GIA Handbook
GIA Handbook
Gem Identification
Magnification
Table of Contents
Subject
Page
Loupes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Loupe Lighting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gemological Microscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Focusing the Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Microscope Lighting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Darkfield Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Brightfield Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Reflected Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Diffused Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Polarized Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Examining a Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Identifying Clarity Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Surface Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Inclusions in Natural Gems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Inclusions in Synthetics and Imitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Identifying Assembled Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Facing page: Magnification makes this included crystal visible. Its presence proves that the host sapphire is a natural gem.
Mike Havstad/GIA
MAGNIFICATION
I know its a rubyI get the right RI readings, and the dichroscope
confirms its doubly refractive, said Mike. But when I look at it under
the microscope, I cant tell whether its natural or synthetic.
I know. Its getting tougher to separate treated natural rubies from synthetic ones. But let me take a look, said Joe. Theres usually something
some mineral crystals, clouds, or needlesthat proves its a natural gem.
Joe examined the ruby carefully under the microscope. I can see a
couple of melted mineral crystals close to the girdle, and that whitish
cloud is probably the remains of some growth zoning.
Alan Jobbins
But what about that area under the tabledoesnt that look like flux
to you? asked Mike.
It looks more like the remnants of heat treatment, replied Joe.
When youve seen as many treated natural rubies as I have, youll recognize them quickly. Looking at a lot of them is the best way to become
familiar with their characteristics.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Duncan Pay
John Koivula/GIA
These inclusions look similar, but one is a flux inclusion in a synthetic ruby (above)
and the other is a borax inclusion in the partially healed fracture of a heat-treated
natural ruby (left).
Dietmar Schwarz
As gem crystals grow, they often trap mineral inclusions from their environment. The
included minerals help identify a gem as natural. Magnification at 50X reveals stalklike green amphibole crystals in this natural emerald.
InclusionA characteristic
enclosed within a gemstone
or reaching its surface from
the interior.
BlemishCharacteristic or irregularity confined to the surface of a
polished gemstone.
Like Mikes ruby, many gems carry signs of their nature in the form of
characteristics called inclusions, which are enclosed within a gem or reach
its surface from the interior. Some types of inclusionslike mineral
crystalsare remnants of the rocks that natural gems grow in. Others
like curved color banding and platinum plateletsare found in synthetic
gems and hint at the processes used by manufacturers to grow them.
Blemishes can help with identification, too. Blemishes are characteristics like scratches and abrasions on a polished gems surface. And they
can often indicate a gems hardness. For example, a fairly soft gem like
MAGNIFICATION
Alan Jobbins
Youll usually see abraded facet junctions on gems that dont rate very high on the
Mohs hardness scale. This demantoid garnet shows abrasions on its crown and
pavilion facet junctions, along with a prominent horsetail inclusion.
This pendant (right) contains diamonds, natural rubies, and synthetic rubies.
Magnification reveals gas bubbles in the stone at bottom right (above), indicating
its a synthetic ruby.
demantoid garnet (Mohs 6.5) often has abraded facet edges, while a
hard gem like corundum (Mohs 9) usually doesnt.
Magnification can help you determine if a gem is treated or if it contains
internal fractures, vulnerable cleavages, or other structural defects. Its also
an important tool for separating natural gems from synthetics. This is a
vital separation because theres such a large value difference between many
synthetic gems and their natural counterparts of equivalent quality.
For example, its easy to separate emerald from other green gems like
chrome tourmaline, chrome diopside, green sapphire, and peridot using
3
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Terri Weimer/GIA
the refractometer because each gem has a very different refractive index
(RI). Its much more challenging to tell if an emerald is natural or synthetic. Thats because the physical and optical properties of many natural
and synthetic stonesincluding emeraldoverlap.
Magnification can be a very powerful tool, and the more you practice
using it, the more skilled youll become at recognizing the features that
help you make a final determination. But its also important to keep up
with the latest industry information by reading gemological business and
scientific journals.
