process occurs in a given time. How fast the plant
photosynthesizes can be measured by the amount of oxygen produced by the plant.
Since it is difficult to measure the oxygen given out by a terrestrial plant, an aquatic plant can be used to
investigate the rate of photosynthesis under various
limiting factors.
The set up shown beside can be used to test the effect of
limiting factors on rate of photosynthesis.
CO2 concentration and rate of photosynthesis:
dissolve 1 g of hydrogen carbonate as a source of
carbon dioxide, in the water. Provide optimum
light and temperature for the process to occur.
Observe the number of oxygen bubbles evolved in
5 minutes. Record the number of bubbles in table.
Repeat the experiment by dissolving 2g, 3g 4g and 5 g of
hydrogen carbonate to increase the concentration of
carbon dioxide. And tabulate the results.
To investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. You can use the
apparatus by changing the position of the light at different distances and observe the number of
oxygen bubbles produced at each light intensity.
Increased light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis, until
another factor limits the process. After saturation point, further increase in factor does not increase rate
further. The rate becomes constant as the leaf cells are saturated and cannot absorb any more. The gas
evolved can be tested by using a glowing splint, and if rekindles it proves the gas is oxygen.

(j)

12

Understand the effect of a lack of nitrate and magnesium ions on plant growth.
Mineral element/ form absorbed
Magnesium
This element is absorbed in the form
of magnesium ions and compounds.

Used for
The synthesis of
chlorophyll. So that light
absorption is maximum.

Deficiency symptoms
Leaves turns yellow; this condition is
called chlorosis.

Nitrogen
this element is absorbed in the form
of nitrates.

Nitrogen is uses in the

synthesis of proteins
needed for growth.
Proteins include enzymes,
hormones and DNA.

Plant growth is stunted. Leaves turns

yellow. Poor growth in leaves and
stem reduces productivity.

5. Animal Nutrition:
Nutrient

chemical elements present in carbohydrates, fats, proteins and roughages.

Elements

Carbohydrate
Cereals,
bread, honey
Potatoes, etc.

Protein
Meat, fish,
eggs and milk

(carbon,
hydrogen and
oxygen)

Structure

Respiratory
substrate, to
produce energy

Complex
form

Simple
molecule

Starch;
glycogen &
cellulose

Glucose;
simplest.

many glucose
molecules join.

;( carbon,
hydrogen,
oxygen and
nitrogen and
phosphorous)

Fats/lipids
Carbon,
Milk , cheese, hydrogen and
meat, oils etc. oxygen

Roughages
Green leafy
vegetables,
whole grains..
Water

Used for

Carbon,
hydrogen and
oxygen
Hydrogen and
oxygen

Needs for
growth and
repair of
tissues(enzymes,
hormones)
many amino
acids join.
Energy storage,
insulation
Protect vital
organs like
kidneys
not digested,
Plants cells have
but helps in
cellulose a
egestion by easy complex
peristalsis
carbohydrate.
Lubrication and
hydrolysis.

(maltose,
sucrose and
lactose are
disaccharides)
Called as
Single units
polypeptides called amino
acids

Triglycerides

Fatty acids
and glycerol

Cellulose

glucose

13

Mineral / source
Iron
Red meat, spinach and greens

Use
Used in the synthesis of
haemoglobin in red blood cells

Deficiency symptoms
Anemia. Tiredness, pale skin, and
shortness of breath.

Calcium
Milk, and salmons

Formation of healthy bones and

teeth.

Rickets; twisted bones, soft

bones , bow legs and week
bones.

vitamin / source
C
Red meat, spinach and greens

Use
Used the in formation of healthy
tissues and gums

Deficiency symptoms
Scurvy; bleeding gums, poor
wound healing,

D
Sunshine vitamin, our body can
synthesize it in sun shine

Formation of healthy bones and

teeth.

Rickets; twisted bones, soft

bones, bow legs and week bones.

(b) Describe tests for:

starch (iodine in potassium iodide solution);
reducing sugars (Benedicts solution);
protein (biuret test);
fats (ethanol emulsion test);
Food
Reagent used
Immediate
colour
Starch
Iodine solution
Food sample
(yellow brown)
turns to
yellow brown
Reducing
Benedicts reagent
Food sample
sugar
( blue in colour)
turns to blue
(glucose,
maltose
and
lactose)

Protein

Biuret reagent(blue)

Food sample
turns to blue

Fats

Ethanol is added to the

reaction mixture first
and then water is
poured over the sample

Gets clear
solution

Result
If starch present the sample turns to
blue black. If there is no starch
present solution remains brown.
The reaction mixture should be
heated in water bath. Using of water
bath distribute the heat uniformly to
the sample. It is also safe so that
directing heating on burner is
avoided.
Solution turn to blue green
yellow orange (brick red) showing
the concentration of sugar. If no
sugar present solution remains blue.
If protein present the solution turns
to purple colour. (lilac/violet), If
protein absent solution remains blue.
If fat present there will be a white
cloudy emulsion seen. If fat is absent
solution remains clear.

* Note: for all the tests apparatus and quantities of food sample to be mentioned. Volumes of reagents
added and method of transferring them to the boiling tube also to be mentioned. (Practical details).
14

(e) Understand the concept of a balanced diet; The diet that contains all the 7 classes of foods in required
proportions is said to be balanced diet. Lack of nutrient or short supply leads to deficiency symptoms
and is called malnutrition.
(f) Explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and activity of an individual;
The diet we take should meet the body needs.
Children should take more energy diet as they have high basal metabolic rate. More energy is
needed for the growth and synthesis of proteins and cell division to develop new tissues and
bones. They also have to take minerals and vitamins in good amounts in diet.
Females after puberty should take more iron rich diet to replenish menstrual losses.
The individual doing physical activity and hard labor should take more energy diet because
more calories are spent in doing work.
(g) state the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, heart disease, constipation and obesity;
Any nutrient taken in less or more than required is termed as malnutrition.
Lack of nutrients in the diet than required amounts leads to poor growth such as kwashiorkor or
marasmus. Lack of minerals such as iron leads to anemia and vitamin C leads scurvy.
Diet taken in excess of carbohydrates and fats leads to obesity. This is because the energy spent
is less than the energy taken in diet. The excess fats are stored under the skin causes obesity. The
cholesterol deposits on the walls of arteries.
Increased body weight increases blood pressure to pump blood all over the body. High pressure
in arteries might damage blood vessels and leads to blood clotting in arteries. Finally this results
in blockage in arteries and cause heart diseases.
(h) Discuss the problems that contribute to famine (unequal distribution of food, drought and flooding,
increasing population);
In extreme climatic conditions (lack of rains and desertification) and due to natural calamities (droughts
and famine), destruction of crops leads to shortage of food. The unequal distribution of food to the
increased population leads to malnutrition among populations of the nations.
(i) identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs: mouth (buccal) cavity,
salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum and
anus;
(j) describe the main functions of these parts in relation to ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food, as
appropriate;
Ingestion: taking in of food into the alimentary canal is ingestion.
The first part of the alimentary canal called as mouth is used in
ingesting food. There are 3 pairs of salivary glands in the mouth
(Buccal cavity) which secrete saliva. The saliva consists of an
enzyme salivary amylase.
Digestion: the process of breaking down of complex food molecules
to simple soluble form is called digestion. Most foods that are
complex to be digested to simple so that they cab absorbed into the
blood. The blood circulates the digested foods to all body tissues.
The body tissues use the food to produce energy and growth.

15

 In the mouth carbohydrates (starch) is digested partly by salivary amylase and small molecules of
carbohydrates (maltose) are formed. Food is chewed with the help of teeth and made into a
bolus.
The mouth opens into pharynx (common passage for trachea and oeosphagus). Food from mouth
passes into the oeosphagus. The antagonistic action (one
muscle contract one muscle relax) of the esophageal
muscles pushes the food bolus into the stomach. The
circular muscles above the food bolus contract and
longitudinal muscles in this region relax. This pushes the
food bolus down. There is no enzymes secretion in mouth.
The stomach is a muscular bag. The lining of stomach
secretes gastric juice, which consists of Hydro chloric
acid and a protease, pepsin. The acids in the stomach kill
the pathogens present in the food. Pepsin acts on proteins
and digest them into short chains of peptides.
The sphincter muscles at the start and end of the stomach
control the entry and exit of food.
The first part of the small intestine is called as duodenum.
The liver and pancreas are connected to the duodenum.
The lever secretes bile juice is alkaline and contain bile salts. The bile temporarily stored in gall
bladder and is released into the duodenum by bile duct. The bile juice
neutralizes the acidic chime and provides optimum pH for the enzymes.
In duodenum fats, proteins and starch are digested by the action
of pancreatic enzymes. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the
duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains amylase, trypsin and lipase.
Starch is digested to maltose by amylase. Trypsin is a protease that
works at neutral pH and digests the proteins to amino acids in the
duodenum. Fats are emulsified by bile into small fat globules. Enzyme
lipase acts on the emulsified fats and digest them into simple fatty acids
and glycerol.
The food digested in the duodenum is then passes into the
ileum, the second part of the small intestine. The inner wall
of intestine is folded into finger like projections called villi.
This increases the surface area of the ileum. The walls of
villi are single cell thickness so that the digested end
products are absorbed into the blood rapidly. The cells of
villi consist of microvilli which further increase the surface
area. The villi are supplied with blood vessels and lacteals.
Maltose is further digested to glucose by enzymes secreted
by ileum wall. The glucose and amino acids in the ileum
lumen are diluted and so move into the cells of villi by
active transport. From the cells of villi they diffuse into the blood capillaries. Fatty acids and
glycerol diffuse into the lacteals. Lacteals belong to the lymphatic system and carry the fats and
empty them in the vena cava. The process of the movement of digested products into the blood is
called as absorption.
16

 The digested end products are carried to the liver by hepatic portal vein (gut to liver). The
process of using the digested end products for metabolism and storing them for further use, is
called assimilation.
Identify the different types of human teeth and describe their structure and functions; state the causes of
dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth;

Incisors there are four in the upper jaw and four in lower and they help in cutting and biting food. [8]
Canines- there are two on either side beside the incisors in upper and lower jaw, sharp and pointed to
tear the food.[4]
Premolars two on either side of canines in upper and lower jaw used in grinding and chewing food. [8]
Molars- three on either side of the premolars, in lower and upper jaw, used in grinding and chewing
food. This activity of chewing increase the surface area of food molecules so that enzymes can act
efficiently and easy to swallow (12)
Dental care: dental decay occurs if bits of food remain in between the teeth. The bits of food, and sugars
formed when food is chewed and partly digested allow the bacteria to feed and release acids in the
mouth. All these components form a coating on the crown on tooth. This is called as plaque. Initially the
plaque has no much effect on the tooth, but slowly the acids in plaque destroy the enamel. During this
time pain is not felt, but as the decay extends to the pulp, leaving cavity in the tooth and causes pain.
The nerve ending the root of the tooth detects pain. To prevent the dental decay one should brush the
teeth twice a day, and rinse the mouth after each sugary meal. Fluoride containing tooth pastes heal the
gums and increase the pH in the mouth neutralizing the acids. This reduces the dental decay. Dental
floss and consulting the doctor when needed helps to maintain good dental health.
Assimilation: Liver plays an important role in the assimilation of digested food. From the food
transported to liver thorough hepatic portal vein the excess glucose molecules are converted to glycogen
(complex carbohydrate) for later use.
The amino acids transported to the tissues are used in synthesizing proteins needed for growth.
Excess amino acids cannot be stored and so deaminated in the liver to form urea. The urea is
transported to kidney so that it can be excreted.
17

The fatty acids and glycerol are converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissue beneath the
skin and some in liver. Fats acts as energy store and are used under starvation conditions to
provide energy. They insulate the body and protect the vital organs.
The liver also break down the alcohol consumed and detoxify it. (makes harmless)

6.Transport in Plants:
a) relate the structure and functions of root hairs to their surface area and to water and ion uptake;
The cell wall of the root hair cell is extended to a tubular hair and increases the surface area of the cell.
The cell membrane which is selective permeable allow the movement of molecules of water and ions.
Water enters the cells by osmosis and ions enter in by active transport.
b) Identify the positions of xylem and phloem tissues as seen in transverse sections of unthicken,
herbaceous, dicotyledonous roots, stems and leaves;
c)State the functions of xylem and
phloem: Xylem vessels are the
tissue that conducts water and
mineral ions from roots to leaves.
They are tubes connected from
root to leaves through stem
continuously to allow the flow of
water. (See topic 1 for the
specialization of this tissue). They
also provide mechanical support to
the plant to stand firm in the
ground and bear branches and
fruits. The lignified cell walls
provide mechanical strength to the
stem.

d)Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water in a cut stem:

A leafy twig or a young plants with roots can be placed in red coloured
water and few hours.
Observation: the stem, leaves and veins turn to red shows that the waer
and dye is transported from roots to leaves.
If a section is taken from the stem and observe the xyem vessels uder a
microscope, they appear darkly stained.
Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids (food) from leaves to the
roots and other parts of the plant. The starch stored in leaf is converted
sucrose and is transported in solute through the phloem vessels. When it
reaches the roots it diffuses into the root and is converted back to starch
and stored. This stored starch can be converted to sugars again and is
A

18

transported to leaves when needed. During autumn the photosynthesis rate reduces because of lack of
light and right temperature. The stored starch is then converted to sucrose and is circulated to the leaves
and stem for plant metabolism to occur.
e)Investigating the flow of sugars in phloem: a girdle is made by
removing the outer layer of the stem. The phloem situated in the
outer ring is removed and the food cannot be transported. But the
xylem vessels transport water.
Observation: the area above the girdle swells due to the
accumulation of sugars in that region and there is no phloem to
transport food down.
f)State that transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by
the loss of water vapour from the leaves through the stomata;
The water absorbed into the root hair cells move to the root cortex by cell to cell osmosis and enters the
root xylem. The root xylem is connected to stem xylem and leaf xylem continuously to conduct water
and mineral ions to the leaf.
The physical forces that aid the conduction of water in the xylem is; root pressure (osmotic pressure in
the root cells), capillarity in the xylem vessels (water molecules stick to the xylem walls and also cohere
to each other) and the transpiration pull. Transpiration is the evaporation of water through the aerial
parts of the plant.
Stomatal transpiration: water loss through stomata is approximately of 97%.
Lenticular transpiration: young tender stems have
pores called lenticels, thorough which 2 to 2.4%
of water evaporate.
Cuticular transpiration: about 0.3 to 0.6% of
water evaporate through cuticle.
g) explain the movement of water through the stem
in terms of transpiration pull:
The loss of water from the leaves creates a
suction force in the xylem vessels and draw water
up. This force is important in the ascent of sap
(water and mineral ions) in the xylem and supply
water and ions to the leaves that are at the top of
the tree.
Mechanism of
stomatal opening and closing:
The guard cells control the closing and opening and closing of
stomata. When the stomata open plant takes carbon dioxide and
photosynthesize. The rate transpiration also will be high. The
opening of stomata during day time (more light) is an advantage
to the plant to photosynthesize and uptake water by transpiration
pull. During the night and times when the water loss is more
than the water uptake the guard cells become flaccid and close
the stomata. This prevents further loss of water from the leaves.
19

(h) Describe: how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata; rate of
transpiration will be high if number of stomata are in large number. Broad leaves have large surface area
so that will have more stomata. The upper surface of
the leaves of dicotyledons plants usually will have
very few or no stomata.
The effects of air currents (wind), and the variation
of temperature, humidity and light intensity on
transpiration rate; the instrument shown above
called potometer can be used to measure the
transpiration rate. The movement of air bubble
towards the twig measures the rate of water up take.
By this we can assume the water loss. As much transpiration occurs that much water is taken up due to
transpiration pull. So water loss is almost equal to water up take.
High temperature causes the water to evaporate quickly, increasing the transpiration rate. Less humidity
in the environment provides diffusion gradient and water vapour from air spaces diffuses out down the
concentration gradient. High light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis and stomata are wide
open. In this condition also transpiration rate increases.
how wilting occurs; When the rate of water loss is greater than the uptake the plant loses water and
gets flaccid. This makes the plant to wilt. If the plant is provided with water the cells may regain their
turgidity and become fresh and normal. When the soil is dry the plants cannot absorb water to
compensate the water lost by transpiration. Still plant loses water the leaf cells undergo plasmolysis
(permanently flaccid). To avoid this leaf stomata close and prevent further water loss.
7. Transport in Human
(a) Describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one-way
flow of blood; circulatory system consists of organs
heart and blood vessels. The heart works as a pump to
supply blood to the body tissues. The heart has four
chambers. The upper two chambers are called atria and
the lower two chambers are called ventricles. The atria
receive blood from body tissues and pump the blood
into the ventricles. There are valves between atria and
ventricles. These valves allow the blood flow from atria
to ventricles and also prevent the blood flowing back
from ventricles to the atria. Ventricles pump blood into
the aorta and pulmonary artery. At the origin of these
blood vessels there are semilunar valves to prevent
blood flowing back to ventricles. These blood vessels
carry blood to the body tissues. The deoxygenated
blood from tissues is brought back to the heart by veins.
The veins have semilunar valves here and there and
prevent blood flowing back. This ensures the blood
flowing from heart to body tissues and back to the heart
in one direction.

20

(b) Describe the double circulation in terms of a low pressure circulation to the lungs and a high pressure
circulation to the body tissues and relate these differences to the different functions of the two circuits;
Double circulation: blood is pumped through the heart twice in one complete circulation. This is called
as double circulation.
The deoxygenated blood (blood with carbon dioxide) pumped from heart to lungs to pick up
oxygen from the lungs and come back to the heart. This is called pulmonary circulation (between
heart and lungs). Since the lungs are situated near to the heart, blood is pumped in low pressure.
The right ventricle less muscular than left and so pumps blood in low pressure.
The oxygenated blood is pumped at high pressure by the left ventricle of the heart to the body
tissues. Since many body tissues are far from the heart, high pressure circulation is needed. The
left ventricle have thick muscular wall to pump blood at high pressure. The blood from the body
tissues returns back to heart through veins. This is called systemic circulation.(circulation
between heart and body tissues)
(c) Name the main blood vessels that carry blood to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys;
Name of the blood vessel

Composition of blood

Pressure (high or low)/reason

1. Aorta- from heart (left

ventricle) to body tissues

Consists of more oxygen, more

glucose, amino acids more urea and
less carbon dioxide
Consists of more carbon dioxide and
less oxygen

High as this blood vessels starts

from left ventricle and have to
carry blood to organs and tissues.
Lesser pressure than aorta as it
starts from right ventricle.

3.Hepatic artery- from

heart to liver
4. Coronary artery- from

More oxygen, glucose, oxygen and

less carbon dioxide.
More oxygen, glucose, oxygen and

High pressure because it branches

from aorta.
High pressure because it branches

heart (aorta) to heart

less carbon dioxide

from aorta.

2. Pulmonary artery- from

heart (right ventricle) to
lungs)

muscles.
5. Renal artery from heart More oxygen, glucose, amino acids,

High pressure because it branches

to kidney.

more urea and less CO2

from aorta.

6.Pulmonary vein- from

More oxygen and less carbon dioxide.

Low pressure because returning

lungs to heart (left atrium)

from lungs.

7.Hepatic vein- from liver

Contain more urea, more carbon

Low pressure, as blood returning

to heart.(into vena cava)

dioxide and more nutrients.

thorough veins from tissues.

8. Coronary vein from

Contain more carbon dioxide, less

Pressure low.

heart muscle to heart)

oxygen and less nutrients.

9. Renal vein (from kidney

Contain more carbon dioxide, less

Low pressure, blood flows in

to heart ( vena cava)

oxygen and less urea

veins.

10. Vena cava- from body

Contain more carbon dioxide, more

Low pressure, blood flows in veins

tissues to heart (right atria)

urea, more nutrients and less oxygen.

and returning towards heart.

21

(d) Describe the structure and function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of
valves;
The heart is made up of cardiac muscles,
which can contract and pump blood
continuously. The right atrium receive blood
from body tissues through vena cava and left
atrium receive blood from lungs through
pulmonary vein. When the atria are filled with
blood they contract and pump the blood into
the ventricles. The blood flows from atria to
ventricles through tricuspid and bicuspid
valves. The walls of ventricles are thicker than
the walls of atria as they pump blood away
from the heart. The left ventricle wall is much
thicker and muscular than right ventricle. Both
ventricles when filled with blood contract and
pump the blood. The upward pressure of blood closes the tricuspid and bicuspid valves and opens the
semilunar valves present at the origin of pulmonary artery and aorta. Blood pumped by the left ventricle
into the aorta will be at high pressure as the walls of ventricles are highly muscular. This is important to
circulate the blood to the body parts that are far away from the heart through arteries. The blood pumped
by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery is at low pressure as it is carrying blood to the lungs
which are closely situated to the heart. The semilunar valves in the start of aorta and pulmonary artery
prevent blood flowing back to the ventricles. The following diagram shows the stages in heartbeat and
the position of valves. (The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of heart muscles while pumping blood.)

(e)Compare the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries;

Function of Artery
Functions of Vein
Arteries carry blood away from
heart. They contain oxygenated
blood except Pulmonary artery

Veins carry deoxygenated

blood except Pulmonary
vein

Functions of capillary

Capillaries connect arteries and veins

and are large in number to increase
the surface area and facilitate
exchange of substance between blood
and tissues.
22

Structural comparison between artery, vein and capillary.

Structure of artery to its function

Structure of vein to its function

Made up of three layers

Made up of three layers

Outer layer is thick to prevent the vessels

from collapsing of high pressure

Outer layer is fairly thin, since

veins contain low pressure of
blood
Middle layer consists of thin
layer of muscles with less
elastic fibres. Not needed to
stretch and recoil as blood
flowing in the veins is at low
pressure.

Middle layer consists of thick layer of

muscles with elastic fibers, so that the
artery can stretch when blood enter at
high pressure during ventricular
contraction and recoil (relax) when the
ventricles relax. This prevents the walls
getting damage due to fluctuating
(changing) pressure.
Inner wall made up of epithelial cells

Lumen is small so that can resist pressure

and maintain.
No valves present, so that blood flows
without interruption.

Inner layer is made up of

epithelial cells

Lumen is large as the flow of

blood is at low pressure
Inside veins valves present here
and there to prevent back flow
of blood and ensure blood
returns to heart.

Structure of capillary to
its function
Made up of single layer
of cells
No outer layer

No middle layer

Only consists of single

layer of epithelial cells.
This single layer allows
the diffusion of substance
in and out of the capillary
through the thin wall.
Lumen is small
No valves present.

23

(f) Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on pulse rate; The heartbeat can be measured by
placing tips of fingers on radial artery at the wrist or carotid artery at the neck. The pulsative flow (high
pressure during ventricular contraction and low pressure during ventricular relaxation) can be used to
measure how many times the heart beats in one minute. This is also called pulse rate when we check the
pulse at wrist.
A person doing a physical activity such as exercise, or carrying heavy loads needs more energy. The
muscles have to respire aerobically to breakdown the glucose and produce energy. So the heart pumping
activity increases which means the persons heart beat increases to pump more volume of blood to
supply more glucose and oxygen to produce more energy. The pulse rate also increases. When the
person rests the heart beat and pulse becomes normal. The heartbeat of a person at rest normally is 70 to
80 times per minute.
(g) describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries and state the possible
causes (diet, stress and smoking) and preventive measures;

The lumen of arteries may get blocked due to deposition of fat, cholesterol and blood clots on the walls
of arteries.
Atheroma- the persons diet consists of more saturated animal fats, excess fats and cholesterol
remain in blood and get deposit on the walls of artery.
Thrombosis- if there is damage to the inner lining of the artery wall, the platelets clots the blood
to repair the wall.
The fat molecules, cholesterol and blood clots together called as plaque. Due the plaque on the
artery wall it bulges and blocks the lumen.
When the lumen is blocked blood cannot flow smoothly. To supply a good flow of blood, the
heart pumps blood with more pressure. Increased pressure further damages the artery wall and
more thrombosis occurs.
If the coronary artery gets blocked the heart muscles cannot get blood with oxygen and glucose
and cannot contract and pump blood. This results heart attacks and heart diseases.