Gemologists use two types of magnifiers: loupes and microscopes.
Loupes are small, easy-to-carry magnifiers that come in a variety of
forms. Microscopes are much more sophisticated and capable of far
greater magnification, but theyre much less portable.
MAGNIFICATION
The hand loupes lens cover serves as a handle when you examine a stone. The
cover protects the lens when the loupe isnt in use.
LOUPES
Whats the most popular loupe for gem identification?
How do you light a gem to examine its surface?
How do you light a gem to examine its interior?
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Terri Weimer/GIA
These are three of the 10X loupes available from GIA Gem Instruments. Each one
has its advantages. The smaller hand loupe is compact, while the larger one gives a
greater field of view. The darkfield loupe at the top provides darkfield illumination,
which makes it easier to identify many inclusions.
Spherical aberrationBlurring
around the edges that occurs
when a lens cant get an entire
image in focus at the same time.
Chromatic aberrationColor distortion caused by the inability of a
lens to bring the various colored
wavelengths of light into focus at
the same distance.
Fully corrected triplet loupeA
loupe that contains a three-part
lens that magnifies and corrects
for spherical and chromatic aberration.
MAGNIFICATION
Terri Weimer/GIA
Peter Johnston/GIA
A fully corrected triplet loupe uses a three-part lens to correct both spherical and
chromatic aberration.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
DEPTH OF FIELD
VIEWER
working distance
focal distance
depth
of field
LOW MAGNIFICATION
HIGH MAGNIFICATION
Peter Johnston/GIA
When you use magnification to examine a gem, you have to consider the working
distance from the lens to the gem, the focal distance from the lens to the characteristic youre examining, and depth of field, which is the area in front of and behind
the object youre examining. When you switch to higher magnification, you shorten
the working distance, focal distance, and depth of field.
This makes loupes with magnifications higher than 10X more difficult
to use effectively. The higher the loupes magnification, the closer you
have to get to the gem, and the harder it is to focus on an individual
feature within the stone.
The shortened working distance at higher powers also leaves less
room for lighting and makes it more difficult to light a stone effectively. Another disadvantage is that it creates a shallower depth of
field. Depth of field is the distance thats sharp and clear in front of
and behind the pointsuch as a small inclusionthat youre focusing
on. With higher-power loupes, the depth of field is very small. To keep
an object in focus, you need to keep both the loupe and the stone as
still as possible.
Another consequence of higher magnification is that the area of the
gem that you can examinethe field of viewbecomes smaller.
Despite these limitations, the loupe can be an amazingly revealing
instrument.
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MAGNIFICATION
Eric Welch/GIA
Darkfield lighting lets you examine the interior of a transparent stone. You can create
it by taping a sheet of black paper to the back edge of a lampshade.
There are two basic types of lighting you can use to examine transparent
gem materials with a loupe. One lets you examine the gems surface
while the other lets you see internal inclusions more clearly.
Reflected lightingIllumination of
a gems surface by reflecting light
from it.
Darkfield illuminationLighting of
a gemstone from the side against
a black, non-reflective backround.
You can use almost any strong light source, such as a desk lamp, a
high-intensity lamp, or a fiber-optic light source like a FiberLite. Hold
the stone face-up with tweezers and position the light source and the
stone so the light reflects off the stones surface. Tilt the gem until each
facet in turn shows a bright, shiny, reflective surface. Examine the stone
face-up first and then keep turning the stone until youve examined it
from every side.
The second techniquedarkfield illuminationlets you see into a
gems interior. With this form of illumination, inclusions within the gem
stand out strongly against a dark background.
9
GEM IDENTIFICATION
6
You can use a desktop lamp and black paper to create darkfield illumination for a standard 10X loupe. Follow these steps:
1. Use tape strips to hang a sheet of black, non-reflective paper from the
back edge of the lampshade.