24

(h) List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma; The blood is
a fluid tissue (a tissue is a group of cells) because it has different types of blood cells in liquid plasma.
The liquid part of the blood is called plasma and it is made of 70% of water with dissolved substances
such as ions, hormones, soluble proteins such as globulin, fibrinogen, urea, carbon dioxide and vitamins.
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) contain haemoglobin and oxygen transport;
White blood cells phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection; the cells with a nucleus
folded into lobes and engulf disease causing bacteria are called phagocytes. The white blood cells that
have a round nucleus and secrete chemicals called antibodies are called lymphocytes. The antibodies
clump the bacteria together so that phagocytes engulf many at a time.
Platelets small fragments of cells, cases blood clotting during
injuries. *They release an enzyme thrombokinase and convert a
platelet protein pro- thrombin to thrombin. *Thrombin is another
enzyme that act of plasma protein, fibrinogen and convert it to fibrin,
an insoluble protein. This form a mesh causing clotting; the blood clot
seals the wound and prevent the entry of pathogens into the body. The
plugged wound prevents the loss of blood.
Plasma the liquid part of the blood is called plasma and it
transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins and
plasma proteins;
(i) Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in
diagrams and photomicrographs

(j) State the functions of blood:*Blood transports the necessary metabolites to the tissues in solute. the
nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids are transported to the tissues.
The water materials such as urea produced in the liver are transported to the excretory organs through
blood. Hormones, vitamins, mineral ions are also dissolved in plasma and are transported to the tissues.
The red blood cells carry oxygen from lungs and transport to the tissues.
The blood platelets cause blood to clot during injuries.
The white blood cells of the blood engulf pathogens and protect us from infectious diseases.
Blood also regulate the body temperature and maintain it uniformly all over the body.

25

(k) Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.
*The blood flowing from arteries is high pressured
and when it enters the capillaries, all the small soluble
molecules diffuse from capillary wall in between the
cells.
* The plasma and dissolved glucose, amino acids,
oxygen that leaked in between the tissues forms tissue
fluid.
* the nutrients diffuse from tissue fluid to the tissues
and waste materials such as carbon dioxide and urea
diffuse from tissues to tissue fluid.
* The excess fluid is reabsorbed into the blood
capillaries that join to form veins. Some of the tissue fluid is drain into the lymphatic vessels and is
called lymph. These lymph vessels carry the lymph and release the fluid into the blood at vena cava.

8. Respiration:
(a) define respiration as the release of energy from food substances in all living cells; (b) define aerobic
respiration as the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the breakdown of food substances in
the presence of oxygen; (c) state the equation (in words or symbols) for aerobic respiration; (d) define
anaerobic respiration as the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food
substances in the absence of oxygen; (e) state the equation (in words or symbols) for anaerobic
respiration in humans and in yeast;
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Glucose is broken down using oxygen to release
energy
Glucose+ oxygencarbon dioxide +water+energy
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6CO2 +6H O + energy (36 ATP)

Glucose is broken down to release energy in

the absence of oxygen.
Glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy
Glucose lactic acid +energy in human
muscles.
C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + energy (2ATP)
in yeast and anaerobic bacterial

Glucose is completely oxidized to produce large

amount of energy.

Glucose is incompletely oxidized and releases

very less amount of energy.

The end products are carbon dioxide and water

The end product in human muscle anaerobic

respiration is lactic acid. In yeast the end
products are ethanol and carbon dioxide
Occurs in organisms when oxygen is not
available and in organisms that can respire in
the absence of oxygen.

Occurs in all living organisms that respire oxygen

Respiration is a catabolic process (breaking down of large molecules) in which food molecules are broken down
into simple molecules and release energy. The carbohydrates such as glucose is the main important respiratory
substrate that is used to get oxidize to produce energy. If sufficient amount of glucose is not available fatty acids
are used as respiratory substrate and next amino acids as alternative respiratory substrate during starving.
26

(f) State the uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division,
active transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance of a constant body
temperature;
Energy released during respiration is carried by ATP chemical molecules and is used for the
muscle contraction and helps organisms to move.
The synthesis of large molecules needs energy. Protein synthesis and growth needs energy.
The metabolic energy is also used in cell division in producing new cells.
Active transport of ions in plants, and in human body uses energy.
The energy is also used in the passage of nerve impulses and also to maintain constant body
temperature.
(g) describe the effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise.
During physical exercise the oxygen supply to the muscle is not sufficient. The muscles in this condition
start to respire anaerobically which release the lactic acid. The lactic acid accumulates in the muscle and
also diffuses into the blood. This is toxic and causes the muscle to fatigue. (the muscle tired). The
muscle under lo longer contract and cause movement. To avoid this condition the breathing rate
increases by the impulses send by medulla oblongata. The increased breathing repays the oxygen debt
and aerobic respiration in muscle continues.
(h) identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
Capillaries:

(i) Know the percentages of the gases in atmospheric air and investigate and state the differences
between inspired and expired air;
Inspired air
Expired air
Oxygen 21%
16%
Carbon dioxide 0.3%
0.4 %
Nitrogen 78%
78%
Water vapour - traces
Saturated
27

(j) Describe the role of cilia, diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles (external and internal) in breathing
Inspiration (inhaling)

Expiration (exhaling)

External intercostal muscles contract and ribs

move up and outward
Diaphragm muscles contract and diaphragm moves
down and gets flat
This acts increases the volume of chest (thorax) so
that the lungs can inflate.
The air pressure inside lungs reduces

External intercostal muscles relax and internal

intercostals relax. Ribs move down and in.
Diaphragm muscles relax and diaphragm
moves up to dome shaped
This act decreases the volume of thorax so
that the lungs deflate.
The air pressure inside the lungs is increased

The air from outside is drawn in

The air from lungs is forced out.

(j) State the characteristics of, and describe the role of, the exchange surface of the alveoli in gas
exchange;

Adaptation of human lungs for efficient gas exchange: The inner wall of the lung is highly folded into
the air sacs called alveoli. The numerous alveoli increase the surface area of the lung for efficient
diffusion of gases from the blood and lungs. The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick and so decreases
the diffusion distance for the gases to diffuse. The alveoli are supplied with blood by a dense network of
capillaries. This maintains the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide for them to diffuse.
The blood capillaries coming to lungs are deoxygenated and have high CO2 concentration and diffuse
into the alveoli. The alveoli receive more oxygenated air and oxygen is highly concentrated to diffuse
into the blood capillaries.
The inner lining of trachea and bronchus are lined with special epithelial cells. This layer consists of
cells secrete mucus (goblet cells) which traps the dust and microorganisms from the inhaled air. Some
cells have cilia on the surface which move up and down (beating movement) to sweep the mucus with
impurities to the back of the pharynx. This ensures that the inhaled air is pure before it enters the lungs
so that infections by pathogens and dust are prevented.
28

(l) Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing;
The breathing rate can be measured by placing index finger below the nostrils or placing hand on the
chest and count the rib movement. The inhaling and exhaling can be counted as one breathe and can
measure how many times we breathe in one minute.
A person doing a physical activity such as exercise, or carrying heavy loads needs more energy. The
muscles have to respire aerobically to breakdown the glucose and produce energy. Since the air we
breathe at rest is not enough to meet the demand, there will be an oxygen debt in the muscles. The
muscles then start to breathe anaerobically. This will leads to the accumulation of lactic acid in the
muscles. As a result the muscle gets fatigue (muscle cramps). To repay the oxygen debt the breathing
rate increases. The persons heart beat increases to pump more volume of blood to supply more glucose
and oxygen to produce more energy.
When the person rests breathes 13 to
14 times per minute. A spirometer
trace can be used to measure the
volume of air and breathing rate of a
person.
Between 0 to 15 seconds the
person is at rest and breathes
3 times which means 12
times per minute.
Between 15 to 30 seconds
the person breathes deeply
and takes in more air.
Between 30 to 45 seconds
the persons breathing rate
increased.
The increased breathing rate repays oxygen debt, allows the aerobic respiration in the muscle,
and removes the carbon dioxide and lactic acid from the blood.

9. Excretion
(a) define excretion as the removal of toxic materials and the waste products of metabolism from
organisms;
Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body. The waste materials if remains in the blood
they become toxic and fatal to the organisms. Example1: urea is produced by the breakdown of amino
acids in the liver and is excreted from kidneys. Example 2: sodium chloride from the blood is secreted as
sweat by the sweat glands of the skin and eliminated through the sweat pores. Example 3: carbon
dioxide produced during respiration is excreted from lungs.
(b) Describe the removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs; during respiration carbon dioxide is
produced as a waste product. The carbon dioxide from the tissues is transported to the lungs through the
blood. It diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. During the expiration the carbon dioxide is breathed
out of the lungs.

29

(c) identify on diagrams and name the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra and state the function of each
(the function of the kidney should be described simply as removing urea and excess salts and water from
the blood; details of kidney structure and nephron are not required);

There are two kidneys in the urinary system of a human being. These kidneys made up of
millions of small filtering units called nephrons. The kidney nephrons filter the nitrogenous
waste, urea from the blood.
The urea with water is called as urine, and from the kidneys it passes to a urinary bladder
through ureters.
The urinary bladder stores the urine temporarily.
Urethra is the structure that releases and excretes urine from the bladder when it is full. The
urethra empties the urine from the bladder by the action of sphincter muscles located at the start
of urethra.
Ultra filtration of urea: When the blood from renal artery flows at high pressure into the kidney
nephrons, all small molecules such as urea, water, glucose, amino acids and salts diffused from blood to
the nephrons. This is called as ultrafiltration or high pressured filtration. This mixture is called as
glomerular filtration.
Selective reabsorption: The excess water from the filtrate and useful substances from the blood are taken
back into the blood from the kidney. This is called selective reabsorption.
Urine secretion: the urea, small amount of salts and water together forms urine and are carried to the
bladder through ureters.
(d) Describe dialysis in kidney machines as the diffusion of waste products and salts (small molecules)
through a membrane; large molecules (e.g. protein) remain in the blood.
A person, whose two kidneys are damaged, has to undergo dialysis which means the blood of the person
to be sent into a machine to filter urea from blood. (refer to the diagram given beside the kidneys)
The dialysis machine works on principle of diffusion. It acts like a real kidney by filtering the
nitrogenous waster from the blood. But it cannot reabsorb the useful substances from the blood.
30

The blood from the patients artery or vein is connected to the dialysis tubules present in the
machine.
Inside the machine the space is filled with dialysis fluid which consists of useful substance such
as glucose, salts, amino acids and water in the same concentration as in blood, so that they do not
diffuse out from the blood.
The dialysis fluid consists of no urea, so that urea from patients blood diffuses into the dialysis
fluid.
The dialysis fluid is changed and replaced by new fluid to maintain concentration gradient of
urea between blood and fluid.
The filtered blood returns to the patients artery or vein, by careful monitoring of the flow, by
bubble trapper.

10. Homeostasis
(a) define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment; the process of
maintaining a constant internal environment is called as homeostasis. The internal environment refers to
the blood glucose, temperature, salts, water and ions. All these substances should be in right amount in
the blood. So their levels to be always kept constant. Negative feedback mechanism occurs in our body
for homeostasis.
(b) explain the concept of control by negative feedback; The automatic correction of any internal factor
when it deviates from its optimum levels. During negative feedback an increase or decrease of the levels
of the factor are brought back to normal.
Example: Glucose regulation by negative feedback: the blood glucose levels increases the pancreatic
cells detect the change and secrete hormone insulin which is transported to liver. The insulin promotes
the conversion of excess glucose into glycogen. The blood glucose levels reduce to normal. On the other
side if the glucose in blood decreases, the insulin levels fall and another hormone glucagon is produced.
This hormone works in liver to convert glycogen to glucose so that the glucose levels in blood rise to
normal.

Osmoregulation by kidney: If the water content in blood increases, (winter, cold water bath) the kidneys
filter it to form dilute urine and excrete it. The hormone that is used to increase the reabsorption of water
from kidneys to blood in inhibited. If water content in blood is less, (playing in hot sun, dry weather, and
sunny days) the pituitary gland secretes a hormone called ADH (antidiuretic hormone). This hormone
increases the reabsorption of water from urine to blood. Concentrated urine in less volume is secreted
and blood water levels are maintained.
31

(c) Identify, on a diagram of the skin, hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood vessels and fatty
Tissue;
Epidermis -contain three layers, protect from pathogens entry and UV rays, (melanin in the third layer)
Dermis- consists of sweat glands, blood capillaries, arterioles, veins, sebaceous glands, receptors, hair
erector muscles and hair follicles.
Sweat gland- filters salt from the blood and secrete sweat and release it out through sweat duct and
sweat pores.
Receptors- the nerve endings act as receptors to detect heat, cold, pain and pressure.
Sebaceous glands- secrete oily sebum and lubricate the skin.
hair follicle and hair- hair grows from follicle and the hairs stand erect when the hair erector muscle
contract to trap the air in between and insulate the body.
Adipose tissue- below the epidermis, there is a layer of fat (sub cutaneous fat or adipose tissue) that
provides insulation and prevents heat loss.

(d) Describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans in terms of insulation and the
role of temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering, blood vessels near the skin surface and the
coordinating role of the brain:
Overheating ( body gains heat faster than it loses
Over cooling ( body loses heat faster than it gain)
Response-Vasodilation
Response -Vasoconstriction
If the body gains more heat, the heat receptors in
If the body loses heat, the cold receptors detect the
skin detect the heat and send the impulse to the
stimulus and send the impulse to the brain
brain (hypothalamus) through sensory neurones.
(hypothalamus) through sensory neurones.
The brain sends impulse to the skin arterioles
The brain sends impulses to the skin arterioles
through motor neurones.
through motor neurones.
The skin arterioles dilate (widen), and send more
The skin arterioles constrict (narrow) and send less
warm blood to the surface of the skin,
blood to the surface of the skin.
Heat is lost by conduction and radiation
Heat loss is prevented, heat is retained.
Sweat glands secrete more sweat and evaporation
Less secreted, hair erector muscle contract, and
cools the body.
causes hair erection. Air is trapped between the
hairs and insulated the body.
32

11. Coordination and response

(a) State that the nervous system brain, spinal cord and nerves, serves to coordinate and regulate
bodily functions; The coordinated behavior works in the following five components. Stimulus is any
change in external or internal environment. Eg. Loud sound. The sound is now detected by the receptors
of ear; pass the impulse to the brain (coordinator) through sensory neurones. The relay neurones in the
brain process and pass the impulse to the effectors (glands or muscles) through the motor neurones. The
person close the ears using hands is the response.

(b) Identify, on diagrams of the central nervous system, the cerebrum, cerebellum, pituitary gland and
hypothalamus, medulla, spinal cord and nerves;

(c) Describe the principal functions of the above structures in terms of coordinating and regulating
bodily functions;
Structure of brain
Cerebrum

Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Medulla oblongata
Pituitary gland

Spinal cord

Function
The cerebral hemispheres control the conscious activities and are
responsible for memory, thinking, reasoning, decision making and
other sensory information processing and coordinate response to
stimulus.
Controls the muscular coordination, balance and posture.
Controls the homeostasis, which means the temperature control
and osmoregulation.
Controls the involuntary action such as heart beat and breathing
rate.
This is an endocrine gland located just below the hypothalamus and
secretes growth hormones and many other hormones that control
the activities of other endocrine glands.
Spinal cord continues from medulla, allows the spinal nerves to pass
to and from the organs. It also acts as coordinator in generating
reflex responses.

33

(d) Outline the functions of sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones;
Sensory neurones- End in the receptor cells to
detect stimuli. They carry impulses from
receptors to central nervous system. Their cells
bodies are small, with axon and long dendrites.
Relay neurones- connect the sensory neuron
with motor neuron and present in the central
nervous system. (Brain and spinal cord).
Motor neurones- have large cell body, long
axon and short dendrites. They carry impulses
from central nervous system to effectors. (glands
and muscles).
e) Discuss the function of the brain and spinal
cord in producing a coordinated response as a
result of a specific stimulus (reflex action);
Reflex actions are sudden and rapid response for a stimulus. If a stimulus is dangerous the nervous
system has to make quick response to prevent any damage due to the stimulus to the body. Hence these
reflex responses are useful in protecting the body organs from dangerous stimulus. During the reflex
actions the impulses of sensory neurones are processed either in the spinal cord or brain and take a short
route to send impulses through motor neurones to the effectors for immediate response. Example :
touching a hot object immediately withdraw the hand.
The reflex arc is the path of way of neurones of a reflex action. The receptors detect the hotness, and the
sensory neuron carries the impulse to the spinal cord. The relay neuron in the grey matter processes the
impulse and passes the impulse to the motor neuron. The motor neuron carries the impulse to the hand
muscle (biceps) which contract and causes the hand to move away from the flame.

34

(f) Describe the gross structure of the eye as seen in front view and in horizontal section;
Sclera- the outer most layer of eye
ball and protect it and maintain the
shape of the eye ball.
Choroid- the middle layer of the eye,
which has pigment to prevent the
internal reflection. Its also supplied
with blood vessels to nourish the eye
structures.
Retina inner most layer and
consists of rod cells and cones for
detecting the light and form image of
the object.
Fovea- (yellow spot) area on the
retina where image is formed and
colour vision is accurate.
Blind spot- the area on retina where
optic nerve starts and no image is
formed. The part of the image not covered by the blind spot of one eye is compensated by the other eye.
In binocular vision two eyes carry two images to the brain, and both are put together to make a complete
image for us to get the three dimensional complete view of the object.
Conjunctiva- thin transparent layer over cornea that protect eye.
Cornea- the curved bulge in front of the eye, transparent and allow light to enter the eye.
Iris- the coloured muscle (black/ brown/blue) determines the eye colour and also controls the size of
pupil.
Pupil: The opening between the iris which allows the light to enter the eye. The diameter of the pupil
gets small in bright light and big in dim light and adjust the amount of light entering the eye.
Lens- transparent crystalline structure that refract light rays from the object and focus it on retina.
Ciliary body- consists of antagonistic muscles (one muscle contract another relax) that can alter the
shape of the lens for near and far vision.
Suspensory ligaments- structures that hold the lens and pull or release it to change its shape.
Aqueous humor- the fluid in front of the lens and provide nutrients to the transparent parts of eye.
Vitrious humor- the fluid inside the eye ball back of the lens, maintain the shape of the eye ball and
provide nutrients to the transparent part of the eye.
(g) State the principal functions of component parts of the eye in producing a focused image of near and
distant objects on the retina;
Far vision accommodation
Radial ciliary muscles contract and circular ciliary
muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments taut ( more tension)
Lens is stretched to refract the parallel light rays to
enter and refract through the lens
Pupil widen

Near vision accommodation

Circular ciliary muscles contract and radial
ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligaments slacken (losen)
Lens become round to increase the
curvature to refract the diverging rays
come from near object
Pupil narrows
35

(h) Describe the pupil reflex in response to bright and dim light;
The changing size of
pupil is important in
controlling the amount of
light entering the eye.
The iris antagonistic
muscles cause the
changes in pupil size.
Refer to the figure beside
to understand the action
of iris muscles in altering
the pupil size.

(i) define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver;
Hormones are chemical molecules secreted by endocrine glands. The endocrine glands are ductless and
release the hormones directly into the blood. Hormones change the chemical reactions either by
speeding up or slowing down to make correct response to a stimulus. Hormones are small molecules so
easily diffuse into the blood and work efficiently in smaller concentrations. They are carried to the
target organs (the organs that effected by the hormone) by blood stream and after they are used up
destroyed by liver.
(j) State the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting the blood glucose concentration and give
examples of situations in which this may occur;
Adrenal glands are located over the kidneys and secrete
hormone adrenaline. Adrenaline is transported to the target
organs liver, heart and lungs. In the liver glycogen is
converted to glucose to supply extra glucose for respiration.
36

The breathing rate increases to take in more oxygen for respiration. Heart rate increases to supply the
oxygen and glucose to the muscles. The overall effect of the hormone is to increase the rate of
respiration and produce more energy to cope with situation. This hormone is released when a person is
angry, frightened, and anxious or stressed. Its the organ of fright and flight.
(k) Describe the signs (increased blood glucose concentration and glucose in urine) and treatment
(administration of insulin) of diabetes mellitus.
After a heavy carbohydrate meal, the glucose concentration in blood increases as the carbohydrates are
digested and absorbed into the blood. The increased levels of glucose are detected by pancreas and it
secretes insulin. The insulin promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver and brings the
glucose concentration to normal. The insufficient secretion of insulin inhibits the conversion of glucose
to glycogen. As a result glucose concentration in blood increases. In the kidneys the glucose filtered
from blood cannot be reabsorbed back and glucose is lost in the urine. This condition is called diabetes
mellitus.
Symptoms and treatment of diabetes: high blood sugar; presence of glucose in the urine; extreme
tiredness; weight loss and severe thirst. Increased glucose in the blood reduces the water potential of
blood and draw water from the tissues. The volume of blood increase and the person urinates frequently.
To replace the water lost by the tissues, thirst increases. To treat the disease doctors prescribe drugs that
control the blood glucose and in case of very high levels of glucose in the blood, insulin hormone can be
taken by injection. The people with diabetes should carefully monitor their diet by reducing
carbohydrate rich nutrients in their diet.

12. Support, movement and locomotion

(a) Identify and describe, from diagrams, photographs and real specimens, the main bones of the forelimb
(humerus, radius, ulna and scapula) of a mammal;(b) describe the type of movement permitted by the ball and
socket joint and the hinge joint of the forelimb

Bones give shape and support to the body and maintain posture. The skeletal system is made of bone
and muscles. The bones and joints cause movement and locomotion. The shoulder bone is called as
scapula and forms a ball and socket joint with the head of the humerus. The ball and socket joint allow
the arm to rotate and move in three planes. The lower part of the humerus makes a hinge joint with two
lower arm bones radius and ulna. The hinge joint provides one plane movement (fold the arm and
straighten).
37

(c) Describe the action of the antagonistic muscles at the hinge joint.
Muscles that occur in pairs and work in opposite direction are called antagonistic muscles. When one
muscle contracts another muscle relax. This is called antagonistic action. Eg. Muscles in iris, muscles in
ciliary body, muscles in oeosphagus and flexor (biceps) extensors (triceps) of arm.
Flexion of arm (folding at hinge)
The bicep muscles contract and pull the radius and
ulna towards humerus. During this time triceps
muscles relax. As a result arm is folded.

Extension of arm (straighten)

The triceps muscles contract and pull the radius
and ulna away from humerus. During this time
the bicep muscles relax. As a result the arm is
extended (straighten)
Ball and socket joint and hinge joints are called synovial joints. These joints are protected by synovial
capsule that secretes synovial fluid. The synovial fluid lubricates joint and provide friction free
movement.
Ligaments: ligaments are the structures that join bone to bone at a joint. They hold the bones in position
firmly and are slightly elastic to make the movement free and without friction.
Tendons: these are the structures that connect muscles to bone. Tendons are non-elastic so that without
stretching by itself allow the muscle to contract with less force and cause movement in bones.

13. The use and abuse of drugs

:

(a) define a drug as any externally administered substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in
the body;
Drugs are externally administered chemical substances that modify or effects of chemical reactions in
the body. Most drugs are prescribed by the doctors for providing relief from diseases.
Antibiotics
Chemicals usually
secreted by
microorganisms such as
bacteria and fungi. Used
to treat bacterial
infections.
Eg. Penicillin, ampicillin

Stimulants
Chemicals that increase the
speed of nerve impulses.
Eg; nicotine in cigarette
smoke, caffeine in coffee.