2. Turn the room lights off. Turn the lamp on, and direct the light
straight down.
3. Hold the stone face-up with tweezers. Position the stone so the girdle
plane lines up approximately with the front edge of the lampshade.
4. Examine the stones interior against the black background, adjusting
the stones position to find the best view. Keep the stone in the light
and the loupe out of the light. This directs light in from the sides of
the stone without creating too many distracting reflections off the
crown.
If youre trying to distinguish diffusion treatment, a third type of
lightingdiffused lightingcan be helpful. You can create diffused
lighting by placing a sheet of translucent white material, such as a facial
tissue, between the light source and the stone.
Eric Welch/GIA
Using a loupe, you can perform almost any basic magnification test.
But for more powerful magnification needs, the gemological microscope
is the instrument of choice.
GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPES
Why is a binocular microscope the best choice for gem
identification?
Whats the best way to focus a gem microscope?
What are the various types of lighting needed for
examining gems?
10
MAGNIFICATION
GEMOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE
pod
zoom adjustment
oculars
objectives
overhead light
focus adjustment
stage
light well
base
overhead light switch
rheostat for
light well
A binocular microscopelike this one from GIA Gem Instrumentsis a superior tool
for any gemological task that requires magnification.
Directly below the pod, theres a working platform called the stage,
where you place the gem for examination. Beneath that, theres housing
for a light source called the light well. Finally, theres the base, which
supports the microscope and contains the electrical controls.
The pod contains a complex system of lenses and prisms. The eyepiece lenses are called the oculars, and the lenses nearest the stone are
the objectives. Most microscopes have eyepieces that you can adjust for
individual comfort. Some are equipped with plastic or rubber eyecups
that help eliminate extraneous light, keep your eyes at the correct distance
from the oculars, and make the microscope more comfortable to use.
The eyecups are removable, and some gemologists, especially those
who wear glasses, prefer to work without them.
11
GEM IDENTIFICATION
6
You can determine the power of a microscopes magnification by
multiplying the power of the oculars by the power of the objectives.
For example, 10X oculars and 2X objectives give 20X magnification.
The typical range is 10X to 30X or 45X, but some models go up to
70X or more.
With some gem microscopes, you change magnification powers by
switching oculars. With others, you turn the objectives to one of several
settings (1X, 2X, or 3X, for example). But the most versatile models let
you zoom smoothly from one power to another. The zoom adjustment is
usually on the side or top of the pod. It can be a single knob or a pair of
knobs, with one on either side of the pod. A calibrated dial displays the
magnification of the objectives.
Terri Weimer/GIA
Many models let you attach a doubler, which is a 2X lens that screws
on under the objectives, doubling the power. You can accomplish most
gem identification with 10X to 45X magnification. Very few identifications require more than 90X.
While higher magnification decreases the depth and width of field in
a microscope, its depth and width of field are much larger than a loupes
to begin with, so there are fewer practical problems. As with a loupe,
higher magnification makes it more difficult to light the stone properly,
but the lighting systems built into many gemological microscopes provide
effective illumination at higher powers.
The microscopes stage has an opening that allows light to pass
through from the light well below. Most gem microscopes have an iris
diaphragm at the top of the stage that you can open or close to control
the amount of light that comes up from the light well.
The stage might also have a number of sockets where you can attach
a stoneholder, which has spring-loaded jaws designed to hold a gem.
Because it attaches to the stage, it holds the gem firmly in place and leaves
both hands free to operate the microscope or to record what you see. If
you use tweezers rather than a stoneholder, rest them against the edge of
the light well on the microscopes stage to hold your gemstone steady.
Theres often an overhead fluorescent light sourcea removable
source of daylight-equivalent lightmounted at the front of the stage.
The light well consists of a frosted glass or plastic cylinder inside a
reflective metal bowl. The microscopes light source is positioned at the
base of the bowl, immediately below the cylinder. Above that, at the base
of the cylinder, theres a bafflea small metal flap that can be opened
or closed. When its open, light comes directly through the opening to
light the stone from below. When its closed, the light is forced to come
up from the sides of the light well rather than through the opening. As
youll see, this is essential for darkfield illumination.
The microscopes base contains most of its electronics. On the back
of the base is a small knob called a rheostat that turns the internal light
bulb on or off and also controls the lights intensity.
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MAGNIFICATION
To set up a microscopes focus, begin by turning the well light on (top left). Next, make sure the baffle is closed and the iris
diaphragm has only a small opening (bottom left). Then, using 10X magnification and both eyes, turn the focus-control knob to
focus on the edges of the small opening in the iris diaphragm (right).
Its important to focus your microscope before you begin each work
session. You should also refocus it periodically during long work sessions.
Follow these steps:
1. Turn the well light on. Make sure the baffle is closed and the iris
diaphragm is shut down to a small opening. At 10X magnification and
using both eyes, focus on the edges of the iris diaphragms opening,
which is near the center of the field of view. Most gem microscopes
have one ocular (usually the left) that you can focus without the
focus-control knob. Remove that ocular and look through the right
ocular, keeping both eyes open.
13
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Next, replace the left ocular and remove the right ocular. With
both eyes open, look through the left ocular. Focus on the
edges of the iris diaphragm opening by turning the ring at the
bottom of the left ocular.
14
MAGNIFICATION
Continue by replacing the right ocular and adjusting the distance between the oculars to suit your eyes.
4. Replace the right ocular. Adjust the distance between the oculars for
your comfort. Confirm the focus by looking at the opening in the iris
diaphragm through both oculars at the same time. You should see a
single image, and it should look sharp and three dimensional. If it
doesnt, repeat the focusing process.
15
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Eric Welch/GIA
A GIA Gem Instruments FiberLite, like other fiber-optic sources of condensed light,
is especially good for horizontal, oblique, and pinpoint lighting. Fiber-optic light is
valuable for identifying treatments and for separating synthetic from natural gems.
A microscope offers many more lighting options than a loupe, and different types of lighting work best for seeing different gem features. The
most useful techniques are darkfield, brightfield, diffused, reflected, and
polarized lighting.
An overhead light source makes it easier to see surface characteristics.
Some microscopes come with a small fluorescent light or let you attach
one to the stage for this purpose. You can also use a desk lamp as you
would with a loupe. A fiber-optic system like the FiberLite is a versatile
supplementary light source thats vital for some separation processes.
Varying the lighting can have a dramatic effect on the visibility and
appearance of characteristics, and what you can determine by examining
them. Surface characteristics visible in reflected light are invisible in
darkfield light. And internal characteristics visible in darkfield light are
invisible in reflected light.
16
MAGNIFICATION
DARKFIELD ILLUMINATION
stoneholder
microscope stage
baffle closed
to create dark
background
for stone
light source
Peter Johnston/GIA
Most gemological microscopes are designed with a baffle to provide the option of
darkfield lighting.
DARKFIELD ILLUMINATION
ReliefContrast between an
inclusion and its host gem.
Included crystalA mineral crystal
trapped within a gem as it grows.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Alan Jobbins
Karl Schmetzer
Low-relief inclusions like this spinel crystal in ruby (above) are not as easy to see as
high-relief inclusions like the black chromite crystal in peridot (left).
John Koivula/GIA
Low-relief inclusions like this one, which contains a liquid, a gas, and a tiny crystal,
are common in some emeralds from Colombia.
to see than a few black chromite crystals scattered around the interior of
a pale green peridot.
Most included crystals are relatively easy to see under darkfield
illumination. Other characteristics, like liquid inclusionspockets in
gems filled with fluids and sometimes other materialsmight require
different lighting techniques because they tend to blend into the host
18
MAGNIFICATION
John Koivula/GIA
Eric Welch/GIA
Oblique lighting places the illumination from a fiber-optic light at an angle between
horizontal and overhead.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
John Koivula/GIA
Brightfield pinpoint illumination reveals gas bubbles and curved striae in a flamefusion synthetic ruby.