Depressants
Chemicals that slow
down the nerve
impulses and makes
people inactive.
Eg; alcohol, heroin,
opium

addictive
Drugs that
make people
feel to use again
and again. Eg
alcohol, heroin,
opium

38

(b) Describe the medicinal use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial infection;
Antibiotics are used to treat infectious diseases caused by bacteria. These chemicals kill the
bacteria that entered the body and control their growth. Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called
bactericidal and that reduce the growth and reproduction of bacteria inside are called bacteriostatic. The
amount of antibiotic concentration that kills the microorganisms effectively is called the right dose of
drug.
Doctors prescribe a course of antibiotics to control the bacteria completely. If a person not using
the complete course some bacteria remain alive. These bacteria might have special variation to survive
unaffected by the drug. They become resistant to the antibiotic and multiply, increase their number.
When next time, the taking of the antibiotic cannot kill the resistant bacteria. Though bacterial diseases
such as syphilis can be cured well, survival of antibiotic resistant bacteria may be a disadvantage of
antibiotics.
(c) Describe the effects of the abuse of heroin: powerful depressant, problems of addiction, severe
withdrawal symptoms and associated problems such as crime and infection e.g. AIDS;
Any drug taken without doctors advice, used without control and in excessive amounts is said to be
abuse of drug.
Heroin is a depressant drug. This drug slows down the nerve impulses and gives a feeling of
unknown pleasure (euphoria). Causes addiction and makes people withdraw from social
responsibilities. The normal function of nervous system damages and eventually harms the person
. If the person wants to stop the use of the drug, he or she will experience severe withdrawal
symptoms (pains, muscle cramps, dryness of mouth).
The drug addicts develop criminal attitude to obtain the drug and use it. Sometimes any member
in group of people infected with AIDS, and they using same syringe to inject the drug, may spread the
AIDS.
(d) describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant, effect on
reaction times, damage to liver and social implications;
Short time effects of alcohol- depression in visual center of brain make the vision blurred, depression
in cerebellum makes the alcoholic to stagger, reaction time increases means reflex actions slowdown,
irritation in stomach and loss of appetite follows. As overall effect the person loses self- control.
Long term effects: alcohol is harmful to the body systems and so the liver cells detoxify it and make it
harmless. However prolonged use of alcohol damages the liver cells and causes liver cirrhosis.
Social implications: alcoholic addicts spend lot of money on buying alcohol and neglect their families.
In depression and out of self-control state they may attempt crimes. The unbalanced state keeps them
and their in awkward position. Driving by alcoholic people may lead to increased road accidents.
(e) Describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (nicotine, tar and carbon
monoxide) on health: strong association with bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer and heart disease, and
the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight of the baby;
Nicotine- it is a stimulant drug, increase the speed of nerve impulses and damage the nervous system.
Nicotine in blood increases the pressure and damages the arteries. This eventually leads to the deposition
of fats and cholesterol on the walls arteries and heart diseases.
39

Carbon monoxide: carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin irreversibly and haemoglobin is not
available for oxygen to bind. The oxygen supply to the tissues reduced and person feels shortness of
breath and other respiratory disorders.
Tar: smoke consists of tar, which can deposit on the alveolar walls. Alveolar walls lose their elasticity
and the surface area for gas exchange decreases. This destruction of alveolar walls reduces oxygen
intake and causes shortness of breath. This condition is called emphysema. Cigarette smoke also consists
of many carcinogens (cancer causing chemicals) which can cause lung cancer.
All the chemicals in the smoke increase the secretion of mucus. Increased mucus production remains in
the trachea and arrest the movement of cilia. The microorganisms in air remain in mucus and causes
infection. The walls of trachea, bronchi damage and cause bronchitis.
If pregnant women smoke the oxygen supply to the baby in the womb decreases and the baby at birth
would have less weight.
(f) Recognize the fact that many people regard smoking as no longer socially acceptable. Smoking not
only causes many respiratory and circulatory diseases to the smoker but also to the one who is around
the smoker. The passive smokers also get affected by cigarette smoking. Smoking causes unpleasant
odor (smell) and causes inconvenience to the people stays in the circle of smoker. It is a waste
expenditure of money too.

14. Microorganisms and biotechnology

(a) List the main characteristics of the following groups: viruses, bacteria and fungi;

Bacteria
Unicellular microscopic organisms
measuring a few micro meters.

Virus
No cellular structure and measure
about 20 to 400 nanometers

Have a circular DNA floating in the

cytoplasm. Not enclosed in
nucleus.
Cell walls made up of proteins and
carbohydrates is present.

Some virus contains DNA and some

may have RNA. No nucleus.

Respire aerobic with anaerobic

methods.
Some bacteria feed autotrophic,
some live as saprophytes or
parasites.
Reproduce by asexual methods
such ad binary fission

No cell wall or any other organelles.

Only a protein coat is around the
genetic material.
Do not perform any life activities but
reproduce in host cells.
All viruses are parasites.

Reproduce by duplicating the genetic

material.

fungi
Occurs are unicellular(yeast) and
multicellular forms(mushrooms
and moulds)
Contain nucleus with genetic
material DNA inside.
Cells walls are made up of chitin.

Respire aerobically anaerobically

No chlorophyll, feed on dead and
decay organic matter by external
digestion.
Reproduce by asexual methods
such as budding in yeast, and
spore formation.

40

(b) Outline the role of microorganisms in decomposition;

Saprophytic bacteria and fungi feed on dead and decaying organisms. While feeding they secrete
enzymes on the food and breakdown the food into simple compounds and absorb the digested end
products. They absorb very little amounts and release the rest into the environment and recycle the
chemicals such as carbon dioxide and nitrates.
Example- the bacteria feeding on dead organic matter, breakdown the carbohydrates and use them for
respiration. During this process they release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. They breakdown the
nitrogen compounds in dead and excretory materials into ammonia. This is called decomposition. They
further convert them into nitrates which enrich the soil with nitrates. Some of the simple nitrogen
compounds they use for their growth.
(c) Explain the role of yeast in the production of bread and alcohol;

(d) Outline the role of bacteria in yoghurt and cheese production;

Yoghurt production: a rod shaped bacteria called lactobacillus. *milk is heated to boil so that other
bacteria in milk can be killed. * Then cooled to 40 to 45o C to provide right temperature to the bacteria
to respire and multiply. * Lactobacillus bacteria is added (a starter culture also called inoculum). * the
milk with bacteria is allowed to incubate for 6 to 10 hours. * During the period of incubation the bacteria
convert milk sugar lactose to lactic acid while respiring anaerobic way. * The lactic acid ferment the
milk, curdle (solidify) and gives characteristic flavor to the yoghurt. * While setting the yoghurt fruits
and other flavors may added.
Cheese production: same process of yoghurt making is followed; the liquid part of the yoghurt is called
whey and is removed to get thick cheese. The solid cheese part is pressed into different shapes such as
blocks or layers and packed.
(e) Describe the use of fermenters for large-scale production of antibiotics and single cell protein;
(f) Describe the role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of penicillin.
Antibiotic production (penicillin)
Moulds fungus Penicillium is added to the culture
solution in the fermenter
Penicillium and nutrients such as glucose, amino
acids added to the fermenter all at a time.
The Penicillium uses the nutrients, respire
aerobically and reproduce to grow. When the
nutrients are used up the fungus produce antibiotics
to kill other fungus to avoid competition.

single cell protein production (mycoprotein)

Filamentous fungus Fusarium is added to the
culture solution in the fermenter.
Fungus and nutrients can be added continuously
to replace the nutrients used up by the fungus.
The growth of fungus produces protein in their
cells. This protein is extracted continuously form
the fermenter.

41

Use of fermenters in the production of

antibiotic and single cell protein:

Fermenters are large container made of

special durable steel material which can
withstand conditions such as temperature, pH
and pressure.

Nutrient broth consists of a

carbohydrate source, protein source and growth
factors is added to the fermenter and steam is
sent into the fermenter to sterilize the nutrients
(remove any unwanted microbes).

The desired fungal species is added.

The fungi use the carbohydrates and

produce energy and protein source for growth
and metabolism.

The sterile air pipe with sparger

(diffuser) supply air with oxygen evenly in the
broth for the aerobic respiration of the fungi.

The motor with impeller mixes the

culture broth so that nutrients and air are
distributed evenly in the fermenter.

The cooling jacket around the fermenter

is circulated with cool water. This cool water
absorbs the heat generated by fungal respiration and regulates the temperature to optimum.

The exhaust removes the waste gases such as carbon dioxide and the pH probes monitor the pH
and acid base inlet adjust the pH to optimum. The product is extracted through the harvest drain.

A fermenter thus provides all optimum conditions to culture the microorganisms to obtain the
product.

15. Relationships of organisms with one another and with the environment
Ecology is the branch of biology that explains the relationships of organisms with one another and with
the environment.
The part of the earth with living organisms is called as biosphere. The biosphere is further studied in
small units called biomes of different habitats. (terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes). The smallest unit of
biome convenient to study is an ecosystem.
Ecosystem: The interaction of living organisms among themselves and with the physical environment of
the habitat. Eg the aquarium with fish, water plants, the water, and the dissolved substances in water can
be explained as an ecosystem.
Producer an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight
through photosynthesis. Example: green plants, green bacteria.
Consumer an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms. Example all hetero
trophic organisms such as animals and humans.
Herbivore an animal that obtains its energy by eating plants; example- goat, giraffe and cow
Carnivore an animal that obtains its energy by eating other animals; Example- lion and lynx
decomposer an organism that obtains its energy from dead or waste organic matter; example- bacteria
and fungi.
42

Food chain a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from one organism to the next, beginning with
the producer (e.g. mahogany tree caterpillar songbird hawk);
Food webs: Many inter connected food chains of
an ecosystem forms a food web. Food webs give
us more information about the source of food of
an organism and their relationship with other
organisms in detail.
State that the Sun is the principal source of energy
input to biological systems; Energy enters the
food chains from the Sun. The Sun is the principle
source of energy input to biological systems.
Green plants absorb solar energy and convert it to
chemical form during the process of
photosynthesis. They use light energy to
synthesize the organic molecules from simple
inorganic nutrients water and carbon dioxide.
Describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow;
The solar energy fixed in autotrophs in the form of chemical molecules (carbohydrates, proteins
and fats) is used by the plant for its growth and metabolism and is stored in plant parts. Some energy is
lost as heat produced during respiration.
The remaining energy is available for the consumers to feed. It is described that approximately
10% of the total energy present in the producers enter the primary consumers.
From the primary consumers again about 10% would pass to the secondary consumers. This is
because energy lost as heat during respiration and excretion (urine and feces).
Hence the organisms at the end of food chain (top carnivores) receive very less amount energy.
Food chains with less trophic levels are more efficient in energy flow and beneficial to the organisms
rather than long food chains with many trophic levels.
The energy of dead consumers and producers is available to the decomposers and lost as heat
during their respiration and not recycled. Hence the energy flow in ecosystem is described as non-cyclic.
Describe and interpret pyramids of numbers and of
biomass; food pyramids are the graphical or pictorial
representation of food chains. They show the energy
flow or biomass from one trophic level to other.
Pyramids of energy are upright and base heavy.
They show the amount of energy passed from one
trophic level to other. The energy amounts of
organisms in each trophic level are obtained to draw
the pyramid.
43

Pyramids of biomass: the mass of the organisms at each trophic level of sample area are recorded.
These values are used to construct the pyramid. The
pyramids of biomass are also upright and regualar.
Their base is heavy with more biomass ofproducers.
This pyramid show the loss of biomass from one tropic
level to other. [A position in a food chain or Ecological
Pyramid occupied by a group of organisms with similar
feeding mode is called as trophic level. For example,
the primary producers are photosynthetic plants occupying the first trophic level. A group of organisms
feeding on them is called herbivores, which form the second trophic level. Organisms feeding on
the herbivores, called carnivores, occupy the next trophic level.]
Pyramids of number: number of organisms at each
trophic level sampled is used to construct the
pyramid. The pyramid of numbers may not be
always upright and regular. The pyramid shown here
for oak tree ecosystem is base light. Sometimes a
huge number of parasites feed on top carnivores
results in top heavy pyramids.
Describe and state the importance of the carbon cycle;
Biogeo chemical cycles shows
the cycling of nutrients such as
carbon and nitrogen between
living organisms and
environment. * Carbon dioxide
from atmosphere is removed by
plants during photosynthesis.
*carbon dioxide is added to the
atmosphere when all the living
organisms respire and breathe
out, when fossil fuels are burnt
and dead organisms are
decomposed. *The recycling of
carbon is important to maintain
the carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere. The removal and addition of carbon dioxide should be in balance.
Describe the nitrogen cycle in making available nitrogen for plant and animal protein, including the role
of bacteria in nitrogen fixation, decomposition and nitrification (details of denitrification and the names
of individual bacteria are not required);
Nitrogen fixation: The process that remove atmospheric nitrogen by converting the nitrogen into
ammonia and to nitrates. Rhizobium bacteria living the root nodules of leguminous plants (bean family)
are involved in nitrogen fixation. This activity enriches the soil with nitrates and makes the nitrates
available to the plants for absorption.