BRIGHTFIELD ILLUMINATION
MAGNIFICATION
By rocking and tilting a stone in darkfield lighting, you can create a brightfield effect.
Alternating dark to light can help you detect flash-effect colors in fillers or see if an
inclusion is liquid or solid, transparent or opaque.
Rocking and tilting this emerald to alternate dark (above) and bright (right) backgrounds revealed an orangy yellow to blue flash effect in the filler.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Eric Welch/GIA
To create vertical overhead illumination with a stone like this coral cabochon, angle
the stone so light strikes at about a 90 angle to its surface (above). Reflected overhead light and magnification reveal the characteristic straight, irregular, fibrous
structure in this shell cameo (left).
REFLECTED LIGHTING
You can create diffused light by opening the baffle and placing a tissue or a
piece of translucent white plastic on the
stage over the well (top). Diffused lighting reveals uneven color zoning in this
diffusion-treated sapphire (bottom).
22
For diffused lighting, open the baffle and the iris diaphragm and cover
the stage opening with a white, translucent material. You can use facial
tissue or even the white plastic diffuser from the microscopes overhead
light source. Diffused light can help you detect liquid inclusions in natural
gems. Its especially good for detecting curved color banding in flamefusion synthetics. And its excellent for detecting uneven color zoning in
diffusion-treated corundum, where surface-related color often stands out
against the white background.
MAGNIFICATION
John Koivula/GIA
Eric Welch/GIA
You can create polarized light with a microscope by opening the baffle, placing one
polarizing filter over the light well, and holding another between the stone and the
objectives. Rotate the handheld polarizing filter to cross the filters.
POLARIZED LIGHTING
You can create polarized light by opening the microscopes baffle and
placing one polarizing filter over the light well and another between the
stone and the objectives. You can hold the second filter or attach it to the
objectives. Your microscope then functions as a magnifying polariscope.
Use this type of lighting to distinguish included crystals from similarlooking gas bubbles or gas-filled cavities. Crystals might show interference
colors and are often surrounded by halos caused by strain, while cavities
or gas bubbles wont have these features.
23
GEM IDENTIFICATION
To examine the surface of a stone, turn the well light off and use the microscopes overhead light. Rotate the stone to examine
every side.
EXAMINING A STONE
As you become more comfortable with the microscope, the steps involved
in examining a stone will become second nature to you. The first step is
always to thoroughly clean the stone youre about to examine. This is
very important: Its easy to mistake grease and dust on the gems surface
for abrasions or even inclusions.
Its important to hold the stone steady. If you use a stoneholder, attach it
to the stage and position the stone over the light well. If you hold the stone
in tweezers, rest them gently on the side of the light well.
Examine the stone thoroughly. If the gem is transparent to translucent,
examine both its surface and its interior. As you examine the stone, record
what you see on the Gem Identification worksheet. If possible, turn off
the other lights in your area while youre working.
1. Set the magnification to 10X. Always start at this magnification
level.
2. Start with the well light turned off, and use the microscopes overhead
light to examine the gems surface. Position the light and hold the
stone so light reflects from its facets. Look at the top and the bottom,
then all the way around the sides.
3. If your stone is transparent to translucent, examine its interior next.
Turn off the overhead light and turn on the microscopes internal light
source. Make sure the baffle is closed and the iris diaphragm is completely open.
24
MAGNIFICATION
To examine a stones interior, turn the well light on, close the baffle, and turn the
overhead light off. Vary the focus between the stones upper and lower surfaces
to thoroughly examine its interior. Turn the stone to several positions and repeat
the process.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Seeing Doubling
If you look through a DR stone in an optic axis direction, you wont see doubling
(left). As you rotate the stone farther away from the optic axis, the doubling keeps
increasing (center and right).
MAGNIFICATION
You might see doubling in some transparent DR stones when you examine them
in darkfield lighting (left). You can confirm doubling by holding a polarizer between
the stone and the objectives and rotating it, making the doubling appear and
disappear (right).
Taijin Lu/GIA
When you look at a synthetic moissanite under magnification, you see double
images of its facet junctions (20X).
27
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Low power is best for detecting overall patterns of clarity characteristics, while high power is best for identifying and examining individual
characteristics in detail. Use only as much magnification as you need to
identify an inclusion. If you magnify the feature too much, you might
miss important patterns that would be more obvious at lower power.
Now that youve been through the basic steps of examining gems
with both the loupe and the microscope, its time to identify the basic
characteristics youre looking for in natural and synthetic gemstones as
well as imitations.
imitation gems?
How can the microscope help you identify assembled
stones?
Clarity characteristics are often the key to a gems identity. They can
help separate a gem that grew naturally in the earth from one grown
synthetically in a laboratory. In rare cases, inclusions can even help
establish the geographic origin of an important natural ruby, sapphire,
or emerald. They can also usually tell you if a gem has been treated.
Later, in the separation assignments, youll read much more about the
inclusions that identify specific gems. This section is a brief overview to
remind you of the various types of characteristics youll encounter,
starting at the gems surface.
28
MAGNIFICATION
Alan Jobbins
Gems that grow in the earth often contain clarity characteristicssuch as mineral
crystals and needlesthat you wont see in synthetic stones. This helps you separate
natural gems from synthetics.
John Koivula/GIA
SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Maha Tannous/GIA
Terri Weimer/GIA
Rounded facet junctions and the orange-peel effect are signs of molded glass.
round the facet edges of gems with hardness below Mohs 7. If a gems
hardness is below Mohs 8 and it has been worn for any length of time,
its facet edges will probably be abraded.
Heat treatment leaves gems like colorless or blue zircon and tanzanite
slightly brittle, so these gems often have abraded facet junctions. Heattreated corundum often has melted surfaces along the girdle and in
other areas.
Glass and plastic imitations are often shaped in molds, resulting in
rounded facet junctions. As molten glass cools, it shrinks slightly, often
producing concave facets with surface texture that gemologists call the
orange-peel effect.
Fractures that reach the surface can sometimes help you identify a gem.
The surfaces of fractures in aggregates often have a granular, rough, or
30
MAGNIFICATION
Reflected light is the best and most widely used method. Hold the
stone so light reflects from the surface the object appears to be on. If
the object is external, such as a piece of dust on a facet, it will stand
out. If its internal, youll see an unbroken, mirror-like reflection from
the facet.
PLANE OF FOCUS
Hold the stone so youre looking at the surface the object appears to
be on. Try to bring both the surface and the object into the sharpest
possible focus. If both come into focus at the same time, the object is
on the surface or extremely close to it. If the surface comes into focus
first, the object is inside the gem.
ROCKING
Peter Johnston/GIA
When you use the plane-of-focus technique, you know an object is on the facet
surface when the object and the surface
are in focus at the same time (top). If the
object is below the surface, its out of
focus when the facet surface is in focus
(center), and in focus when the facet surface is out of focus (bottom).
irregular texture, like the surface of a sugar cube. Fibrous materials like
tigers-eye quartz can have splintery fracture surfaces.
Most transparent gems, such as quartz, beryl, corundum, and tourmaline, have a conchoidal, or shell-like, fracture surface. If the stone
has cleavage, you might see either flat cleavage faces or small conchoidal fractures alternating with flat cleavages, creating a step-like
appearance.
Surface-reaching fractures can contain some of the oil or dye used
to conceal the fractures or to enhance the gems color. You can locate
them by examining the gems surface in reflected light. Once youve
found a surface-reaching fracture, switch to darkfield illumination to
follow the fracture as it extends into the gem and look for signs of a
filling material.