44

Feeding Plants synthesize proteins using the nitrates. The nitrogen in the form of nitrates passes into the
herbivore animals while they feed on plants and then passes to the carnivores when they feed on
herbivores. Thus nitrogen moves in the biological systems.
Decomposition or ammonification: bacteria in the soil feed on the excretory products of animals and
dead plant and animal matter convert the nitrogen compounds into ammonia.

Nitrification: is the process of conversion of ammonia into nitrates by aerobic bacteria. This process
enriches the soil with nitrates for the plants to absorb.
Denitrification: the conversion of soil nitrates into nitrogen gas under anaerobic bacteria. This process
returns the nitrogen to the atmosphere.
Understand the role of the mosquito as a vector of disease; malaria is caused by a protozoan lives in
ponds and stagnant waters. Mosquito acts as a vector to carry the malarial pathogen and infect humans.
Mosquito breeds on stagnant water; the pathogen enters the mosquito larvae. When the larvae develop
into adult mosquitoes fly and feed on humans. The female anopheles mosquito feeds human blood.
While feeding it inject the pathogen into the human blood. The pathogen is transferred from infected
person to healthy person when the mosquitoes feed on infected person and visit another human to feed.
Describe the malaria pathogen as an example of a parasite and describe the transmission and control of
the malarial pathogen (details of the life cycle of the pathogen are not required);
Malaria is caused by a protozoan. The parasite enters the human blood and lives in the red blood cells. It
is an endoparasite and causes harm to the host by damaging red blood cells. Mosquito also acts as
ectoparasite.
Control Measures of malaria: - Against the vector (mosquito)

Draining mosquito "breeding grounds" - marshes, swamps, ponds etc.

This is never 100% effective, or even desirable, but it may be combined with other projects e.g.
45

colonization of land for agriculture, or civil engineering projects e.g. construction of railways or
canals.
Large scale spraying of wetland areas with
insecticides to kill mosquitoes and larval stages has
been quite successful (especially in the post-war
years), even at the expense of environmental
pollution. Some of the recent spread of malaria has
been blamed on the cessation of use of DDT in some
countries.
Biological control - introducing fish to eat the
mosquito larvae and pupae
Gambusia affinis - often called the mosquito fish - is
a small live bearing fish that is recommended in some instances as it can live in small bodies of
water, although it may cause ecological damage by feeding upon other water organisms.
Covering water with a film of oil .This kills the aquatic stages of the mosquito by preventing
them from taking in air at the water surface.
Spraying houses with insecticide
Use of persistent insecticide [even DDT] on vertical surfaces has been found to be better than
knock-down of flying insects.
Evaporative dispensers of insecticides and insect repellants are often used by holidaymakers
Fitting fly screens to windows
Sleeping under nets, preferably soaked in insecticides

- against the parasite

Quinine - a product of the bark of the Cinchona tree - is the main ingredient in tonic water, a favorite
drink (with gin!) for some people in hot places - a trend started by tea planters?
Chloroquine is used both to help prevent and treat malaria - it should be started 1 to 2 weeks before
travelling into an area in which malaria is present. It should be taken the entire time in the area, and for 4
weeks after leaving.
Describe the effects of humans on the ecosystem with emphasis on examples of international importance
(tropical rain forests, oceans and important rivers);
Land clearance for human activities such as housing, urbanization, industrial development and
agriculture and transport has a great impact on the ecosystems. The main purpose of these activities is
providing food, shelter and other needs for the growing human populations. But this can upset the
balance in the ecosystem.
Land clearance can lead the following changes in the ecosystem:
1. Loss of natural habitats: the action of clearing tropical forests for agriculture and urbanization
destroy the natural habitats and many species of plants and animals lose their habitats. Some
species may be greatly reduced in number and in danger of extinction (endangered species).
2. Disruption of water cycle and pollution: deforestation and use of fertilizers and pesticides have
adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. Since water moves in a cycle between evaporation and
46

condensation, the water cycle of the area is affected. In extreme cases desert may be created in
such areas. Discharge of industrial wastes and leaching of non-biodegradable waste causes water
pollution.
3. Creation of an artificial ecosystem: growing similar kind of crop over and over in the land,
eventually changes the feeding relationships of food chains. Land fertility will be lost. Soil
erosion may occur.
Describe the consequences of deforestation in terms of its effects on soil stability, climate and local
human populations
Deforestation and soil stability: The plant roots hold the soil particles while anchoring
themselves in the soil. When the trees are cut down the soil gets loose and can be washed away
by wind and water. The top soil will be lost during this erosion the mineral and humus of the soil
is lost. The soils become unfertile.
Deforestation and climate: the trees also shield the water flow during heavy rains as their
canopies obstruct the force of water. When trees are not there rain water floods. Plant
transpiration contributes to a considerable amount of cloud in the atmosphere. Reduced
transpiration thus disturbs the rainfall patterns. Plants also remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere while photosynthesizing. Lack of trees in the ecosystem increases the greenhouse
effect and leads to global warming.
Deforestation and local human populations: many human tribes depend on forest wealth and
obtain forest products for trade and daily needs. Loss of forests adversely affects the occupation
of these populations. Urbanization makes it difficult for the rural people to adapt for new
conditions and migration of these populations to nearby towns and cities increases competition
for resources.
Evaluate the effects of: water pollution by sewage, by inorganic waste and by nitrogencontaining fertilizers; air pollution by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane),
contribruting to global warming; air pollution by acidic gases (sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen), contributing to acid rain; pollution due to insecticides
Water pollution by sewage by inorganic waste and nitrogen containing fertilizers leads to
eutrophication in aquatic habitats. The aquatic plants absorb there nutrients and grow rapidly.
This growth of plants on surface of the water blocks the light and the bottom dwelling
phytoplankton die. The decomposition of the dead increases the bacterial populations. The
oxygen dissolved in water is not sufficient for the animals. This leads to the decrease in the
animal populations due to competition for obtaining oxygen for their respiration.
Air pollution by greenhouse gases: oxides of nitrogen and sulphur released by factories dissolve
in rain water and causes acid rains. Presence of these gases in air and rain irritates the eyes,
lungs, damage plant roots so that they cannot absorb the mineral nutrients by active transport.
The leaves of plants also get damage due to acid rain and rate of photosynthesis reduces.
47

Air pollution by carbon dioxide and methane: these gases are known as greenhouse gases as
they absorb solar radiation and maintain the atmospheric temperature to be warm enough for the
enzyme activities in living cells. The increased amount of
these gases increase the greenhouse effect and causes global
warming.
The use of pesticides and chemical that have
nonbiodegradable substances such as lead and mercury cause
pollution on earth. Since these chemical are
nonbiodegradable (not decomposed) they are absorbed into
the plants by their roots. In plants they are not digested and
enter into the bodies of consumers while they feed on plants.
The toxins increase at each trophic level and increase to
greater amounts in the top carnivores. This is called as bio
magnification of toxins and is fatal to the organisms.
Discuss reasons for conservation of species with reference to maintenance of biodiversity, management
of fisheries and management of timber production;
Human activities are leading to the loss of balance in the ecosystem. This is leading to the
climate changes, species extinction and loss of natural resources, depletion of both renewable
and non-renewable resources. The survival of living things including human is at risk. So there is
a great need of conservation of species to maintain biodiversity. To protect the endangered
species and restore ecological balance conservation is needed.
Management of timber production: forests supply many products for human. To manage to
maintain forests. 1) the governments of nations have to legislations to control the indiscriminate
cutting down of trees 2) only selected trees that are matured to be cut down by leaving the
surrounding plants untouched 3) new plants are to be planted to compensate the loss
(afforestation).
Discuss reasons for recycling materials, with reference to named examples.
With the increasing human population the needs for the people also increases. But the point of concern
is that are there enough natural resources to service all your needs. What if these resources finish, this is
one thing we need to ponder upon. We need to start recycling waste to converse our natural resources.
Recycling is simply the process of reusing the items from which utility can still be derived. It is
important to recycle waste so that you can at least converse some of our natural resources for our
generations to come.
Many products such as paper, cardboards, and cups come from trees. In fact trees are our natural assets,
you can converse trees by recycling the paper products we can minimize the number of trees cut down a
year. This is one form of waste recycling. One should understand and know the importance of recycling
waste materials. One simple benefit of recycling is it saves our resources. It will be wise to reuse metal
item as metal reserves may be depleting. You can sold your wore out metal items for recycling. As
mentioned earlier, recycling of waste papers can save our forests.
48

Recycling waste not only save our natural resources but also help save energy. By simply recycling an
item or making a basic fix to it, we can we save all the energy that would have been consumed in the
process of making it. The same example can be taken with plastic items. A large amount of energy can
be saved by simply reusing the plastic items. To recycle waste is to simply reduce pollution. By
recycling plastic material we can reduce air pollution as well as water pollution. Plastic factories
produced large amount of smoke when producing plastic material at the same time if we dont have
proper waste disposal system those waste emissions will cause water pollution. Recycling waste in a
way helps reduce pollution.
In simple words, recycling or recycling waste is essential to both natural environment and humans. To
sum up, recycling minimizes the need for raw materials so that the rainforests can be preserved. Great
amounts of energy are used when making products from raw materials. Recycling requires much less
energy and therefore helps to preserve natural resources. One needs to know the importance of recycling
at the same time being earth friendly can help our planet a better place to live in. In simple words,
recycling or recycling waste is essential to both natural environment and humans. To sum up, recycling
minimizes the need for raw materials so that the rainforests can be preserved. Great amounts of energy
are used when making products from raw materials. Recycling requires much less energy and therefore
helps to preserve natural resources. One needs to know the importance of recycling at the same time
being earth friendly can help our planet a better place to live in.
16. Development of organisms and continuity of life
(a) define mitosis as cell division giving rise to genetically identical cells in which the chromosome
number is maintained and state the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of
worn out cells and asexual reproduction;
Cells divide to produce
new cells. Cell division is
important for the growth
and reproduction of an
organism.
Mitosis is a type of cell
division in which a parent
cell divides to form two
identical cells.
Meiosis is a type of cell
division that produces four
daughter cells. The
daughter cells contain half
number of chromosomes
than that of the parent
cell.

49

Mitosis (equatorial division)

Meiosis (reduction division)

This division occurs in somatic cells (body cells)

This division occurs in cells of reproductive organs

Two daughter cells are produced with diploid

Four daughter cells are produced with haploid

chromosomes as identical to the parent.

(half number) chromosomes.

There is no variation in alleles on the

Many variations are formed in the alleles on the

chromosomes of daughter cells.

chromosomes of daughter cells.

The newly formed cells cause the growth of

The newly formed cells are called as sex cells

organism and repair worn out tissues.

(gametes) and fertilize to form zygote in sexual

Organisms reproduce by asexual methods also

reproduction.

divide by mitosis.
Example: the zygote after fertilization divide by Example: in the anthers and ovary of the plant
mitosis to grow into embryo and the young

flowers this division occurs to form gametes.

babies and plants divide by mitosis to grow

In animals this division occurs in testes and ovary

into adult organisms.

(reproductive organs).

b) know what is meant by haploid and diploid conditions of chromosomes.