John Koivula/GIA
Reflected light is best for finding surfacereaching fractures like this one. Its been
filled, which makes its length difficult to
determine. Switching to darkfield would
help you detect the filling.
31
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Edward Gbelin/GIA
Needle-like mineral inclusions in emerald (above) and ruby (left) mean these gems
are natural. The group of intersecting needles in the ruby is called silk.
Kari A. Kinnunen
MAGNIFICATION
John Koivula/GIA
Eduard Gbelin/GIA
Negative crystals are angular, hollow spaces that usually contain a liquid and a gas.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Michael Waitzman/GIA
Fingerprint inclusions can contain a variety of materials. The fingerprint in the spinel
(above) contains crystals and negative crystals. The fingerprint in the first blue sapphire (top left) contains negative crystals and two-phase or liquid inclusions. The
other blue sapphire (bottom left) has a fingerprint thats composed of liquid within
partially healed fractures.
Crystals often fracture during growth. Sometimes fluids seep into the
breaks and become trapped as the fracture recrystallizes. If a break
doesnt heal completely, it creates a pattern of small, disconnected fluid
inclusions within the stone. Because of its appearance, the inclusion is
called a fingerprint. Fingerprints can also consist of included crystals,
two-phase or three-phase inclusions, or negative crystals, as long as
they form a fingerprint-like pattern.
Robert Kane/GIA
Inclusions can be so tiny and numerous that its hard to see them
individually, even at the highest magnification. When theyre numerous
enough, describe them as a cloud. A cloud is any hazy or milky area
that cant be described as a feather, fingerprint, or group of included
crystals or needles. Many diamonds, rubies, and sapphires contain
clouds.
In natural gems, the bands are straight and angular, following the
gems crystal structure. Synthetics can have straight or angular color
zoning, which indicate flux and hydrothermal growth processes, or
34
MAGNIFICATION
Rolf Schwieger
John Koivula/GIA
Angular color zoning (above) and straight color zoning (right) often occur in blue
sapphires. The zoning follows the gems crystal structure.
John Koivula/GIA
Gas bubbles are common in flamefusion synthetics like this manmade ruby.
35
GEM IDENTIFICATION
John Koivula/GIA
Karl Schmetzer
Some flux inclusions look delicate and are called wispy veils.
These appear in a Russian synthetic alexandrite.
John Koivula/GIA
Duncan Pay
36
MAGNIFICATION
Some hydrothermal synthetic emeralds can show liquid and two-phase inclusions
and fingerprint-like patterns.
John Koivula/GIA
Youve learned that assembled stones are composed of two or more pieces
of material glued or fused together to form one piece. In Assignment 2,
you learned some ways to identify them. Typically, a 10X loupe is useful
for detecting signs of assembly. Its important to be careful, however, not
37
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Rene Moore/GIA
Curved color banding and a separation plane between the green crown and blue
pavilion prove this is an assembled stone.
to confuse the multiple girdle planes that can occur in natural gems with
the separation planes that indicate the presence of assembled parts.
The ability to examine a gemstone under magnification is an absolutely
indispensable skill for the gemologist. Now that you understand the
basics, you should get as much practice as possible. In later assignments,
as you test stones in your practice sets, take the time to look at each of
them carefully. The gems in your practice sets can teach you a lot. In
the future, something you see in these sets might help you identify a
difficult gem.
Even if you have access to a microscope, dont rely on it exclusively.
Practice with a loupe as well, because on buying trips, youll usually
have to depend on it. In the next assignment, youll learn about the
spectroscope. Its another compact, portable instrument that you might
want to take along with you.
38
MAGNIFICATION
39
GEM IDENTIFICATION
key terms
BaffleA small metal plate that you can close to
prevent the microscopes light from shining directly
through the stone from below.