Diploid: all living cells have two sets of
chromosomes acquired from both parents. The
complete set of paired chromosomes in the
nucleus is called diploid number. Represented by
2n or 2x.
Haploid: during meiosis cell division the
chromosomes number is halved and one half of
the parent cell chromosomes are distributed in
the daughter cells. The new cells have only half
the number chromosomes of parent. This
condition is called haploid and shown as n or x.
(c) Define asexual reproduction as the process
resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent and describe
one named, commercially important application
of asexual reproduction in plants;
Unicellular organisms, bacteria, fungi and some
plants and some invertebrate animals reproduce
by asexual methods.
50

A plant reproducing by vegetative parts (from roots, stems, leaves and branches) is termed as vegetative
propagation. If new plants are allowed to produce from the tissues it is called as tissue culture.
Advantages of vegetative (asexual) propagation: *new offspring can be produced by one parent only.
* The offspring will exactly look like parents and retain the qualities of parents. This is important for
commercial propagation to produce good quality of individuals. * Large number of individuals can be
produced in less time as the sowing of seeds, germination are not involved. * Now a days new
technology is able to produce plants from the tissues (small group of cells) by tissue culture. Farmers
and gardeners can produce more plants and get commercial benefit. (Refer the diagrams to explain using
named examples)

(d) Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid
zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring;
During sexual reproduction two parents are involved. The gametes produced by the sex organs of male
and female individuals are haploid. They fertilize (fuse) to form a diploid cell called zygote. This zygote
develops into new organism. During meiosis alleles (genes) segregate in gametes, and while fertilizing
also chromosomes coming from both parents will give new combination of alleles. This results in
variation in the offspring. The new characters found in young ones enable them to adapt better to their
environment and survive. They can colonize in new habitats successfully.
(e) Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one,
locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower, and examine the pollen grains under
a light microscope;
(f) State the functions of the sepals,
petals, anthers and carpels;
Sepals- protect inner structures
Petals cover the stamens and carpel.
Large colorful petals attract insects
and pollinate.
Stamens- consist of anthers that
produce male gametes pollen grains.
Carpel- consists of ovary that
produces ovules (female gametes)
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(g) Use a hands lens to identify and describe the anthers and stigmas of one, locally available, named,
wind pollinated flower, and examine the pollen grains under a light microscope; dissect the anthers of a
flower and collect the pollen from the
anthers using a paint brush. Slowly drop the
pollen on a glass slide and put few drops of
sugar solution. Place a cover slip using a
mounting needle and remove air bubbles.
Observe the slide under the microscope.
h) outline the process of pollination and
distinguish between self-pollination and
cross-pollination; pollination is the transfer
of the pollen grains from anthers to the
stigmas. If pollen from anthers is transferred
to the stigmas of the same flower it is selfpollination. Self-pollination is possible if
the flower is bisexual (having both stamens and carpels) or if the heights of stamens and carpel are
different and anthers and ovary produce their gametes at different times. If pollen from anthers of one
flower is transferred to the stigmas of another flower of the same species it is cross pollination. This
requires an agent like wind or insects to carry the pollen from flower to flower. Cross pollination results
in more variations than self-pollination.
(i) Compare, using fresh specimens, an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower;

Sepals usually green and in outer whorl

Sepals are fused with petals and are green

Petals large, colorful, and attract insects.

Petals fuse with sepals and green in colour.

Stamens rigid, inside the flower

Pollen large, rough outer coat to stick to the

insect bodies.
Carpel rigid and inside the flower.

Stamens long and hanging out of the flower so that

pollen can be carried by wind.
Anther large and produce more pollen to overcome
wastage.
Pollen is smooth, small and sometimes may have air
bladders to be blown by wind.
Carpels open and seen out of sepals and petals.

Stigma flat so that insect brush the pollen on it

Stigmas are feathery or branched to catch pollen.

Nectarines- sometimes present for insect to feed

No nectarines.

Scent- some flowers spread sweet smell to

attract insects
Flower size large and colorful

No smell.

Anthers- small and produce less pollen.

Very small and usually occurs as inflorescence.

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(j) Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilization
(production of endosperm and details of development are
not required);
The pollen lands on the stigma germinate to give a
pollen tube.
The pollen tube passes through the stigma and
reaches to the ovary.
The pollen tube carries the male nuclei to the ovule
The pollen tube end breaks and releases the male
nuclei into the ovule through micro pile.
The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus of
ovule and form zygote.
The fertilized ovum transform into a seed.
The ovary swells and become fruit.
In most flowers the other parts of the flower wither
and fall off.
(k) Investigate and describe the structure of a nonendospermic seed in terms of the embryo (radicle, plumule
and cotyledons) and testa, protected by the pericarp (fruit
wall); the ovule wall becomes testa ( seed coat). The zygote develops to form and embryo consists of
radicle (grows into root), a plumule (shoot) and two cotyledons (food
resource for growing embryo).
(l) Describe the uses of enzymes in the germination of seeds; the seeds
when they are dispersed and get all favorable conditions. The conditions
needed for germination are oxygen, optimum temperature and water.

During the germination of

seed, the seed absorbs water
swells. Its mass increases.
Water stimulates the enzymes
to digest stored food starch,
proteins and fats into simple
soluble form and transport the
digested foods to radicle and
plumule. Oxygen is used for
respiration to provide energy
for the growth. Optimum temperature is needed to activate the enzymes to work best. The mass of
cotyledons decreases during the germination as the stored food is used up. When the first leaves emerge
the mass of seedling (baby plant) increases as the first leaves start to photosynthesize. The testa falls of
when the radicle (first emerges) and plumule (next emerges).

53

(l) State that seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by animals provides a means of colonizing new areas;
Seeds that fall under the parent plant crowd and compete for water and other factors. After germination
the seedling may not grow well because of the shade of parent plant. So they need to be dispersed away
from parent plant to avoid competition and to get all favorable conditions.

Wind dispersal
Light weight
Have
parachute like
hairs and wings
Maple fruits
have wing like
structures,
dandelion and
milk weed
have tuft of
hairs act like
parachutes to
fly in air.

Animal
dispersal
Have spikes so
that can stick to
the bodies and
hairs of animals
Some may be
colorful and
fleshy, juicy to
attract animals
feed. They eat
and discard the
seeds in
egestion as the
testa is hard to
digest.

Water dispersal

Self-dispersal

By humans

Seeds are light

weight and
contain fibrous
pericarp so that
can float in water
and disperse.

Fruits get dry and

burst open with
tension. The seeds
are forced out of
the fruit and are
carried by wind.
Seeds are light
weight.

Fruits
dispersed by
humans are
edible
(eatable),
fleshy and
juicy. They
eat the fruits
and through
or sow the
seeds.

54

Human Reproduction
1. Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system and give the functions of the testes, scrotum,
sperm ducts, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
Testes- produces sperm my meiosis and secrete
testosterone (male hormone)
Scrotum- loose skin covers the testis and keeps
the testis hang out. This lower the temperature in
testes by 20C, and suitable to store sperm cells.
Epididymis- highly coiled tube that connects
testes with sperm duct. Sperm is temporarily
stored here.
Sperm duct ( vas deferens) carry sperm from
testis to urethra.
Seminal vesicle, prostate gland secretes fluid
consists of carbohydrate and alkaline chemicals.
The sperm missed with seminal fluid is called semen when ejaculated on vagina maintain pH suitable
for the sperm to survive.
Penis- consists of urethra and contractile muscles. Functions in ejaculating semen and transport the
semen from sperm duct to vagina.
2. Identify on diagrams of the female reproductive system and give the functions of the ovaries,
oviducts uterus, cervix and vagina.
Ovaries- produce female gamete egg or ovum by meiosis.
Secretes hormones oestrogen and progesterone. These
hormones prepare the uterus thick and ready for the
development of foetus.
Oviduct (fallopian tube) - takes the egg released from
ovary and fertilize with sperm cell and also transports the
fertilized egg into the uterus.
Uterus- site of implantation and development of baby.
Uterus lining gets thicker during pregnancy and placenta
forms for supplying the nutrients to the baby and remove
waste materials.
Cervix and vagina- receive semen during ejaculation and passage for menstrual flow and baby birth.
55

3. Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, number and mobility.

Sperm cell

Ovum (egg)

Size- smaller than ovum (5 micormeters ) , small size Larger than sperm.(100 to 200
easy to move
micrometers) Contain more cytoplasm
And reach oviduct from vagina through uterus.
to provide nutrients for the
development of egg after the
fertilization
Number- larger in number, because there will be a
Produced in one at a time or few, not
lot of wastage during ejaculation and transport to
transported out of the system.
oviduct. Producing in larger number increases the
Fertilization occurs in female
chance survival and fertilization
reproductive system.
Mobility- has a tail to move so that can swim in
Cannot move by its own. But the moves
semen from vagina to oviduct.
by peristalsis of oviduct muscles to
reach the uterus.
4. Describe fertilization and early development of the zygote simply in terms of the formation of ball of
cells that becomes implanted in the wall of uterus.
The sperm head consists of acrosome which secretes enzymes to digest the protein coat of egg (zona
pellucida) and enters into the ovum deliver the haploid nucleus. Fusion of male and female nucleus
results in the formation diploid cell called zygote. The zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a ball
of cells. The ball of cells moves down the oviduct to the uterus and gets fixed to the uterus wall
(implantation).
5. Describe the menstrual cycle, with reference to alternation of menstruation and ovulation, the natural variation
in its length and the fertile period and infertile phases of cycle.

56

6. Explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle (including FSH, LH, progesterone and
oestrogen).
Menstrual cycle is the preparation of uterus for possible
pregnancy. It is controlled by hormones and completes every
28 days in normal healthy females. The period may vary
person to person in some cases. It occurs in four phases, four
weeks.
(i)
Menstruation or M phase- Week 1, lasts from 1 to 5
days. During this phase unfertilized egg with uterus inner
wall (endometrium) breaks and discharges with a flow of
blood out. During this phase no fertilization occur because no
egg in the oviduct. Progesterone secretion is stopped.
(ii)
follicle or f phase- week 2, (6 to 12days) During this
stage pituitary gland secretes Follicle stimulating hormone to
stimulate the ovary to produce a hormone called oestrogen
and development of egg by meiosis. Oestrogen secretion
inhibits the FSH secretion and initiates the thickening of uterus wall. This hormone stimulates the production of
other hormone from pituitary called Leutinizing hormone (LH).
(iii)
Ovulation phase- LH production stimulates the ovary release egg from the follicle. The release of egg
from ovarian follicle is called ovulation. This occurs 13 to 15 days, but most likely to be on 14th day.
(iv) corpus luteum or L phase. (16 to 28 days)The follicle in ovary starts to produce progesterone. This
hormone inhibits LH, so that another egg is not released. Progesterone also initiates the thickening uterine lining
(endometrium) so that fertilized can be implanted in the uterus wall. If the egg is fertilized the implantation of
embryo occurs between 16 to 21 days. If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and
progesterone secretion stops and the menstruation begins.

7.
State the function of amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid. The amnion is a membrane building amniotic
fluid , sac that surrounds and protect an embryo .it is also the nourishing liquid. Amniotic fluid serves to
cushion the unborn baby from jolts and bumps and unequal pressures. it provides a stable temperature
and assists in maintaining a consistent body temperature for the unborn child. The fluid allows the baby
to move freely and exercise growing muscles to develop a symmetrical musculoskeletal system.

57

8. Describe the function of placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and
excretory products.

The placenta is a unique organ formed

from the tissue of foetus and mothers
uterine tissue. The uterus that hold the baby and the placenta is located inside the uterus attached to the
uterine wall. The umbilical cord and the blood vessels in it are connected to the placenta. The main
function of the placenta is to provide a source of nutrients for the baby and provide blood supply to the
baby. Essentially, it keeps the baby alive.

The placenta increases the surface area for the exchange of substances between foetus and
mothers blood.
The uterine artery brings blood to the placenta. the nutrients like glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, hormones, antibodies and oxygen diffuse into the capillaries of the foetus and are carried
to the foetus through umbilical vein.
The waste materials such as urea and carbon dioxide formed during metabolic activities in the
foetus are carried to placenta through umbilical artery. The waste substances from placenta then
diffuse into the uterine vein.
So the placenta acts as a respiratory organ, excretory organ, and immune system of the foetus.
Placenta acts as a barrier between foetus and mother, and prevents direct contact of the mothers
artery with the foetus blood vessel, so that the high pressure in mothers artery does not damage
the foetus. It also prevents mixing of mothers blood and foetus blood as both of them may have
different blood groups. Mixing of different blood groups may result in coagulation and collapse
the foetus.
The umbilical cord consists of umbilical vein and umbilical artery and connects the foetus with
placenta. Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from placenta to foetus and the umbilical
artery carries deoxygenated blood and urea from foetus to placenta.

58

9. Describe the special dietary needs of pregnant women:

Eating healthily during pregnancy will help the baby to develop and grow, and will keep the
pregnant woman fit and well.
To meet the increased energy demands daily intake of carbohydrate should be increased.
For the healthy growth of baby in the uterus mother has to take good protein sources.
For efficient supply of oxygen to the baby through blood diet should contain more iron.
Food intake of pregnant woman should contain enough fruits and vegetable to provide vitamins
and minerals for the healthy growth of baby.
10. Describe the advantages of breast milk compared with bottle milk;
Breast feeding provides all necessary nutrients to the baby in right proportions.
The milk is at right temperature and also consists of antibodies to provide immunity.
Its economical as parents need not buy milk.
Breast milk is least contaminated and free of pathogens.
Develops emotional attachment between baby and mother.
Bottle milk is advantageous in case mother lacks breast milk, in mothers absence and it is
easy to measure the quantity of feed. But not properly sterilized bottles, milk and different
sources of milk can easily contaminate and may cause infections.
11. Describe the following methods of birth control: natural, chemical (spermicides), mechanical,
hormonal and surgical.
Method
Natural or
Rhythm
Chemical
(spermicides)

How it works
Avoiding intercourse during fertile period
prevents fertilization and conception
Spermicide chemicals applied on vaginal
passage kill the sperm when ejaculated and
prevent fertilization

Mechanical
(male and
female
condoms)
Intra uterine
devices
Hormonal (
pills contain
ovarian
hormones)
Surgical

Creates a barrier for the semen to reach uterus

and prevents fertilization. Protect from
sexually transmitted diseases.
Small copper device placed in uterus prevents
the fertilization and implantation
Prevents the development of egg in follicles
and ovulation and thus fertilization when
taken regularly a pill a day after menstruation.
Vasectomy in males, by cutting the sperm
duct and tying the ends prevents sperm
transfer to the female. Tubectomy in females,
oviducts are cut and ends are tied- prevents
fertilization.

reliability
Less reliable due to varying
periods of menstrual cycle.
Less reliable in deeper
ejaculation few sperm might
survive and reach oviduct to
fertilize
Less reliable due to possible
damage to the condoms
during storage temperature,
type of material and quality.
Most reliable but may have
some side effects.
Less reliable as missing to
take pill by chance results in
ovulation and fertilization
Highly reliable but
irreversible.

59

12. Explain that syphilis is caused by a bacterium that is transmitted during sexual intercourse;;
13. Describe the symptoms, signs, effects and treatment of syphilis;
14. Discuss the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and methods by which it may be
controlled
Sexually transmitted
Disease
Syphilis-

Causative
organism
Trepanoma
palladium
(bacteria)

AIDS(Acquired
Immunodeficiency
Syndrome)
Spread by
*Having sex with HIV
infected person
*sharing needles of
infected person
*blood transfusion from
infected to healthy
*infected to mother to
foetus.
*sharing razor blades in
barber shop.

HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency
virus

Symptoms

Cure and prevention

Sores on genitals during primary

stage and infection might spread
to nervous system, digestive and
skeletal system in secondary
stage
Fever, headaches, and tiredness
initially , later weight loss and
suffer from other infections due
to the reduced immune
responses

Treated by antibiotics,
Prevented by not having sex
with infected person and
practice safe sex.
No cure, but other
opportunistic infections can be
treated with antibiotics.
Prevention:
* prevent having sex with
infected person or use
condoms.
* use sterilized needles and
new blades.
* screening of blood before
transfusion.
* infected mothers feed the
babies with bottle feed.

17. Inheritance
Inheritance in genetics helps us to study how offspring get the characteristics from their parents.
Chromosomes consist of genes pass from parents to off spring (young ones born) during reproduction.
(a) State that a chromosome includes a long molecule of DNA;
(b) State that DNA is divided up into
sections called genes;
The chromosomes are thread like
structures made of chemical molecules
called DNA (deoxy ribo nucleic acid). At
the time of cell division the chromosome
become short and have two chromatids
joined at a point called centromere. The
DNA consists of genes which are
responsible for inheritance.

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(c) Explain that genes may be copied and passed on to the next generation; During the cell division the
chromosomes are distributed into the daughter cells. The genes are also copied and distributed. The
genes in all body cells are diploid. The genes in gametes are haploid. There are about 2,500 genes in
human chromosomes and are responsible for the inheritance of various characteristic features.
(e) define a gene as a unit of inheritance and distinguish clearly between the terms gene and allele;
(f) describe complete dominance using the terms dominant, recessive, phenotype and genotype;
Gene- a segment of DNA that determines one characteristic feature. One gene codes for one protein.
Example: a gene inheriting height in the garden pea plant.
Allele- alleles are the alternate form of a gene. They usually occur in pairs in diploid. Example- the gene
for height occurs in two forms tall and dwarf.
Homozygous: the condition of alleles in diploid with same type of alleles. Example: alleles for tall (TT
each letter represent one allele, here tallness).
Heterozygous: the condition of alleles in a cell with two different alleles in diploid. Example (Tt each
letter represent two alleles one for tall and one for dwarf)
Phenotype: The physical appearance and feature expressed in an organism is its phenotype. Example:
the plant appeared to be tall.
Genotype: the composition of alleles in an organism is its genotype. Example: the plant may have allele
for tall and dwarf inherited from both parents.
Dominant allele: the allele that can express itself to give a phenotype in heterozygous condition also.
Example (Tt) a plant having an allele for tall and an allele for dwarf appears to be tall. The alleles are
represented by writing the first letter of the feature T for tall. Dominant alleles are represented by capital
letters (T).
Recessive allele: an allele that can express itself to give a phenotype only in homozygous condition.
Example: (tt) the plant having two alleles for dwarf (short) condition can be dwarf. The recessive alleles
are represented by simple case letters.
(d) Describe the difference between continuous and discontinuous variations and give examples of each
Continuous variations result in many
intermediate phenotypes. (Medium
height, tall, short). Examples: skin
colour, intelligence and body weight.
Discontinuous variations: occurs in
two contrasting characters, without
intermediate phenotypes. Example:
blood group, gender and tongue rolling.
(Refer the diagram to tabulate the
differences.)
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(i) predict the results of simple crosses with expected ratios of 3:1 and 1:1, using the terms homozygous,
heterozygous, F1 generation and F2 generation;
(j) Explain why observed ratios often differ from expected ratios, especially when there are small
numbers of progeny;
To understand and observe the mono hybrid inheritance ( the inheritance of one characteristic feature an
Austrian Monk John Gregor Mendel allow the garden pea plants with contrasting characters to breed by
transferring the pollen from the anthers of purple coloured flowered plant to the stigmas of white
flowered plants. Covered the flowers to prevent self- pollination. The flowers pollinated and produced
seeds after fertilization. He germinated the seeds and observed the plants grown form the seeds. These
plants are termed as F1 generation and all of them bear purple coloured flowers. By this he described

that purple colour allele is dominant over white. He allowed the heterozygous (hybrid) purple plants to
self-pollinate and observed the next generation plants. 75% of them bear purple flowers and 25% of
them were with white flowers. (Refer genetic diagram). These investigations help us predict the
expected ratios of the results of different genetic crosses. * The expected ratios sometimes differ from
the obtained ratios. This is because all seeds may not germinate, some germinated but die. The number
of plants germinated may be small in number. For quick reference checker board or puunet square can
be used instead of detailed genetic diagrams.
Test cross or back cross: we cannot know the
genotypes of dominant phenotypes because the
recessive allele is not expressed. Example the plant
appears with purple flowers may have a genotype
(PP) or (Pp). To know the genotype the organisms
with unknown genotype can be crossed with a
homozygous organism. The offspring if express two
the phenotype of both parents we can conclude the
dominant phenotype is heterozygous.
(k) Explain co-dominance by reference to the
inheritance of the ABO blood group phenotypes (A,
B, AB, O, gene alleles IA IB and IO); in a
contrasting pair of alleles if neither allele is
dominant the offspring will have new phenotype (
different from both parents) such alleles are co-dominant alleles and the inheritance is co-dominant
inheritance. Example: A group father and B group mother giving birth to AB group children.
Inheritance of O group is recessive because there should be two alleles Io Io for an individual to pocess O
group.
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o If one parent is having AB group their children cannot have O group as each parent should have
at least one allele for O to express O group.
(l) Describe the determination of sex in humans (XX and XY chromosomes); human body cells have 46
chromosomes means 23 pairs. First 22 pairs (44) are called as autosomes and 23rd pair is called sex
chromosomes. The autosomal chromosomes are homologous (have same shape and size. The sex
chromosomes in females are homologous (same) and are called XX chromosomes. In male sex
chromosomes contain one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. This pair is heterozygous means Y
chromosome is smaller than X.

(m) Describe mutation as a change in the structure of a gene (e.g. sickle cell anemia) or in the
chromosome number (e.g. 47 in Downs syndrome instead of 46); mutations are termed as change in the
composition of DNA.
If small part of the DNA (gene) is changed it is called gene mutation. Due to gene mutations the
protein coded by the gene does not function normal and result in a disease. Example: sickle cell
anemia. The red blood cells shape distorted to sickle and they cannot carry enough oxygen.
If there is a change in chromosome number such changes are called as chromosomal mutations.
Example: Downs syndrome. The person with Downs syndrome consists of 47 chromosomes as
one extra chromosome is added to the 21st pair. This occurs when an abnormal ovum with 24
chromosomes fertilizes with a normal sperm cell forming a zygote with 47 chromosomes, and
develop into Downs syndrome baby.
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(n) Name radiation and chemicals as factors that may increase the rate of mutation; The factors that
cause mutations are called mutagens. Example: UV radiation, radioactivity and chemicals such as
mustard gas are some mutagens.
(o) Describe variation and state that competition leads to differential survival of organisms, and
reproduction on by those organisms best fitted to the environment; the changes in the phenotypes of the
offspring during sexual reproduction are termed as variations. Individuals of a species have variations in
their phenotypes due to mutations and allele recombination during sexual reproduction. Mutations are
not always harmful to the species but results in best variations that make the organisms to adapt to new
environment. The organisms with best variations can be successful in the competition and survive harsh
environmental conditions.
(p) Assess the importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism for evolution; the survival of
organisms in the changing environment is called natural selection. That means nature has selected the
phenotypes which are best to survive. The organisms with phenotypes that cannot adapt better die.
Example: the peppered moth in England had mutation in their
wings. The normal moth had light brown coloured wings by which
the moth can camouflage in the tree trunks which are covered by
lichens. A mutation in the allele resulted black spots on their
wings. These moths were unable to camouflage and became prey
for birds. When this area was industrialized the tree trunks were
coated with black smoky soot. Now the black moths camouflaged
well on the polluted area and survived. Their population increased.
(q) Describe the role of artificial selection in the production of
economically important plants and animals;
Understanding the natural selection humans have applied this to select the best organisms to breed and
cultivate to obtain best plant and animal products. This is called as artificial selection.

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(t) Explain that genes may be transferred between cells (reference should be made to transfer between
organisms of the same or different species); (u) Explain that the gene that controls the production of
human insulin can be inserted into bacterial DNA; (v) Understand that such genetically engineered
bacteria can be used to produce human insulin on a commercial scale;
Genetic engineering: cutting the gene from the DNA of one species and inserting it in The DNA of
other organism means the technique of changing the genotype of an organism. The genes are cut my
molecular scissors, the enzymes called restriction endonucleases. The cut fragments of DNA are joined
by enzyme ligases.

(w) Discuss potential advantages and dangers of genetic engineering.

Advantages: genetically modified organisms are used to manufacture hormones and extra cellular
enzymes which can be used as drugs. The genetic engineering also helps us to produce organisms which
produce good quality and high yield of plant and animal products.
Dangers of genetic engineering: The bacterial plasmids and vectors used to transplant the gene into
the organism may turn out to be harmful to it as unpredictable change in gene may infect or cause
cancers. The genetically modified organisms may also affect the balance in the populations as it disturbs
the food chains.
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