BaseThe support platform that contains a microscopes electrical controls.
BlemishCharacteristic or irregularity confined to
the surface of a polished gemstone.
Chromatic aberrationColor distortion caused by
the inability of a lens to bring the various colored
wavelengths of light into focus at the same distance.
CloudAny hazy or milky area that cannot be
described as a feather, fingerprint, or group of
included crystals or needles.
Curved striaeCurved growth patterns seen in
flame-fusion synthetics.
Darkfield illuminationLighting of a gemstone from
the side against a black, non-reflective background.
Depth of fieldThe distance thats clear and sharp
in front of and behind the point you focus on.
40
MAGNIFICATION
ASSIGNMENT
QUESTIONNAIRE
Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by several possible answers. Choose
the ONE that BEST answers the question or completes the statement. Then place the letter (A, B, C, or
D) corresponding to your answer in the blank at the left of the question.
If youre unsure about any question, go back, review the assignment, and find the correct answer.
When youve answered all the questions, transfer your answers to the answer sheet.
________1.
________2.
A fringe of color that occurs when a lens focuses different wavelengths of light at
different distances is a result of
A.
B.
C.
D.
________3.
astigmatism.
full correction.
spherical aberration.
chromatic aberration.
The distance from the surface of a lens to a point thats in sharp focus is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
________4.
relief.
depth of field.
focal distance.
spherical aberration.
If a microscopes oculars are 15X and the zoom adjustment is set at 2X, the
magnification is
A.
B.
C.
D.
7X.
15X.
17X.
30X.
CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...
IF YOU NEED HELP: Contact your instructor through GIA online, or call 800-421-7250 toll-free in the US and Canada, or 760-603-4000; after
hours you can leave a message.
41
GEM IDENTIFICATION
________5.
________6.
cloud.
needle.
fingerprint.
negative crystal.
________9.
a fracture.
high relief.
deep inside the stone.
very near the surface.
A long, thin inclusion that can be a solid crystal or a hollow tube is called a
A.
B.
C.
D.
________8.
density.
hardness.
optic character.
specific gravity.
Under the microscope, if the inclusion and the facet surface are both in focus at the same
time, the inclusion is probably
A.
B.
C.
D.
________7.
ruby.
peridot.
obsidian.
diamond.
relief.
saturation.
fluorescence.
distinctiveness.
________10. The small metal flap that can be closed to prevent a microscopes light from shining
directly through the stone is called the
A.
B.
C.
D.
42
pod.
baffle.
ocular.
light port.
MAGNIFICATION
reflected lighting.
darkfield lighting.
monochromatic light.
brightfield illumination.
________12. If you find curved striae or curved color banding in a gem, you know it is
A.
B.
C.
D.
natural.
synthetic.
heat treated.
fracture filled.
a feather.
wispy veils.
straight color banding.
a range of different mineral inclusions.
Molded gems
Enhanced gems
Assembled gems
Synthetic materials
________15. An angular, hollow space within a gem that resembles a mineral inclusion is called a
A.
B.
C.
D.
cloud.
cavity.
feather.
negative crystal.
43
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Distance Education students: The following questions ask you to examine the stones in the set youre
currently working with. Choose the best answer to each question and continue filling in your answer
sheet as you did with questions 1 through 15.
________16. Which of the following do you see in stone 4 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Doubling
Wispy veils
Gas bubbles
Curved striae
________17. Which of the following do you see in stone 9 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Wispy veils
Curved striae
Included crystals
Three-phase inclusions
________18. Which of the following do you see in stone 10 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Curved striae
Flux inclusions
Nailhead spicules
Natural inclusions
________19. Which of the following do you see in stone 13 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Wispy veils
Curved striae
Included crystals
Three-phase inclusions
________20. Which of the following do you see in stone 15 using 10X magnification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
44
Wispy veils
Negative crystals
Included crystals
Curved color banding
1. Introduction
2. General Observation